chapter 2 gods and empires in the ancient near east (1700-500 bce) western civilization i his-101

CHAPTER 2 GODS AND EMPIRES

IN THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST(1700-500 BCE)

Western Civilization IHIS-101

Rising Power of the Near East

The first half of the 2nd millennium BCE was a time of transition and constant warfare Numerous Indo-European tribes were moving into the

Near EastBy 1500 BCE, there were a number of major

powers rising in the Near East: The Hittites in Anatolia (Asia Minor) The Kassites in Babylon The Mittani in Syria The Egyptians The Mycanaean Greeks

Hittite Old Kingdom (c.1700-c.1500 BCE)

The Hittites were an Indo-European speaking people who moved into Anatolia around 2000 BCE

City-states were set up in central Anatolia These city-states remained independent until 1700

BCE The first Hittite kingdom was founded by

Labarnas I (1680-1650 BCE) He focused on uniting the Hittites in Anatolia through

force According to the Proclamation of Telipinu, he

“destroyed the lands, one after another - he overwhelmed the lands and made them borders of the sea… in his hand, too, the great cities were prosperous.”


The kingdom expanded under Hattusilis I He ruled from c.1650–c.1620 BCE He expanded the frontiers to the Taurus Mountains to

the north and northern Syria to the southHe controlled trade routes as a way to

expand the kingdom’s economic capabilities Specifically he was looking for copper and arsenic

which was used in the production of bronzeHis reign was known as the “Kingdom of a

Thousand Gods” He accepted the customs, gods, and traditions of

regions that were incorporated into his kingdom


Mursilis I (c. 1620–c. 1590 BCE) He continued on his grandfather’s success He expanded the kingdom further into Syria and even

into Mesopotamia He sacked the city of Babylon in 1595 BCE, leaving it

in ruins He was assassinated in a palace conspiracy

coordinated by his brother-in-lawThe Hittites then went into a period of

decline A number of Hittite cities survived until the invasion

of the Assyrians in the 8th century BCE

Early Assyrians (c.1700-c.1500 BCE)

The Assyrians had moved into Anatolia from Mesopotamia They created a vast trade network into region

The Assyrians did not seek military gains but had a profound impact in the region The became advisors to kings They also married into Anatolian families They brought Mesopotamian civilization to the region

Middle Babylonian Kingdom (1595–1185 BCE)

The Kassites moved into Mesopotamia during the 2nd millennium BCE Historians believe they had migrated from the Zagros

Mountains in Modern IranThey set up the Middle, or Second,

Babylonian Kingdom after the city of Babylon had been sacked by Hittites

We do not know much about them because of a lack of records from the time period

Mitanni Kingdom (1500-1360 BCE)

The Mitanni were an Indo-Iranian people whose kingdom centered in northern Mesopotamia

They were master horse trainers and brought in new innovations in warfare This included light, horse-drawn chariots that would

carry archers into battle They also developed excellent cavalry tactics

Kingdom went into a decline after a renewed attack by the Hittites The Hittites left the Mitanni Kingdom in tact to serve

as a buffer between them and the Assyrians

Hyksos and the Second Intermediate Period

(c.1650-1550 BCE)

Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-1550 BCE)

The Egyptian 13th Dynasty (1790-c.1650 BCE) was plagued by instability

Around 1720 BCE, the Hyksos invaded the delta region Their origins are unknown Called Hyksos, which was derived from heka

khasewet, meaning "foreign rulers" This led to more instability in the region

The nomes in Upper Egypt declared independence The Nubians to the south also broke free from

Egyptian control

Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-1550 BCE)

The Hyksos did make some cultural improvements for Egypt They introduced bronze as a new and improved metal

for making weapons and tools Made improved weapons such as a heavier sword and

a compound bow They also introduced horse-drawn war chariots

The Egyptians ended up using these new technologies to overthrow the Hyksos They were conquered by Amhose I, who started the

18th Dynasty

New Kingdom Egypt

New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1075 BCE)

New Kingdom Egypt was composed of the 18th through 20th Dynasties

During this period, there were significant changes to the Egyptian style of government

There was a new militaristic attitude The New Kingdom was characterized by constant

invasions and war campaigns (“defense through offense”)

Even the pharaohs themselves were trained as military leaders and spent time on campaigns

This led to the rise of a new group: a war nobility consisting of war commanders who grew accustomed to working independently


There was a loss of power for the pharaoh to three strong institutions: War Nobility - A new group that forged its respect on

the battlefield Royal Bureaucracy – With the pharaoh constantly on

campaigns, they experienced a tremendous growth in power

Priesthood – Receiving the gifts from conquered lands, the priests accumulated vast estates and slaves Became the chief landowners in Egypt

