Chapter 21: The Muslim EmpiresChapter 21

IntroductionThis chapter is

about 3 major Muslim empires, nicknamed “the Gunpowder Empires”

The Ottoman Empire

The Safavid Empire

The Mughal Empire

Ottoman Empire1300s-1919: a Sunni Muslim

empire that spread through Turkey, Eastern Europe, Middle East, & N. Africa◦ Also known as “Ottoman Turks” (people in

Turkey)

The Ottomans: From Nomads to Empire

The Turkic Ottoman peoples entered Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) under the leadership of Osman Bey after the Mongols had successfully defeated the Seljuks in the 13thC

Took name Ottoman after sultan Osman

After a brief period of turmoil, the Ottomans under Mehmed II the Conqueror captured Constantinople in 1453, ending the Byzantine Empire

Ottoman Empire Over the next 2

centuries the Ottomans expanded their empire and built a navy that dominated the Eastern Mediterranean and claimed territory throughout North Africa, SE Europe and much of the Middle East (minus Persia) and successfully (for a time) controlled Indian Ocean trade

Though unsuccessful in further campaigns to take portions of Western European kingdoms, the Ottomans remained the greatest threat to Europe thru the 18th century

Ottoman Society There was a distinct social

hierarchy laid out in 4 classes:◦ “men of the pen” – lawyers, judges,

smart people◦ “men of the sword” - warriors◦ “men of negotiation” – merchants, tax

collectors, traders and store owners◦ “men of husbandry” – farmers/herders

Then there were the non-Muslims, who were organized into millets◦ Jews and Christians called the dhimmi:

people of the book

◦ In these religious communities, usually divided quarters or ghettos in a town/city, the people had their own leaders and were responsible for their own education and certain legal matters

Like earlier Muslim societies, the Ottomans “taxed” the non-Muslim peoples they absorbed into their empire as a source of revenue

Ottoman Warfare The “men of the

sword” actually played the dominant role in Ottoman society since sultans based their empire on constant warfare and expansion

Warriors represented an aristocracy that conquered lands, enslaved people (w/the Sultan’s blessing) and began a Feudal system of control

The warrior class was at constant odds with the “men of the pen”, lawyers and religious leaders whose power grew at court

Ottoman Warfare Militaries were large made up

of Janissaries, conscripted soldiers from NON Muslim societies that were conquered

Devshirme: the system of taking young boys as a “tax” and forced into servitude as soldiers for a designated period of time, forced to convert to Islam

It was not exactly slavery, as many Janissaries found their ways into higher positions in the Ottoman bureaucracy over time

the Ottoman army’s might was based on one thing, ARTILLERY◦ A vast knowledge of gun and

cannon making gave the Ottoman armies their strength

The Sultans and their Court

Sultan: title for an Ottoman ruler

Ottoman sultans were literally no different than Abbasid caliphs◦ they spent money lavishly, had

huge harems, became distant from their people

◦ some sultans led their own armies into battle

A vizier (wazir) also handled day-to-day administration of the bureaucracy◦ Had more power than the Sultan himself

Like earlier Muslim dynasties, the Ottomans suffered civil strife due to their vague principles of succession◦ Caused constant warfare of a Sultan’s son

trying to claim the throne, especially after he died

Ottoman Culture Ottoman empire was very diverse

Constantinople became Istanbul, the central capital of the empire…previously constructed Byzantine cathedrals were converted into mosques (Hagia Sophia)

Some sultans (Suleyman) added more grand structures◦ Aqueducts, markets, city’s defenses,

mansions, rest houses, religious schools, hospitals

Istanbul maintained itself as the hub of east/west trade over land…places called Coffeehouses developed where merchant and artisans class gathered to interact

The government regulated all aspects of trade and manufacture◦ Artisans organized into guilds

A transition from Persian/Arabic to Turkish language occurred in literary exploits…Turks artistically became well renowned for their poetry and rug making

Ottoman EmpireSuleyman the

Magnificent (ruled 1520-1566)

