chapter © 2014 the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. all rights reserved. 22 organization of the body

CHAPTER

© 2014 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

22Organization of the Body


22-2

Learning Outcomes (cont.)

22.1 Explain the importance of understanding both anatomy and physiology when

studying the body.

22.2 Illustrate body organization from simple to more complex levels.

22.3 Describe the locations and characteristics of the four main tissue types.

22.4 Describe the body organ systems, their general functions, and the major organs contained in each.


22-3


22.5 Use medical and anatomical terminology correctly.

22.6 Explain anatomical position and its relationship to other anatomical positions.

22.7 Identify the body cavities and the organs contained in each.

22.8 Relate a basic understanding of chemistry to its importance in studying the body.

22.9 Name the parts of a cell and their functions.


22-4


22.10 Summarize how substances move across a cell membrane.

22.11 Distinguish the stages of cell division.

22.12 Explain the uses of these genetic techniques: DNA fingerprinting, and the

polymerase chain reaction.

22.13 Describe the different patterns of inheritance and common genetic disorders.


22-5

Introduction

• Human body is complex in its structure and function

• It is organized from the chemical level to the organ system level

You will learn important terminology used in the clinical setting and explore how diseases develop.

You will learn important terminology used in the clinical setting and explore how diseases develop.


22-6

The Study of the Body

• Anatomy – study of body structure

• Physiology – study of function

• Anatomy of an organ allows it to function

• Homeostasis – relative consistency of the body’s internal environment


22-7

Apply Your Knowledge

True or False:

___ Anatomy is the study of structure.

___ Physiology is the study of function and structure.

___ Homeostasis is the relative consistency of the body’s internal environment.

ANSWER:

T

F

T

Function only.


22-8

Organization of the Body

Atom – simplest unit of matterAtoms molecules

Chemical Level

Organelles cells Cells – smallest living units of the body

Cellular Level

Organization of the same type of cells

Tissue

Organ

Two or more tissue types

Organ Systems

Arrangement of organs

Organism

Combination of organ systems


22-9


1. Match the following:

___ Atoms A. The smallest living units in the body

___ Matter B. Anything that takes up space and has weight

___ Molecules C. Simplest unit of matter

___ Organelles D. Same type of cells organized together

___ Cells E. Molecules joined together

___ Tissues F. Combination of two or more tissue types

___ Organs G. Atoms that bond together

ANSWER:

C

B

G

E

A

D

F


22-10

Major Tissue Types

• Epithelial tissue– Covering

– Lining

– Gland • Exocrine

• Endocrine

– Avascular, has a nerve supply

– Function based on location


22-11

Connective Tissue

• Most abundant tissue

• Matrix separates the cells

• Rich blood supply

• Cells– Fibroblasts– Mast cells– Macrophages

• Blood– Matrix ~ plasma– No fibers

• Osseous (Bone) Tissue– Matrix ~ mineral salts– Metabolically alive


22-12

Connective Tissue

• Cartilage - rigid matrix

• Dense Connective Tissue– Matrix ~ tough

fibers– Soft but strong

• Adipose Tissue– Adipocytes ~ store

fats– Energy– Cushions– Insulation


22-13

Muscle Tissue

• Specialized tissue that contracts and relaxes

• Skeletal Muscle – Striated– Voluntary

• Visceral Muscle – Smooth– Involuntary

• Cardiac Muscle – Striated– Involuntary

© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Al Telser, photographer


22-14

Nervous Tissue

• Brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves

• Sends electrical messages

• Cells– Neurons

– Neuroglial


22-15


What are the major tissue types?

ANSWER:

Epithelial tissue Connective tissue

Muscle tissue Nerve tissue

Impressive!


22-16

Body Organs and Systems

• Organ – Structure formed by organization of two or

more different tissue types

– Tissues work together to carry out specific functions

• Organ system – organs joined together to carry out vital functions


22-17

Body Organs and Systems (cont.)

• For example – the respiratory system consists of these organs:

• Nose• Nasal cavity• Pharynx• Trachea• Larynx• Bronchi • Lungs


22-18


1. What is the difference between organs and organ systems?

2. List two major components of the cardiovascularsystem.

ANSWER: Organs are made of tissues working together to carry out a specific function and an organ system is formed when organs work together to carry out vital functions.

The heart and blood vessels.


22-19

Understanding Medical Terminology

• Word root – base meaning

• Suffix – After word root – Alters its meaning

• Prefix – Before the word

root– Alters its meaning

• Combining vowel– “o”– Only facilitates

pronunciation


22-20


Combine terms to answer definition.

heart specialist

rapid heart beat

specialty of the heart

CARDIOLOGIST

TACHYCARDIA

CARDIOLOGY

TACHY CARDI

IA LOGIST O

LOGY

ANSWER:


22-21

Anatomical Terminology

• Describe the location of body parts and various body regions

• Anatomical position – Body is standing upright

– Facing forward

– Arms at the sides and palms facing forward


22-25


What is the anatomical position?