Thutmose III and Hatshepsut


Eighteenth Dynasty - (1550-1292 BCE) – This is a period of Egyptian history that is categorized

by military expansion, imperialism and prosperity Time of some of the greatest and most powerful

pharaohs in historyThe dynasty began with the Amhose I (1550-

1525 BCE) He conquered the Hykos, reunified Egypt, and

brought Nubia back under Egyptian control

Thutmose I – (c.1504-1492 BCE)

Thutmose I – (c.1504-1492 BCE) During his reign, the Nubians rebelled and Thutmose

led a campaign to defeat them During the battle, the King of Nubia was killed and

supposedly hung from the prow of Thutmose’s ship He led campaigns even farther south, conquering land

as far as the Fourth Cataract He also drove to the Euphrates and into Syria and

Palestine He held more territory than any other pharaoh before

him

Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BCE)

Hatshepsut – (1473-1458 BCE)

Hastshepsut – (1473-1458 BCE) She had been Thutmose II’s Great Royal Wife When Thutmose II died, she became the regent for

Thutmose IIIIn 1473 BCE, she crowned herself pharaoh

She become the first female king Only two other women ruled in their own names

before her, but not as king She even adopted a Horus name, dressed in pharaonic

regalia (including a false beard), and was addressed as “His Majesty”


She had a very prosperous reign Her reign witnessed extensive building projects

including her temple at Deir el Bahri She sent trading expeditions down the Nile and to the

Red SeaThe cause of her death is was unknown until

very recently because there was no record of it Historians had proposed both natural causes and

murder In 2007, her mummy was positively identified by DNA

and the death was ruled to be caused by an abscessed tooth


Damnatio memoriae – “Erasing from history” After Hatshepsut’s death, many of her monuments

were either defaced or destroyedHistorians are mixed as to who and why

someone did this Some feel it was Thutmose III

They speculate that he did it either as revenge for her taking away his potential time to reign or as a way for him to legitimize his reign

Some feel it was his son Amenhotep II They speculate that he did it to legitimize his reign after

he was co-regent before his father’s death

Hatshepsut’s temple at Deir el Bahri

Thutmose III (1479-1425 BCE)

Thutmose III – (1479-1425 BCE)

Thutmose III – (1479-1425 BCE) Considered one of the greatest pharaohs in Egyptian

historyHe conducted 17 military campaigns

He captured over 350 cities He conquered Syria and defeated the Mitanni He also expanded Egypt south as far as the Fourth

Cataract in NubiaHis reign was marked by numerous building

projects as well He constructed of over fifty temples

Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE)


Akhenaten - (1352-1336 BCE) He was originally Amenhotep IV (“Amun is Pleased”) He is best known for a massive religious upheaval in

Egypt and temporarily turning the country towards monotheism

Prior to his reign, the dominating deity in Egypt was Amun-Ra The was a combination of the local Thebian deity

Amun and the sun god Ra Worship of Amun allowed for other gods to be

worshiped as aspects of Amun (a sort of polytheism)

Worship of the god Aten


Akhenaten, himself, followed Aten (the sun disc itself) as his main deity Aten could not be depicted as human so he was always

drawn as light or sun raysHe changed his name to Akhenaten (“the

effective spirit of Aten”) as part of this He build a new capital Akhetaten (“the horizon of the

Aten”) between Thebes and MemphisWorship of Aten was very different than Amun

under Akhenaten He recognized Aten as the only true god (monotheism) He closed down the temples of other gods


Why did he switch away from Amun to Aten? Historians have debated the reasons why he did this

He may have been a revolutionary intellectual He broke the bounds of tradition (worshiping Amun-

Ra) by using insight and imagination to create a new cult of Aten

He may have been reactionary, upset by the blending of two gods, Amun and Ra, into one god

He may have just been a typical politician He wanted to weaken the strength and influence of

Amun’s priests by bringing in a new religious regime


However, his attempt at religious change was a failure Most Egyptians were unwilling to change their beliefs. They saw the destruction of the old gods as undermining

to the cosmic order The priesthood of Amun put up strong resistance as well

Because Akhenaten was not interested in military affairs, he ignored a lot of foreign policy Many revolts broke out in Egyptian controlled lands He fell out with a number of important leaders in the

middle east, including the king of Mitanni All of this led to a loss of support by the military nobility


During his reign, there was a serious pandemic that started in Egypt and spread throughout the Middle East It could have been the plague, polio, or influenza Some saw this as a sign that the cosmic order was

“out of whack” and blamed the pharaoh for thisIt is believed that Akhenaten’s failure at

religious change and foreign politics began the decline of the 18th Dynasty

Tutankhamun (1333-1327 BCE)