Largely expanded empire

Created law code

art & literature flourished during his rule

Had 2 sons killed when they fought each other for power

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Ottoman Decline Ottoman dynasty was a great success,

survived and fought off powerful conquerors for 600 years, but…◦ The Ottoman Empire became known as

the “sick man of Europe” by the 18th and 19th centuries

Problems:◦ expansion and conquest, too big

◦ increased problems of succession, primogeniture, fratricide

◦ corruption in the bureaucracy amongst governors who sought to control their territory independently led to an ineffective administration

◦ Landowners constantly overtaxed peasants, caused many uprisings and peasant abandonment

◦ Surrounding neighbors expanding their lands, like Russia, Austria-Hungary and the Safavid Empire, to begin slowly picking away at Ottoman territory

Ottoman Decline Problems:

◦ Ottomans fell behind Europe who had transformed with new scientific, technological and military developments Didn’t take Europe seriously, groups

blocked Western innovations from coming in

◦ One of greatest naval battles, Battle of Lepanto in 1571: Ottoman’s were defeated by a Spanish and Venetian fleet and they lost control of eastern Mediterranean

◦ Ottoman’s controlled/relied on Indian Ocean trade that became dominated by Portuguese mariners who transmitted goods throughout Europe Caused Ottoman merchants to lose revenue

Large amounts of silver flowed in from Americas, causing inflation

Still, the Ottomans were able to hang on until WWI (thanks mainly to the decline of the Safavid, their greatest rivals and periods of invigoration by competing European nations)

The Safavid Empire 1501-1736: Safavid Empire:

Persia, today Iran

Unlike the Sunni Ottomans, the Safavid were Shiites…which was the basis of the rivalry with their neighbors

◦ Sunnis – accepted legitimacy of 1st 3 successors of Mohammed (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman)

◦ Shi’a – accepted only 4th successor as legitimate – Ali (Mohammed’s cousin and son-in-law)

The Safavid rose in the early 1300s under the leadership of Sail (Safi) al-Din, who sought to purify Islam and spread Islam amongst the Turkic peoples with his followers, the Red Heads

Safavid Empire Shah: Persian king

After years of struggle, Ismail (a Sufi) was proclaimed shah and conquered all of Persia and most of Iraq only to be stopped by the Ottomans at the Battle of Chaldiran (a battle which demonstrated the powers of artillery and firearms)

This defeat weakened Ismail’s position and also determined that Shi’ism would be confined to mainly Persia and parts of Iraq

Safavid Politics, State and Religion

After a brief period of succession issues, a dynasty was established by Tahmasp I

Turkish warriors that had once attempted to take power in Persia were brought under control and assigned villages/peasants to control (quasi-feudal)◦ some of these warriors continued to be

a constant threat to the shah’s power

Persians were recruited into the bureaucracy to balance the Turkish warrior presence…and like the Ottomans, youths were enslaved for military and bureaucratic service◦ Persian became the predominant

language

◦ shahs also became hedonistic (like Ottomans and Abbasids)

Safavid Politics, State and Religion

The Safavid reached their peak under Shah Abbas the Great (ruled 1588-1629)◦ Abbas hated the Ottomans, so

he allied himself w/Europeans to improve his armies and defend his borders

◦ Abbas reduced taxes, even decided not to tax non-Muslims

◦ Built a magnificent capital at Isfahan and turned it into the center of Persian arts, trade and culture he even liked to roam around his city

in disguise to spy on his people!

◦ Was tolerant of non-Muslims (Armenians), even built them their own homes on the edge of his new capital mainly cause they ran his economy/trade

Kardashians, ugh

Safavid Culture Abbas the Great had a network of

roads built, rest houses, colleges, public baths, stunning mosques with massive domes, ceramic tiles, minarets, and gardens with reflecting pools around the mosques

Strove to make merchants and travelers safe within his domains

Set up workshops for silk and Persian carpets

Some shahs took the title padishah instead, meaning “king of all kings”

Elaborate palaces with elegant court life and rituals with etiquette

Shahs claimed descent from imams: descendants of Ali

Safavid vs. Ottoman Both had similar social systems dominated by warrior

aristocrats who shared power with the absolute rulers

Both had warrior aristocrats who relied on peasants through difficult labor◦ led to banditry, peasant uprisings, flight from land

Both established imperial workshops for miniature paintings, rugs, ceramics. ◦ Both lavishly patronized public works projects

But…Safavid economy and markets were constricted and more technically backward than that of the Ottomans

