PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS
Chapter 2
CONDUCTING RESEARCH
Section 1
Steps of Scientific Research
Forming a research question Constructs= things that can be assumed are
there but cannot be seen directly (aggression, anxiety)
Forming a hypothesis Hypothesis= educated guess
Testing the hypothesis (various methods) Analyzing the results
Look for patterns and relationships in the data
Drawing conclusions Used in the validation of theories
Further Steps
Replication Study must be repeated with same results
Validation Study must measure what it’s supposed to
New questions Process should lead to new questions
SURVEYS, SAMPLES, AND POPULATIONS
Section 2
Surveys, Samples and Populations
Survey- series of questions about a particular subject
Written questionnaires or interviews*information may not be completely accurate
Populations/Samples Target population- whole group to be studied Sample- small part of target population
Samples Random- participants selected by chance; each
member has equal chance Stratified- subgroups are represented proportionally
Can’t make assumptions about other groups
Volunteer Bias
Bias- predisposition to a certain point of view despite facts
Volunteer bias- people who volunteer have a different outlook from those who don’t
Volunteers may be more willing to disclose personal information
Volunteers may be more interested in research than others
USING OBSERVATION FOR RESEARCH
Section 3
Method Description Advantages Disadvantages
Testing
Case Study
Several types of tests measure various elements of human behavior such as abilities, interests and personality
Convenient method for researchers to gain insight into certain aspects of an individual’s abilities or behavior
Does not always provide a complete representation of an individual’s true abilities or personality
Researchers conduct in-depth investigations of individuals or small groups
Provides insight into specific cases
-Cannot be replicated-People may distort their past experiences -Researchers may encourage people to answer questions a certain way
Method Description Advantages Disadvantages
Longitudinal
Cross-Sectional
Naturalistic Observation
Laboratory Observation
A group of participants are observed at intervals over an extended period of time
Enables researchers to see how individuals change over time
Time-consuming and expensive. Participants may not be available for duration of the study
Researchers compare differences and similarities among people in different age groups at a given time
Less time-consuming than the longitudinal method for studying changes over time
Differences between the members of the sample cannot necessarily be attributed to age or development
Researchers observe the behavior of people or animals in their natural habitats
Enables researchers to witness the behavior of people or animals in settings that are not artificial
Researchers have no control over the setting or events that occur
Participants are observed in a laboratory setting
Enables researchers to precisely control certain aspects of the study
Laboratories cannot duplicate real-life environments
Genie- What kind of Study?
20 months old= locked in small room kept in room until age 13 Contact: Mother (fed her)
Father (beat her) Had older brother who was also
beaten No one spoke to her and she did not speak Language after rescue: limited *critical time period for language development
Genie the Wild Child
Analyzing the Observations
Correlation= measure of how closely one thing is related to another The stronger the correlation, the more closely related
the items being measured Positive and Negative Correlation
Positive Correlation= one variable increases, the other one increases; one variable decreases the other decreases
Negative Correlation= as one variable increases, the other variable decreases
Limits of Correlation Describes relationships Doesn’t reveal cause and effect
Negative CorrelationPositive Correlation
EXPERIMENTAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES
Section 4
The Experimental Method
Independent and Dependent Variables Variables= factors that can vary or change
Independent variable= factor that researchers manipulate so they can determine effect
Dependent variable= depends on something; what is being measured
Experimental and Control Groups Experimental group= receives the treatment/manipulation Control group= don’t receive treatment Subjects are randomly assigned to groups Controlled experiment= Experiment used control groups
and experimental groups The Placebo Effect
Placebo= substance or treatment that has no effect aside from a person’s belief in its effect
Stanford Prison Experiment
Single and Double-Blind Studies
Single-Blind Studies= participants do not know whether they are in the experimental group or in the control group
Double-Blind Studies= both participants and researchers are unaware of who receives the treatment Required by FDA for new drugs People can remain unbiased
Central Tendency and Dispersion
Central tendency= number that describes the average score of a distribution (mean)
Can also find median and mode
Standard deviation= measure of distance of every score to the mean
Ethical Issues*Ethics= standards for proper and responsible
behavior promote dignity of the individual foster human welfare maintain scientific integrity
Research with people Limits the type of research that can be done
Confidentiality records are kept private people more likely to disclose information and feelings
Informed Consent restrictions prohibit studies that pose a serious threat to
the physical/psychological health of participants Informed consent= people agree to participate in a
research study after they have been given a general overview of the study
Ethical Issues
Deception: When to use it… when they believe that the benefits of the
study outweigh the harm individuals would have been willing to
participate if they knew the benefits of the study
participants receive an explanation after the study is over
Ethics in Using Data how they produce, store and present data if data collected contradicts hypothesis, must
be willing to discard hypothesis