He was originally named Tutankhaten (“living image of Aten”) It was later changed it to Tutankhamun (“living image

of Amun”)He was 9 years old when he took the throneHis main focus was to restore Amun as the

primary deity and bring back the old gods Akhentaten’s moments were destroyed and the

capital was moved back to Thebes


During his reign, there was a continued decline in Egyptian power This was especially true in terms of foreign

relationshipsHis death is still being studied by scientists

Many thought he died from a blow to the head since there were cranial pieces in his brain cavity

Now it is being attributed to a leg injury that got infected with gangrene

When he died, he did not leave an heir This brought an end to the 18th Dynasty

International System

From 1500 to 1200 BCE, each of the empires of the near east developed a complex system of trade and diplomacy that tied each of them together

The main power centers during this time were: Egypt Hittite Empire Assyrian Empire Kassites in Babylon

International System

During this time, there was a move from military expansionism and war to a more stable, peaceful co-existence Leaders realized that wars were too costly It was more favorable for them to be at peace and

have trade channels openAs part of his diplomacy, leaders would

correspond with one another A standard set of written etiquette was used They would also exchange gifts and arrange

marriages to secure alliances

International Trade

Along with diplomacy, international trade flourished during this period

Countries were able to sell their goods in far markets People would crave these items and any type of

import was in high demandThe trade routes also allowed for the

transport of ideas as well Allowed for a greater understanding between the

cultures

International Trade

Along with greater integration of trade came greater dependence on goods from other countries They become mutually dependant on one another

economically This could be disastrous if one country’s economy

collapsedAs the international market spread, it

reached into less stable countries with unreliable partners and possibly more dangerous enemies

Minoan Crete

Earliest civilization in the Aegean region was found on Crete It is believed that Ancient Greek civilization had its

roots in Minoan civilizationMinoan civilization was first discovered by

Sir Arthur Evans when he uncovered the palace of Knossos in 1900 He named the culture “Minoan” after King Minos of

Greek myth Minos captured the minotaur and kept it under his

palace in a labyrinth, thought to be Knossos

Minoan Crete

Protopalatial Period (1900-1700 BCE) – Crete developed a bureaucratic administration There was a paved road network to connect the major

centersAround 1700 BCE, all of the palaces were

destroyed This was due to either earthquakes or foreign

invasionsNeopalatial Period (1700-1450 BCE) – The

palaces were rebuilt and new ones constructed Knossos was built during this time

Contained administrative and residential quarters with a total of over 1,300 rooms

Had indoor plumbing

Knossos from the air

A fresco inside Knossos

Minoan Crete

The Minoans did have extensive trade networks throughout the Mediterranean region They traded copper, tin, ivory, and gold with Egypt,

Asia Minor, Syria, and mainland GreecePrior to 1600 BCE, the Minoans were more

sophisticated that the mainland Greeks and had strong influence on the area They most likely dominated the Greeks culturally and

possibly politically

Minoan Crete

Starting around 1600 BCE, the Greeks started to come into their own Built fortified palaces which were designed after the

Minoan and Hittite palaces Became famous as mercenaries Transformed Minoan Linear A alphabet into their own

Linear B—the earliest Greek writingAround 1450 BCE, Minoan civilization

suffered a sudden and catastrophic collapse

Minoan Crete

Many historians believe that the collapse was due to invasions by the mainland Greeks

New evidence is coming about that the eruption of nearby Thera’s eruption in 1645 BCE may have played a part It produced deadly ash clouds that crippled cities and

fleets, and created tsunamis with waves up to 50 feet Set off climate change that ruined crops and led to

political unrest

Geography of Greece

The geography of Greece plays a very important role in the development of its history and culture

Greece has a long seacoast with numerous harbors This helped them develop into a seafaring people who could

easily trade with other civilizations in the Near East This allowed Greek civilization to spread

Much of interior consists of mountain ranges that surround small plains and river valleys The mountains isolated the Greeks from one another, which

meant that the communities would develop independently This led to rivalries between the small states because each

wanted to keep their style of independence

Mycenaean Greece

Mycenaean Greece – (1600-1100 BCE) This was Bronze Age Greece (pre-Hellenic Greece) This period set the foundations for Classical