Both had normal gender roles for women throughout the Middle East◦ Veils, little rights, confinements, especially harder on the

elite women◦ BUT recent evidence found has suggested that some women

actually fought back against these restrictions, wore bright, colorful robes, making no effort to hide their faces, were active in trade and money-lending, and that wives or concubines of shahs had big influences behind the throne

Safavid Decline Its collapse was very rapid

Abbas the Great killed many of his sons as he was convinced they were plotting against him…his weak grandson, Abbas II took the throne

Neighboring Ottomans and Mughals nipped at Safavid territory…eventually, Afghani tribes captured Isfahan◦ Over 80,00 in Isfahan died of starvation

and disease

Afghani leader Nafid Khan Ahshar made himself shah, but no dynasty emerged from his rule

the empire would continually be plagued by raiding nomads and neighboring empires, eventually finding leadership under the Qajar Dynasty in 1725

The Mughal Empire 1526-1857: Muslim descendants of

Mongols who settled in India◦ Mughal rulers in order for this time period:

Babur, Humayan, Akbar, Janhangir, Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb

Founder was Babur the Great (ruled 1526-1530) (claimed descent from Genghis Khan and Timurlane) ◦ his armies invaded India in the early 1500s

from Afghanistan◦ great military strategist, fought alongside

troops in battle◦ wrote histories, was a musician, but was

better at conquering and did little to reform◦ a great partier and a terrible administrator◦ died in 1530 putting the empire in peril

His son, Humayan, lost territory in India immediately and was forced to exile in Persia but he gained it back by 1556…unfortunately, he died tragically, falling down the stairs in his library!

Akbar the Great Son of Humayan, Akbar the Great (ruled

1556-1605) was forced upon the throne at 13 and immediately faced threats from Mughal enemies…he defeated them easily!

Akbar was not a drunkard like his grandfather (Babur) nor clumsy like his father (Humayan)

he became a wise and strong administrator, preaching tolerance

he encouraged intermarriage between Hindus and Muslims

abolished the jizya: tax on non-Muslims

promoted Hindus into high ranking positions in government

created a new religion, Din-i-Ilahi, a combination of Islam and Hinduism (but rejected by both )

Akbar the Great Improved the calendar, discouraged child

marriage and alcoholism, created living quarters for the homeless

improved the status of women…he prohibited

sati,encouraged a widow to remarry, and setup special market days for womensecluded by purdah

Unfortunately, when Akbar died in 1605, most

of his reforms and his religion, died with him

Other Rulers/European Contacts Mughal Empire reached its highest peak

under Jahangir (ruled 1605-1627) and Shah Jahan (ruled 1628-1658)

India specialized in fabric and making clothing (the word pajamas comes from India )

Both continued Akbar’s tolerance policies…both left a lot of daily administration to subordinates, preferring to patronize the arts, to drink and to party

Both took pleasure in female dancers, animal fights, polo matches, lavish wardrobes with jewels

Both patrons of the arts – miniature paintings, and many mosques◦ Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal (1632-53) in honor

of his favorite wife Mumtaz Mahal who died at childbirth (it’s a tomb that holds both of them)

Shah Jahan’s successor, Aurangzeb (ruled 1658-1707), promoted the trade of Indian textiles, leading to European influences in India, something that had been resisted for centuries

Mughal Decline Almost everything Akbar had reformed

for women was ignored and made worse after his death, despite other rulers’ attempts to reform it as well

Empire grew weak from external threats and backward in technology

Aurangzeb attempted to rid India of Hinduism and strengthening Islam weakened the social systems and caused conflicts◦ Sikhism rose in this era, threatening

Islam

And …the same old story occurs as the bureaucracy becomes corrupt and peasants and urban workers revolt/protest their living conditions

Aurangzeb focused too much time on trying to conquer ALL of India and to purify Islam of all Hindu influences

Mughal Decline Aurangzeb’s warfare for

expansion drained the treasury, weakened the bureaucracy and military

◦ he was forced to renew the jizya to the dismay of the people

◦ Marattas and Sikhs rebelled even becoming anti-Islamic

The constant state of civil dissention in India opened the door for the British and French to come into to India, use their military might to calm tensions, but also establish a colonial/imperial presence on the subcontinent that would last into the 20th century