ANSWER: Anatomical position is the body standing upright, facing forward, with the arms at the sides and palms of hands facing forward.

Good Answer!


22-26

Body Cavities and Abdominal Regions

• Dorsal cavity – Cranial – brain– Spinal – spinal cord

• Ventral cavity– Thoracic cavity– Abdominopelvic cavity Ventral

cavity

Dorsal cavity


22-27

Body Cavities and Abdominal Regions (cont.)

• Thoracic cavity– Lungs, heart, esophagus,

and trachea

• Diaphragm

• Abdominopelvic– Abdominal cavity ~ organs

of digestion, kidneys, and spleen

– Pelvic cavity ~ bladder and internal reproductive organs


22-28


What are the two largest body cavities?

ANSWER: Dorsal and ventral cavities

YES!


22-29

Chemistry of Life

• Chemistry – the study of what matter is composed of and how matter changes

• Body structures and functions result from chemical changes

• Metabolism– Anabolism

– Catabolism


22-30

Electrolytes

• Substances that release ions when put into water

• Ions – Positively or negatively charged particles– Regulate or trigger physiologic states

• Essential to– Fluid balance– Muscle contraction– Nerve impulse conduction


22-31

Electrolytes (cont.)

• Acids and bases

– Acids ~ release hydrogen ions

– Bases ~ alkalis; release hydroxyl ions

– Testing• Litmus paper

• Liquid pH indicator test kit

• pH meter


22-32

Biochemistry

• Study of matter and chemical reactions in the body– Organic matter

• Carbon and hydrogen• Four classes

– Inorganic matter • Small molecules• Water most abundant


22-33

Biochemistry (cont.)

• Carbohydrates – Energy– Glucose

• Lipids– Triglycerides– Phospholipids– Steroids

• Proteins– Structure– Hormones, enzymes,

receptors, and antibodies

• Nucleic Acids– DNA– RNA


22-34


Why is it important to understand chemistry when studying the structure and function of the body?

ANSWER: Structures and functions result from chemical processes that occur in the body’s cells and fluids.

Super!


22-35

Cell Characteristics

• Basic unit of life

• Three main parts – Cell membrane

– Cytoplasm

– Nucleus


22-36

Cell Characteristics (cont.)

• Cell membrane

– Outer limit– Thin and selectively permeable

• Cytoplasm

– Water, proteins, ions, and nutrients– Organelles ~ perform cell functions


22-37

Cell Characteristics (cont.)

• Organelles – Cilia

– Flagellum

– Ribosomes

– Endoplasmic reticulum

– Mitochondria

– Golgi apparatus

– Lysosomes

– Centrioles

• Nucleus– Round and near

center of cell– Chromosomes ~

threadlike structures made up of DNA


22-38


What are the three main parts of a cell, and in which one is DNA found?

ANSWER: The three main parts of a cell are: Cell membrane Cytoplasm Nucleus – this is where DNA is found


22-39

Movement Through Cell Membranes

• Selectively permeable membrane – Controls movement in and out of cells

– Passive mechanisms ~ no energy required to move substances

– Active mechanisms ~ require the cell to use energy to move substances


22-40

Movement Through Cell Membranes (cont.)

• Diffusion – movement from an area of high concentration to one of low concentration

• Osmosis – movement of water across a semipermeable membrane

• Filtration– The cell membrane

acts like a filter

– Pressure forces substances across membrane

• Active Transport – Substances cross the

membrane with a carrier molecule

– Low high


22-41


Matching:

requires pressure to force substances across a membrane

movement of a substance from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

movement of water across a semipermeable membrane

movement across the cell membrane with the help of carrier molecules

A. Diffusion

B. Osmosis

C. Filtration

D. Active transport

Impressive!

ANSWER:

C

A

B

D


22-42

Cell Division

• Reproduction through cell division – Mitosis– Meiosis– Cytokinesis

• Interphase – Normal function; no division

– Prepares for cell division

– Mutations – errors in duplication of DNA


22-43

Mitosis

• The nucleus divides

• Cell membrane constricts

• Organelles distribute evenly into the two new cells

• Stages

– Prophase

– Metaphase

– Anaphase

– Telophase

The nucleus makes a complete copy of all 23 of its chromosome pairs.

The nucleus makes a complete copy of all 23 of its chromosome pairs.


22-44

Meiosis

• Reproductive cell division

• Nucleus copies all 23 chromosome pairs

• Four cells form with only 1 of each chromosome pair

• After fertilization, resulting cell contains 46 chromosomes


22-45


What are mitosis, meiosis, and interphase?

