Chapter 2 - Theories

I. Questions/Controversies

A. Nature vs. Nurture• Nature = genetics• Nurture = environment

Nature vs. nurture, cont.

• both are important

• most things are interactions

B. Continuity vs. Discontinuity

Developmental changes are sudden or gradual• Gradual/continuous = quantitative• Sudden/discontinuous/discrete = qualitative

C. Universal vs. Culturally Specific(Deficit vs. Difference)- Culturalists = context determines development

D. Active vs. Passive- tabula rasa ==> recipients- vs. seek information ==> creators

II. Freud - Psychoanalytic Theory

1. Importance of early experiences - birth to age 5

2. Intrapsychic focus

- development within the mind

- biological basis

3. Structures• Id = present at birth

- biological drives/instincts• Ego = develops in 1st year

- how to satisfy id

- practical & reality-based• Superego = develops in 3rd/4th year

- incorporate sense of right & wrong from parents

4. Psychosexual stages

- Develop by progressing through stages

- Stages = “sexual” gratification in different body parts

- Conflict to be resolved at each stage

5.Unconscious conflict

• Between id & world/superego at each stage

• Ego tries to satisfy both

• Resolve conflict = progress through stages

• No resolution = fixation at that stage

=> psychological problems

Freud’s StagesAge Pleasure Development

• Infancy - oral /sucking• Toddlerhood - anal/toileting -> Ego• Preschool - phallic/genitals -> Superego

Oedipal/Electra complex• Elem. School - latency• Adolescence - genital

III. Erikson- Psychosocial theory1. Importance of social world

2. Focus is reality-oriented Ego

- Development of ego within the social world

3. 8 developmental stages

- Pass via resolving conflicts

- conflicts are social, not instinctual

• Infant – Trust in caretaker & self• Toddler – Self-control & pride• Preschooler – Initiative• School-age child – Industry• Adolescent – Develop identity• Young adult – Intimate relationship• Mid-aged adult – Contribute to future• Older adult – Integrity in life review

• Erikson = Lifespan theory

IV. Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory

1. Development = thought processes

- stages of more advanced cognition

2. Biology plus experience

- An interaction: maturation plus experience

- children actively seek information

3. Cognitive & social development

- social behavior depends upon cognitive abilities

-> cognitive development underlies all other development

V. Learning Theory

We learn & thus develop constantly

- from constant input from the environment

- same processes for all development

- learn increasing amounts via those processes

1. Behaviorism

- study only observable behavior

- all behavior determined by outside forces

3 major behaviorists

Watson - child = tabula rasa

- environment determines person

Pavlov - Classical Conditioning

- learn to associate 2 things that happen together in time

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

-> Unconditioned Response (UR)

• Neutral stimulus does not evoke Response

• If neutral stimulus always precedes US, neutral stimulus begins to evoke Response

• Neutral stimulus becomes Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

• CS -> CR (Conditioned Response)

Skinner - Operant/Respondent Conditioning

- behavior is governed by rewards & punishments

2. Bandura - Social Learning

- Learn by observing others, not just own experience (adds cognition)

- imitate a model

VI. Bronfenbrenner - Ecology Theory

1. Context determines development

- development occurs differently depending upon the environment

2. Multiple contexts

3. Contexts interact and change each other

Systems:

1st = Microsystem

- immediate surroundings

- interactions are bidirectional & reciprocal

2nd = Mesosystem

- interaction among microsystems

3rd = Exosystem

- other elements child is not part of, but isinfluenced by it indirectly

4th = Macrosystem

- society as a whole

5th = Chronosystem

- changes in systems over time

- alter existing relationships

VII. Vygotsky - Sociocultural Theory

• How is culture transmitted

Culture transmitted….• Via interaction with adults & older children• Help children master culturally-meaningful

tasks• Language/communication is critical

-> children internalize dialogues& later use the language to help guide their own development

Piaget vs. Vygotsky

A. Piaget: focus on child

- children’s own efforts to understandworld

vs. Vygotsky: development is socially

mediated

- requires others

B. Piaget: children master same tasks

vs. Vygotsky: cultures select different

tasks

C. Piaget: discrete stages

vs.Vygotsky: development is continuous

Small-group discussion:

How does one’s theoretical view of development affect the kinds of behaviors one notices? What behaviors would be observed by Freud, Piaget, an information-processing theorist, Skinner, Bandura, an ethological theorist, Bronfenbrenner when watching 2 children interact on a playground?