Chapter 2: Decision Making in Value Issues

Teleological Theories (Consequence oriented) Consequence oriented theories judge right and wrong decisions on the outcomes or potential outcomes. That good is right and bad is wrong. Utilitarianism – The theory that goodness is in the promotion of happiness or the greatest increase of pleasure over pain. John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham are considered to be the fathers of this theory and have attributed levels of measuring and calculating happiness (measured in utility).

o Mill defined happiness as a set of higher order pleasures (intellectual, aesthetic, social) rather than sensual pleasures (sex, drugs, alcohol)

o Bentham created a list with questions as a method to choose the outcome with the highest utility of pleasure.

1. Intensity - How intense is the pleasure?2. Duration - How long does the pleasure last?3. Certainty - What is the probability that the pleasure will occur?4. Proximity - How soon will I experience pleasure?5. Fecundity - How much pleasure will this experience lead to?6. Purity - Will this lead to pain?7. Extent - How many people are affected/will experience this?

Act Utilitarianism – Decisions are based on listing possible outcomes and alternatives for the action, determining the utility of pleasure it could potentially provide, and making decisions based on the highest levels possible for each choice. Equal consideration if interest - Each person’s happiness must be considered equally when decisions are being made, and that an individual may not impede on another’s happiness to increase their utility of happiness.

Criticisms1. It is not possible to calculate the outcomes (certain or probable) of all

actions or inactions.2. To maximize happiness of some may violate rights/happiness of others.3. The ends justify the means4. Lacking in respect for all persons5. It is justifiable to prevent others from doing what we believe to be harmful

acts to them.6. There is no basis for one’s own moral compass.

Benefits/Response to CriticismUtilitarianism has three main points of defense in response to criticism:

1. Deny the scenario would have played out as claimed.2. Argue that the supposedly counter-intuitive result should issue in a revision

of intuitions rather than a change in rejection of the theory.3. Rule utilitarianism

Rule Utilitarianism - A form of utilitarianism that seems to avoid the problem of exact quantification required in act utilitarianism.

Principle of utility - A validated rule requiring that the decision bring positive results when generalized to a wide variety of situations.

Joseph Fletcher provided six guidelines in his writings for making ethical choices:1. Compassion for people as human beings2. Consideration of consequences3. Proportionate good4. Priority of actual needs over ideal or potential needs5. A desire to enlarge choice and reduce chance6. A courageous acceptance of the need to make decisions and the equally

courageous acceptance of the consequences of our decisions

Deontological Theories (Duty oriented) Duty-oriented ethics feel that the basic rightness or wrongness of an act depends upon its intrinsic nature rather than upon the situations of the consequences. The theorists promotes that the right action is one based on the right principle and that merely serving good is not an adequate foundation for ethics.Immanuel   Kant Kant believed that the mind works the same for all humankind, regardless of who/where/when you are. He based his moral philosophy that humans are rational beings and a central feature of this rationality was that principles derived from reason were universal.Categorical Imperative – an action known to be right when it is in accordance with a rule that satisfied a principle. Having three elements

1. Universal application 2. Unconditionally3. Demanding action

Criticisms1. Too rigid for real life situations2. Morality cannot be derived from pure reason.3. Disregarding the consequences of our actions can lead to disastrous results.4. Nonhuman animals do not have independent moral standing, as they are not

rational beings.

Benefits/Response to Criticism1. Consequences are in the realm of experience and thus irrelevant to morality.2. Interfering with another’s goals, and thus disrespecting their wishes, would

be immoral.3. The world is full of unhappiness, and sometimes we can’t stop it; but it is

crucial to act with dignity and respect throughout.4. We do not abuse animals because it shows the respect we have for people.

The same goes for harming animals owned by others, as it is like harming the owner of the animal.

Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics is an approach that deemphasizes rules, consequences and particular acts and places the focus on the kind of person who is acting. Primary focus is the heart of the moral agent making the decision rather than reasoning to a right action.

o Asks not, “What do I do?” but “How should I live to achieve a fulfilling life?”

o Primarily about moral character over particular actionsAristotle’s traits of virtuous character:

1. Acts of virtue must be chosen for their own sake2. Choice must come from a firm, unchangeable character3. Virtue is a disposition to choose the mean (between two extremes)

Criticisms1. Not specific enough2. Relies on tradition, and does not adapt quickly to change3. Likely to lead to classism, sexism, etc.4. May depend to past experience rather than reason

Benefits/Responses to Criticism1. Virtuous people by nature will automatically do the right thing2. This is good, because people tend to find themselves lost when times change

faster than they can adjust.3. Many virtue ethicists believe that the lack of respect for tradition and

abundance of autonomy is the reason for many modern day social concerns

Divine Command Ethics There is a divine being who has set down a finite series of rules that adherents claim can provide guidance to most, if not all, moral decisions.

o Judeo-Christian - The Ten Commandments Provides basic rules to guide behavior

o Buddhism – The Four Noble Truths and Eight-Fold Path Same logic, different origin

Criticism1. Must assume belief in divine being2. Cannot cover all cases of moral decision3. Generally have a “no exceptions” clause4. Euthyphro Problem - does God say that things are moral because by nature

they are moral, or do they become moral because God declares it so?Benefits/Response to Criticism

1. There is no convincing an unbeliever, but a believer needs no convincing2. The response is to interpret the text and advice to the situation3. The need for exceptions shows the world living in moral decline4. Personally understanding God’s will is something people do not have to

capacity to comprehend, and are asked to obey according to faith.