ANSWER:

Mitosis is a part of cell division in which the nucleus divides.

Meiosis is reproductive cell division requiring both female and male sex cells.

During interphase, the cell carries out normal function and is not dividing.

Bravo!


22-46

Genetic Techniques

• DNA – Primary component of genes– Found in nucleus of cells

• Gene – a segment of DNA that determines a body trait

• Genetic techniques involve using or manipulating genes


22-47

Genetic Techniques (cont.)

• Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)– Quick, easy method of making

millions of copies of any fragment of DNA

– Used in the study of genetics

– Testing for organisms

– Genetic testing


22-48

Genetic Techniques (cont.)

• DNA fingerprinting– Unique sequences of nucleotides in a

person’s DNA

– Reliable method for identifying and distinguishing among humans

– Diagnose genetic disorders

– Research


22-49


Designate whether the following is related to PCR (polymerase chain reaction ) or F (DNA fingerprinting).

____ Unique sequences of nucleotides in a person’s DNA

____ Reliable method for identifying and distinguishing among humans

____ Useful to detect organisms that cannot be cultured

____ Used in criminal and paternity cases

____ Method for replicating DNA

F

F

PCR

PCR

F

ANSWER:


22-50

Heredity and Common Genetic Disorders

• The transfer of genetic traits from parent to child

• 46 chromosomes– 22 pairs ~ homologous

chromosomes

– 23rd pair ~ sex chromosomes


22-51

Heredity and Common Genetic Disorders (cont.)

• Homologous chromosomes– Dominant vs. recessive alleles

– Traits are determined by multiple alleles

• Complex inheritance

• Sex-linked traits


22-52

Common Genetic Disorders

• Albinism – little or no pigmentation

• Cystic fibrosis – life-threatening disease affecting the lungs and pancreas

• Down syndrome (Trisomy 21) – causes mental retardation and physical abnormalities

• Fragile X syndrome – cause of learning disability


22-53

Common Genetic Disorders (cont.)

• Hemophilia – blood disorder; lack of clotting factor

• Klinefelter’s syndrome – chromosomal abnormality

• Phenylketonuria (PKU) – unable to synthesize the enzyme that converts phenylalanine to tyrosine


22-54


ANSWER: Cystic fibrosis is a life-threatening genetic disorder that affects the lungs and pancreas.

What is cystic fibrosis?

Correct!


22-55

In Summary

22.1 Knowledge of anatomy and physiology is important when learning to assign

diagnostic and procedural codes and perform clinical procedures. Since the structure of an organ is related to its function, it is necessary to learn both.

22.2 The body organization levels from simplest to most complex are: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, and organism.


22-56

In Summary (cont.)

22.3 Epithelial tissues cover and line, or are glandular tissues. Connective tissue contains a matrix between its cells. Muscle tissue is specialized tissue that contracts and relaxes. Nervous tissue sends signals to the neurons, muscles, and glands and is located in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.

22.4 Each body organ system has a particular set of organs and vessels.


22-57

In Summary (cont.)

22.5 Knowledge and use of anatomical and medical terminology are important for medical personnel to communicate with each

other in a consistent manner.

22.6 In anatomical position, the body is erect, facing forward with arms at the sides

and palms facing forward. All other body positions are defined based on their

relation to anatomical position.


22-58

In Summary (cont.)

22.7 The dorsal cavity consists of the cranial cavity and the spinal cavity. The ventral cavity is composed of the thoracic cavity, the abdominal cavities, and, below the abdominal cavity, the pelvic cavity. The body’s organs are contained within these cavities.

22.8 It is important to have a basic understanding of chemistry when studying anatomy and physiology .

22.9 The main components of a cell have a specialized function.


22-59

In Summary (cont.)

22.10 Cells use both active and passive mechanisms to transport substances across the cell membrane. Passive mechanisms include diffusion, osmosis, and filtration. Active

transport uses carrier molecules.

22.11 A cell at rest is said to be in interphase. During mitosis, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase occur. Reproductive cell division is known as meiosis and takes place only in the reproductive cells.


22-60

In Summary (cont.)

22.12 Genetic techniques allow the identification of individuals through the unique sequences of nucleotides found within DNA. Polymerase chain reactions allow millions of copies from just a fragment of DNA.

22.13 Dominant traits occur through alleles. Complex inheritance is more common and is determined by multiple genes given by both parents. Sex-linked traits are carried on the sex chromosomes. There are many genetic disorders that affect the body.


22-61

Our history begins before we are born. We represent the hereditary influences of our race, and our ancestors virtually live in us.

~ James Nasmyth

End of Chapter 22

chapter © 2014 the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. all rights reserved. 22 organization of the body

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