PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS

Chapter 2

CONDUCTING RESEARCH

Section 1

Steps of Scientific Research

Forming a research question Constructs= things that can be assumed are

there but cannot be seen directly (aggression, anxiety)

Forming a hypothesis Hypothesis= educated guess

Testing the hypothesis (various methods) Analyzing the results

Look for patterns and relationships in the data

Drawing conclusions Used in the validation of theories

Further Steps

Replication Study must be repeated with same results

Validation Study must measure what it’s supposed to

New questions Process should lead to new questions

SURVEYS, SAMPLES, AND POPULATIONS

Section 2

Surveys, Samples and Populations

Survey- series of questions about a particular subject

Written questionnaires or interviews*information may not be completely accurate

Populations/Samples Target population- whole group to be studied Sample- small part of target population

Samples Random- participants selected by chance; each

member has equal chance Stratified- subgroups are represented proportionally

Can’t make assumptions about other groups

Volunteer Bias

Bias- predisposition to a certain point of view despite facts

Volunteer bias- people who volunteer have a different outlook from those who don’t

Volunteers may be more willing to disclose personal information

Volunteers may be more interested in research than others

USING OBSERVATION FOR RESEARCH

Section 3

Method Description Advantages Disadvantages

Testing

Case Study

Several types of tests measure various elements of human behavior such as abilities, interests and personality

Convenient method for researchers to gain insight into certain aspects of an individual’s abilities or behavior

Does not always provide a complete representation of an individual’s true abilities or personality

Researchers conduct in-depth investigations of individuals or small groups

Provides insight into specific cases

-Cannot be replicated-People may distort their past experiences -Researchers may encourage people to answer questions a certain way

Method Description Advantages Disadvantages

Longitudinal

Cross-Sectional

Naturalistic Observation

Laboratory Observation

A group of participants are observed at intervals over an extended period of time

Enables researchers to see how individuals change over time

Time-consuming and expensive. Participants may not be available for duration of the study

Researchers compare differences and similarities among people in different age groups at a given time

Less time-consuming than the longitudinal method for studying changes over time

Differences between the members of the sample cannot necessarily be attributed to age or development

Researchers observe the behavior of people or animals in their natural habitats

Enables researchers to witness the behavior of people or animals in settings that are not artificial

Researchers have no control over the setting or events that occur

Participants are observed in a laboratory setting

Enables researchers to precisely control certain aspects of the study

Laboratories cannot duplicate real-life environments

Genie- What kind of Study?

20 months old= locked in small room kept in room until age 13 Contact: Mother (fed her)

Father (beat her) Had older brother who was also

beaten No one spoke to her and she did not speak Language after rescue: limited *critical time period for language development

Genie the Wild Child

Analyzing the Observations

Correlation= measure of how closely one thing is related to another The stronger the correlation, the more closely related

the items being measured Positive and Negative Correlation

Positive Correlation= one variable increases, the other one increases; one variable decreases the other decreases

Negative Correlation= as one variable increases, the other variable decreases

Limits of Correlation Describes relationships Doesn’t reveal cause and effect

Negative CorrelationPositive Correlation

EXPERIMENTAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES

Section 4

The Experimental Method

Independent and Dependent Variables Variables= factors that can vary or change

Independent variable= factor that researchers manipulate so they can determine effect

Dependent variable= depends on something; what is being measured

Experimental and Control Groups Experimental group= receives the treatment/manipulation Control group= don’t receive treatment Subjects are randomly assigned to groups Controlled experiment= Experiment used control groups

and experimental groups The Placebo Effect

Placebo= substance or treatment that has no effect aside from a person’s belief in its effect

Stanford Prison Experiment

Single and Double-Blind Studies

Single-Blind Studies= participants do not know whether they are in the experimental group or in the control group

Double-Blind Studies= both participants and researchers are unaware of who receives the treatment Required by FDA for new drugs People can remain unbiased

Central Tendency and Dispersion

Central tendency= number that describes the average score of a distribution (mean)

Can also find median and mode

Standard deviation= measure of distance of every score to the mean

Ethical Issues*Ethics= standards for proper and responsible

behavior promote dignity of the individual foster human welfare maintain scientific integrity

Research with people Limits the type of research that can be done

Confidentiality records are kept private people more likely to disclose information and feelings

Informed Consent restrictions prohibit studies that pose a serious threat to

the physical/psychological health of participants Informed consent= people agree to participate in a

research study after they have been given a general overview of the study

Ethical Issues

Deception: When to use it… when they believe that the benefits of the

study outweigh the harm individuals would have been willing to

participate if they knew the benefits of the study

participants receive an explanation after the study is over

Ethics in Using Data how they produce, store and present data if data collected contradicts hypothesis, must

be willing to discard hypothesis