(Hellenic) GreeceThe government was a theocracy

It was headed by a king, who was also a war leader Underneath him was a political and religious

aristocracy that ran the governmentIt was a warrior society

They prided themselves with their warrior deeds Artwork of the time included murals of hunting and

battle scenes

Mycenaean Greece

It is believed that the Mycenaeans expanded their territory through military means Homer’s Iliad supposedly describes such battles

including the Trojan Wars By 1400 BCE, they had invaded Crete and taken the

palace at KnossosAs a sea empire, the Mycenaeans were able

to develop impressive trade routes throughout the Mediterranean They traded with Egypt, Cyprus, and Asia Minor for

such goods as copper, tin, ivory, spices, and dyes

Mycenaean Greece

They also engaged in piracy There was a fine line between piracy and trade: they

raided if they could and traded if they could not raidBy the 13th century, the Mycenaeans were

showing signs of trouble There were internal conflicts between the cities By 1190 BCE, the city of Mycenae had been burned

down but was later reinhabited and then abandoned for good by 1125 BCE

By 1100 BCE, Mycenaean culture had ended

Mycenaean Greece

Historians debate the cause of the collapse of Mycenaean civilization Some argue that it was the Dorians, a less civilized

people from the north who invaded but there is no historical proof of this

Most historians believe that it was internal collapse caused by conflicts between the Mycenaean kings

Other factors, such as earthquake, drought, famine, and disease could have played a part

More recently, some historians think they were invaded by an unknown group called the Sea Peoples

The Sea People

The Sea People

In the 12th century BCE, a new group known as the Sea People was invading the Near East from the north Historians know very little about this group except

that they were from either Asia Minor or the Aegean region

Some believe that they were actually Mycenaeans fleeing the internal problems at home

They were most likely displaced refugees who were fleeing widespread crop failure and famine

The Sea People

Their path of destruction started in the north and may have contributed to the fall of Mycenaean Greece With this, they disrupted the highly developed trade

network of the Aegean regionThe remaining kingdoms had to face

overpopulation from the fleeing populations of Greece This led to widespread food shortages and warfare

They then moved into Anatolia and the Hittite Kingdom They sacked the Hittite capital at Hattusas and

quickly destroyed the empire

The Sea People

The Sea People worked their way down the eastern Mediterranean coast In the process they overtook and destroyed a number of

citiesThey eventually came in contact with Egypt

They first attacked Egypt during the reign of Merenptah (c. 1220 BCE) but were driven away

They attacked again during the reign of Ramses III (c. 1185 BCE) but were quickly defeated on land and at sea

One of the few reasons why we know of their existence is because of a depiction of the Egyptian victory in a relief in one of Ramses’ temples

Drawing of relief of the Sea People on Medinet Habu temple

The Sea People

The main outcome of the invasion of the Sea People was the almost complete destruction of Near East civilization Mycenaean Greece collapsed The Hittite empire was destroyed The Kassite empire in Babylon collapsed With the destruction of most of its trading partners

both Egypt and Assyria went into a long economic and political decline

The Sea People

The international system that had been slowly developed over the course of 500 years had been destroyed

In its wake, new governments and cultures rise Specifically in Assyria and Persia

There was also the development of a new metallurgical technology: iron This ushered in the Iron Age

The Assyrian Empire

During most of the 2nd millennium BCE, Assyria was not independent First they were a dependency of Babylonia and then

later of the Mitanni kingdom Their strength was in economic power than political

as they had established trade routes between Mesopotamia and Egypt

In 1362 BCE, the Mitanni were occupied with fighting the Hittites to the west This gave the Assyrians the chance to gain

independence

Assyrian Government

The kings ruled by absolute power The kings were also considered the earthly

representative of the god Assur This meant he was the head of the religion as well

The government was well organized It had an extensive bureaucracy comprised of

governors, priests, and military leaders The provincial governors collected tribute, recruited

for the army, and administered the lawIn conquered lands, Assyrians would be

placed in positions of power in those territories

Assyrian Government

They built roads throughout the empire The roads served not only for transportation but

communication as wellThey had an efficient system of

communication to help run the empire more smoothly They set up a network of posting stations that used

relays of horses to carry messages throughout the empire

It was so effective that a provincial governor anywhere in the empire could send a message to the king and receive an answer within a week

Assyrian Military Machine

Two key characteristics of the Assyrian military machine were: Holy war Reign of terror

As part of the holy war, Assyrian kings believed that their expansion was part of a divine mission and that it was the will of Assur Anybody who did not accept this was considered an

enemy and conquered


As part of their reign of terror, the Assyrians would humiliate the other cities’ gods by capturing their statues and taking them hostage The conquered cities would also be forced to worship Assur

