chapter 15 population, urbanization, and environment
TRANSCRIPT
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Chapter 15
Population, Urbanization, and Environment
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Fertility
• Fertility–The incidence of childbearing in a society’s population
• Fecundity–Maximum possible childbearing
• Crude birth rate–Number of live births in a given year for every thousand people– Calculating crude birth rate
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(a) Crud Birth Rates and Crude Death Rates, (b) Infant Mortality Rates, and (c) Life Expectancy around the World, 2011
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Mortality
• Crude death rate–Number of deaths/year for every for every 1,000 people
• Infant mortality rates– Number of deaths among infants under one
for 1,000 live births in a year
• Life expectancy–The average life span of a country’s population
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Migration
• Voluntary migration–Due to economic push and pull factors
• Involuntary migration–Forced migration due to war or other social conflict
• Immigration–Movement into a territory
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Migration
• Emigration–Movement out of a territory
• Rates– In-migration rate– Out-migration rate– Net migration rate
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Population Change across the United States
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Population Growth
• Fertility, morality, and migration all affect the size of the population
• A handy rule-of-thumb for estimating population growth is to divide a society’s – Population growth rate into the number 70– This yields the doubling time in years
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Population Growth in Global Perspective
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Population Composition
• Sex ratio–The number of males for every 100 females in a nation’s population
• The US in 2007 had about 97 males to 100 females
• In India, the ratio is 106
• Age-sex pyramid–A graphic representation of the age and sex of a population
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Age-Sex Population Pyramids for the United States and Mexico, 2012
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Malthusian Theory Of Population Growth
• Malthus’s prediction was flawed
• Malthus: Population increase would lead to social chaos– People would reproduce at rates exceeding
their ability to produce sufficient food
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Malthusian Theory Of Population Growth
– Limits included artificial birth control (morally wrong) or abstinence (unlikely)
• Seen as “the dismal parson” because war and famine were our future
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Demographic Transition Theory
• Stage one (preindustrial, agrarian)– High birth rates due to economic value of
children and lack of birth control
• Stage two (early industrial)– High birth rate and lowered death rate boosts
population growth
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Demographic Transition Theory
• Stage three (mature industrial)– Population surge drops as affluence
transforms children into economic liability
• Stage four (postindustrial)– Economic realities force drop in birth rates
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Demographic Transition Theory
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Global Population
• The low-growth north– Zero population growth–Level of reproduction
that maintains population in a steady state
• The high-growth south– Population growth is a critical problem in
several poor countries
• The Demographic Divide
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The Growth of Cities
• Urbanization–Concentration of population
• The evolution of cities– First city was Jericho, north of the Dead Sea– Pre-industrial European cities date back 5,000
years to the Greeks– Industrial European cities began as the
Middle Ages ended
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Growth in US Cities
• Colonial settlement (1565-1800)– Capitalism’s effect upon small villages
ensured transformation
• Urban expansion (1800-1860)– Towns sprang up along transportation routes
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Growth in US Cities
• Metropolitan era (1860-1950)– Effects of Civil War boosted growth– Metropolis–A large city that socially and
economically dominates an urban area
• Urban decentralization (1950-present)– Desertion of downtown areas for outlying
suburbs
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Suburbs and Urban Decline
• By 1999, most Americans lived in the suburbs and shopped at local malls.
• Postindustrial sunbelt cities– Los Angeles, Dallas, Atlanta, Phoenix,
Houston
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Suburbs and Urban Decline
• Megalopolis–Vast urban area containing a number of cities & surrounding suburbs
• Edge cities: Office buildings, malls, hotels, and entertainment complexes
• Rural rebound: Migration from urban areas
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Urban Life
• Tönnies– Gemeinschaft–Social organization in which
people are closely tied by kinship and tradition– Gesellschaft–Social organization; people
together based on individual self-interest
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Urban Life
• Durkheim– Mechanical solidarity–Social bonds based on
common sentiments and shared moral values– Organic solidarity–Social bonds based on
specialization and interdependence
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Urban Life
• Simmel– Blasé attitude–”Tuning out,” a strategy for
social survival
• Park and Wirth– Urban organization; commercial centers,
ethnic communities, and industrial districts
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Critical Analysis
• Tönnies and Wirth saw the decline of personal ties and traditional morality.
• Durkheim and Park emphasized – Urbanism’s positive points like greater
autonomy and personal choice
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Critical Analysis
• Overlooks effects of class, race, & gender
• Cities intensify social differences– Observed most clearly when categories of
people form “critical masses”
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Population Profile for the 100 Largest U.S. Cities, 2010
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Urban Ecology
• Park and Burgess’s concentric zones– Business districts, factories ringed by housing
• Hoyt’s wedge-shaped sectors– Industry forms along rail lines, fashionable
areas next to old, fashionable areas
• Harris & Ullman’s multicentered model– Cities decentralize
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Urban Ecology
• Social area analysis–What people have in common
• Berry & Rees’ analysis uses many of the previous theories
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Urban Political Economy
• Applies Karl Marx’s analysis of conflict in the workplace to conflict in the city.
• City life is defined by people with power.
• Capitalism– Transforms city to real estate traded for profit – Concentrates wealth & power in the hands of
a few
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Environment & Society
• Ecology– The study of the interaction of living
organisms and the natural environment
• Natural environment– Earth’s surface and atmosphere including
living organisms, air, water, soil – And other resources necessary to sustain life
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Environment & Society
• Ecosystem– A system composed of the interaction of all
living organisms and their natural environment
• Environmental deficit– Profound and long-term harm to the natural
environment caused by humanity’s focus – On short-term material affluence
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Growth and Limits
• Logic of growth– More powerful technology has improved our
lives & discoveries will make the future better– Critical analysis: Progress can lead to
unexpected problems, resources are finite
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Growth and Limits
• Limits to growth– Humanity must implement policies to control
growth of population, production • And resource use to avoid environmental collapse
– Critical analysis: Long-range predictions are speculative
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Composition of Community Trash
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Solid Waste: The Disposable Society
• We consume more products than virtually any other nation
• More than half of our solid waste never goes away
• Recycling–Reusing resources we would otherwise discard
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Water and Air
• Water Supply– About 1% of Earth’s water suitable for
drinking
• Water Pollution– US rivers and streams absorb hundreds of
millions of pounds of toxic waste a year
• Air Pollution– Air quality improved in 20th century
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The Environment
• Rain forest– Region of dense forestation, most of which
circles the globe near the equator
• Global warming–– Rise in the earth’s average temperature
caused by an increasing concentration of • Carbon dioxide & other gasses in the atmosphere
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The Environment
– Declining Biodiversity
• Environmental racism– Pattern by which environmental hazards are
greatest for poor people, especially minorities– Nobody wants a factory or dump nearby, but
the poor have little power to resist
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Looking Ahead: Toward a Sustainable Society and World
• Urbanization is continuing, especially in poor countries
• Humanity is facing a serious environmental challenge
• The answer, in principle, is to create an ecologically sustainable culture
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