The Assyrians would even raid conquered areas every year to keep the subjects in place This was done to terrorize the people and to keep the military

in prime battle condition But this also improved the skills of the conquered people who

had no loyalty for the AssyriansTributes were paid in plunder

If the lands did not pay tribute, it would be extracted by force


The Assyrian army held over 100,000 members It was well organized and disciplined Contained an infantry, cavalry, and horse-drawn war

chariots Had specialized units such as language interpreters,

intelligence officers, and scribes They were well-equipped with iron weapons and

armorBecause of this diversity, the army was able

to use a variety of military tactics depending on the geography of the area


Warfare was savage Mutilations of prisoners, decapitations, rape, and the

mass deportations and/or enslavement of the civilian population was commonplace

The Assyrians were also masters of siege warfare They would hammer a city’s walls with heavy,

wheeled siege towers and armored battering rams Sappers would did tunnels to undermine the walls’

foundations and cause them to collapse Army would cut off supply lines so if the city did not

fall, they could be starved into submission


Their ability to create a climate of terror as an instrument of warfare was highly effective They laid waste to the land they were fighting by

setting crops on fire, smashing dams, cutting down trees and destroying towns

Committed atrocities against the people but mostly against members of the empire who had rebelled against Assyrian rule

Deported many prisoners and used them for labor

Middle Assyrian Kingdom (1362-912 BCE)

Assur-uballit I (1362-1327 BCE), the governor of the city of Assur, started the Assyrian empire With the help of the Hittites he destroyed the Mitanni

and declared Assyrian independence Later in his reign, he allied with the Kassites in

Babylonia to end Hittite domination in the regionTukulti-Ninurta I (1243-1207 BCE) extended

the borders of the Assyrian empire through conquest He sacked the city of Babylon and took the Kassite

king into captivity

Middle Assyrian Kingdom (1362-912 BCE)

When the Babylonians rebelled against Tukulti-Ninurta, he ransacked the temples He also took the statue of the city’s patron deity,

Marduk, with him This was seen as sacrilege to both the Babylonians

and the Assyrians A mob led by his son murdered Tukulti-Ninurta by

setting his palace on fire and burning him to deathWhat followed was a long period of Assyrian

decline as Babylonia expanded in power

Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE)

Neo-Assyrian Empire – (c. 911-609 BCE) During this time, Assyria emerged as a dominant

power in the Near EastAssurnasirpal II - (883-859 BCE)

He was a brilliant but brutal military leader who expanded the borders of the empire to the Mediterranean

He instituted a reign of terror where if a region did not pay tribute, the people were publicly tortured or killed

He reorganized the government placing Assyrians in power throughout conquered lands

He used captives from campaigns to rebuild the capital and to build temples and monuments


Tiglath-Pileser III (744-727 BCE) He seized the throne in 744 His first focus was subjugate Babylonia to the south Then he turned to the west where he expanded into

Syria and forced leaders to pay tribute or be attackedWhen he died, many of the newly conquered

lands revolted They were hoping that the pattern of weak rulers

following a death would continue


Sargon II (722-705 BCE) He took this name to link himself to the original

Sargon of Akkadia Founded the Sargonid dynasty This started one of the most magnificent periods in

Assyrian history When he took the throne, he had to maintain the

expansion of Tiglath-PileserHis descendents continued to expand the

Assyrian borders and became the dominant power in the Near East


Assurbanipal (669-627 BCE) – He was considered the last of the great rulers of

Assyria He was considered an “enlightened” king as he had

received a scholarly education since he was not first in line for the throne Built the great library in Nineveh, the first systematically

organized library in the ancient Near East The culture and art of the empire hit its peak during his

reign He continued to solidify and stabilize the empire

He used the same military tactics used by his predecessors


At the time of Assurbanipal’s death, the empire was at its peak The borders were secure and the realm was largely at

peace The realm was enjoying a period of cultural glory

By the end of the 7th century BCE, it was clear that the empire was greatly over-extended Overexpansion paved the way for internal strife

between nobles There was also a lot of resentment by the subjects

towards the Assyrians

Decline of the Assyrian Empire

Numerous groups throughout the empire began revolting

In the south, the biggest threat came from the Chaldeans They were were a Semitic-speaking people that had

grown in power by the 7th century BCEUnder the leadership of Nabopolassar (625-

605 BCE), the Chaldeans revolted in 626 BCE They allied with the Medes to capture and burn the

city of Nineveh down in 612 BCE

Neo-Babylonian Empire (625-539 BCE)

Nabopolassar established a new monarchy in Babylonia This was known as the Neo-Babylonian Empire

Nebuchadnezzer (605-562 BCE) He achieved the final defeat of the Assyrian empire in

605 BCE He went conquer of Syria and Palestine He destroyed the city of Jerusalem, including the

temple Babylonian Captivity - Tens of thousands of Hebrews

were taken into Babylon in exile

Neo-Babylonian Empire (625-539 BCE)

His reign marked a period of prosperity for the Babylonians Lucrative trading routes throughout Mesopotamia Created a lot of industry for textiles and metals

The city of Babylon became one of the greatest cities of ancient times He had built the Hanging Gardens, one of the seven

wonders of the ancient world He also had built temples and palaces

Artistic rendition of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon

The Persians

Very little is known about the Persians prior to the 6th century BCE They lived on the eastern shore of the Persian Gulf They were subject to the Medes They were organized into clans and were nomadic

Starting in the mid-8th century, both the Medes and the Persians began to form confederations of tribes

Cyrus the Great (559-530 BCE)


Cyrus the Great – (559-530 BCE) While he was a prince, he organized the Persians into

a single tribe in 559 BCE and made himself kingIn 549 BCE, he conquered the Medes

He made Media the first Persian satrapy or provinceHe then focused on the kingdom of Lydia in

Asia Minor Lydia was important because of its numerous gold

and silver mines It was also a vital location for trade between

Mesopotamia and the Aegean Sea


King Croesus of Lydia saw that Cyrus was going to attempt an invasion So he made a preemptive attack against the Persians

but it failed By 546 BCE, Cyrus had occupied the capital of Sardis,

capturing the kingdom of LydiaWith Lydia conquered, Cyrus next focused on

the kingdom of Babylonia He was able to take Babylonia in 539 BCE with little

resistance He did this by negotiating with many generals and

Babylonian governors who were upset with the current Babylonian king, Nabonidus


Cyrus turned Babylonia into a Persian satrapy but kept many Babylonians in positions of power

From 538 to 530 BCE, Cyrus concentrated on consolidating his empire He sought favor from the priesthoods in conquered

lands by restoring temples and allowing a large amount of religious toleration

Through his actions, he won approval of not only the Persians, but the Medes, Babylonians, and Jews who accepted him as the legitimate ruler

In 530 BCE, Cyrus was killed in battle

Persian conquests during the reign of Cyrus the Great

Cambyses (530-522 BCE)

Cambyses II - (530-522 BCE) He was one of Cyrus’ sons

In 525 BCE, he conquered Egypt Aided by the Phoenician fleet, he defeated and

captured the pharaoh and the Egyptian forces That summer he took the title of pharaoh

Cambyses died in 522 BCE Some believed he was murdered by his successor

Darius, others believe it was an accidental death Because he left no heir, after his death there was an

intense civil war that lasted for a year

Darius the Great (521-486 BCE)


Darius - (521-486 BCE) He started out as a bodyguard for Cambyses

Shortly after Cambyses die, Darius murdered Cyrus’ other son Bardiva According to Darius, Bardiya had actually been killed

by Cambyses He said that the Bardiya he killed was an imposter

who had usurped the throne after Cambyses’ death According to some historians, Darius had invented

this story to justify him murdering BardiyaDarius then seized throne for himself

He claimed hat he was restoring the kingship to the rightful house of Achaemenid


During the early part of his reign, revolts broke out throughout the empire This was because many disputed his claim to the throne Darius was able to suppress these revolts

Once Darius had secured the throne, he worked to strengthen the empire both from the inside and out He reorganized the government and bureaucracy He expanded the empires infrastructure, including roads

and a “postal” system He conquered territories to both the east in India and to

the west into Europe He reorganized the empire into new satrapies


He continued Cyrus’ policy of tolerance throughout his empire In most cases, the locals were able to retain many of

their institutions, including religious toleration He allowed the Hebrews to rebuild the Temple in

JerusalemHe developed a postal system

A “post” acted as a relay stage, with no more than one day’s ride from the next post

Part of this postal system included an extensive spy network that would inform the king of what was taking place throughout the empire


Darius built the “Royal Road” It went from Susa in the Persian Gulf to Sardis on the

Aegean Sea and was over 1,600 miles longHe codified a legal system based on

Egyptian lawHe standardized coinage, weights, and

measures This was to help promote trade and boost the

economy within the empireHe even reorganized the military

The military was composed of people from all parts of the empire and constituted a large fighting force


“Immortals” – Elite infantry force of 10,000 Called the “Immortals” because the number never fell

below 10,000 (if one died he was immediately replaced) Enjoyed special privileges including having concubines

and servantsThe military also included a cavalry

It was used behind the lines to break up lines of communication and shoot arrows and spears into enemy troops

The Persian navy included ships from conquered states, such as the Phoenicians, Anatolians, and Egyptians


With his military, Darius expanded the borders of Persia even farther He conquered parts of India to the east and into

Thrace and Macedon to the west He had control of the straights into the Black Sea This meant he also had control of the grain trade

coming through themBy 500 BCE, Darius was in control of most of

the Near East

Persian Religion

Another major contribution the Persians made was in terms of religion

Prior to the 6th century BCE, Persian religion focused on the worship of the powers of nature Including the sun, moon, wind, and fire The priests were called Magi

During the 6th century BCE, Persians began to follow Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism

Zoroaster – (c.628-c.551 BCE) He was a Persian holy man who experienced spiritual

revelations while spending time in solitude This revelations included believing in one god

(monotheism) and the elimination of animal sacrifice and magic

Ahura-Mazda – “the wise lord” – This was Zoroaster’s one supreme god He embodied all that was good, including righteousness,

truth, and piety He created all good things

Ahura-Mazda embodied only the good, how do you explain the bad?

Zoroastrianism

Zoroaster believed that there was an evil “counter-deity,” Ahriman Ahriman was the creator of all things evil This explained the evil of the world

Zoroaster said that Ahura-Mazda gave humans free will to choose between right and wrong There would be a constant struggle between good and evil in

which good will winZoroaster believed in individual judgment at death

If a person had done good deeds in their life, they would go to paradise

If they did not, they would go to a sort of hellZoroastrianism was able to spread so widely

because it was adopted by many of the great Persian kings

The Levant

The Levant

The Levant is an area encompassing the section of the western Mediterranean It is bordered on the north by the Taurus mountains,

on the east by Mesopotamia, and the south by the Arabian Desert

There are three civilizations that develop in this region during this period: The Phoenicians The Philistines The Hebrews

The Phoenicians

The Phoenicians lived in modern day Lebanon and Syria They arrived in the area around 3000 BCE and

probably came from the Persian Gulf regionThey were best known as traders and

colonizers in the Mediterranean in the first millennium BCE

The name Phoenicia in Greek means “purple people” This was derived from the valuable purple-red dye,

Tyrian purple, which was made from the Murex snailThe high point of Phoenician power and

culture was between 1200-800 BCE

The Phoenicians

Prior to 1200 BCE, many Phoenician cities had been controlled by Egypt While under Egyptian rule, some of the cities had already

established themselves as commercial centersAround 1200 BCE, the Egyptians along were

attacked by the Sea Peoples This led to a decline of Egyptian power

The Phoenician cities were then able to prosper This was due to expansion of trade routes and

accumulation of wealth The city of Byblos became the center of papyrus trade,

and is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world

The Phoenicians

The Phoenician cities were independent city-states The government was controlled by the king, the temple with

its priests, and a council of eldersAs a massive sea power, they were able to build

colonies throughout the Mediterranean Small colonial cities were built throughout the

Mediterranean to act as “stepping stones” to Iberia By the 9th century BCE, they had established the city of

Carthage in Tunisia This would become a preeminent power in the western

Mediterranean There is evidence that merchants did travel up through

France and into Britain

The Phoenicians

The main impact the Phoenicians had on western civilization was the development of their writing system It was created at Byblos They had modified the Hittite 30 character alphabet

to create a 22 character writing system This alphabet was later adapted and modified by the

Greeks, Romans, and HebrewsThe Greeks also later adapted the boat

designs used by the Phoenicians

The Philistines

The Philistines dominated the Levant from 1100-1000 BCE

They were descended from one of the tribes of the Sea People They settled in this region after being repulsed by the

Egyptians According to the Bible, their roots seem to be tied to

either Crete or Anatolia According to archaeology, they do have a Mycenaean

past since they brought olive trees and grapevines to the Levant

The Philistines

Once settled in the Levant, the Philistines grew olive trees and grapevines

The Philistines then used their profits to raise armies to secure their power in the region They were effective mercenaries and quickly took

power from their weaker, unorganized neighbors They also dominated the region economically by

organizing production and controlling the trade routes

The Philistines

They also established a monopoly over iron-smithing Historians believe they learned this skill while in

Anatolia They made it impossible for anybody else to forge

their own weaponsUnfortunately, the Philistines left no written

records Our history of them is dependent upon the Hebrew

histories These are most likely biased against them since the

Philistines were their enemies

The Hebrews

Unlike the Philistines, the Hebrews wrote a history of their land This later became the Hebrew Bible and the Old

Testament of the Christian BibleHowever, it was written over the course of

many centuries Because of this, it should not be viewed in the same

way modern histories are written The Bible does give a fascinating look into the

culture, religious practices, and major historical events at the time

The Hebrews

Many of the works in the first five books of the Bible seem to be retelling of old Near East stories Creation and flood stories have ties to Sumerians The story of Moses’ childhood is a retelling of Sargon’s

childhood After that, the information becomes more credible

In the Book of Judges, the Hebrews started out as wandering pastoral tribes They settled permanently by 1200 BCE They were organized into 12 tribes with each being ruled

by a judge These tribes formed a rough territory that in the north

became known as Israel and in the south Judah

The Hebrews

They settled in the Levant roughly the same time the Philistines did which led to much tension

The Philistines conquered the Levant by 1050 BCE This forced the Hebrews to unite together to defend

themselves This led to the crowning of the first king of Israel

Saul (c. 1021-1000 BCE) Appointed by one of the tribal judges, Samuel, and by

public acclamation He did win significant victories over the Philistines

and succeeded in driving them out of the central hill country

Saul (c. 1021-1000 BCE)

However, Saul lost favor with Samuel This was due to either religious or military reasons By losing favor, he lost the religious sanctions for his

battles Because of this, Saul also lost popular support

Samuel then put his backing behind one of Saul’s lieutenants named David Saul had numerous assassination attempts against

David and finally expelled from courtDavid became an independent mercenary

fighter He received the city of Ziklag from the Philistines He used the profits from raids to help the other

leaders break free of Saul’s control

David (c. 1000-973 BCE)

Saul and his son Jonathan were killed in battle against the Philistines David took the throne with their deaths

David - (c. 1000-973 BCE) He was able to defeat the Philistines, pushing them

back to a small strip of land to the southPart of his conquests was the capturing of

Jerusalem He made Jerusalem the political and religious capital

of Israel He placed the Ark of the Covenant in the city

Solomon (973-937 BCE)

Solomon - (973-937 BCE) He was David’s son He continued to strengthen royal power during his

reign, but he did so through ruthlessness and brutality

He is best known for his building projects Included the temple to house the Ark of the Covenant Large palace with state offices Many of his subjects were required to perform forced

labor for four months out of the year

Solomon (973-937 BCE)

He expanded Israel’s trading system through the building of a commercial fleet This brought in new riches into Israel However, he imposed an oppressive taxation system

which included duties on the caravan trade into the country

Built up both a large standing armyDuring his reign, ancient Israel was at the

height of its power, but Solomon did so at the cost of angering the people

When he died, he son Rehoboam He planned on keeping up the harsh policies of his

father

The Divided Kingdom

In 922 BCE, Jeroboam led a rebellion in northern Israel against Rehoboam The Kingdom of Israel broke away from Judah

The kingdom was now divided into two parts: Kingdom of Israel - Composed of ten of the original

twelve tribes with its capital in Samaria It was eventually destroyed in 722 by the Assyrians

Kingdom of Judah - Composed of the other two tribes and had its capital at Jerusalem It was conquered by the Chaldeans in 586

Hebrew Monotheism

The early Hebrews worshipped many gods, including those involved with nature Yahweh was only one gods worshipped by the Hebrews In the Old Testament there are references to other gods

being on the same level as YahwehStarting around the 10th century BCE,

Hebrews began worshiping Yahweh more than the other gods They worshiped only one god They believed in the existence of other gods but refused

to worship them (monolatry) Yahweh was not considered to be omnipotent; instead his

“territory” was limited to lands occupied by the Hebrews

Hebrew Monotheism

By the 8th century, Hebrew theology became more abstract Priests saw Yahweh not a part of nature but outside of

it He was considered more omnipotent

Also during this time, Yahweh also transformed into a nicer god He went from a temperamental and easily angered or

annoyed god to a more loving, nurturing one For example, in the original Babylonian flood story,

the god was angered because human noise disturbed his sleep

Hebrew Monotheism

During the period of Assyrian domination, Hebrew religion was forced to change The northern tribes were deported into the interior of

the Empire (the Ten Lost Tribes), while the Kingdom of Judah became a vassal state to the Assyrians

The Assyrians also forced all those conquered to worship their god, Assur

The Hebrews realized that in order for them to retain their identity as a people, they needed to separate themselves from other groups They did this by worshipping Yahweh as being the

only god

Hebrew Monotheism

The Neo-Babylonians were an even greater threat to the Hebrews The Chaldeans were the ones who conquered Jerusalem

and destroyed the Temple there and the Babylonian ExileOnce again, their religion had to adapt

The prophet Ezekiel stated that states, empires, and thrones were not important

What mattered that was that God created man in his image and the relationship between God and His people

This meant that Judaism became a universal religion, not one tied to any particular political entity or a place

Hebrew Monotheism

Many scholars feel that this adaptation of religion helped Judaism survive such a long exile from its holy land

In 538 BCE, Cyrus of Persia allowed the Hebrews back into Jerusalem He helped rebuild their temple

With their return to the Holy Land, their worship of Yahweh continued They believed that humans had obligations to their

creator rather than it having ties to a place or political entity continued

chapter 2 gods and empires in the ancient near east (1700-500 bce) western civilization i his-101

Documents

bcethe kingdom

hittite kingdom

bcethe hittites

kingdomhittite old kingdom

time periodmitanni kingdom

bcethe assyrians

bcethe kassites

bcethe mitanni