chapter 3 eesearcli methodology -...

J Study o f Management Practices ofM NCs in India

Chapter 3

Eesearcli Methodology

3.1. Purpose of S tiiy

"The selection o f a research topic and a corresponding method ...are indicative o f that which the

researcher l^elieves is important to see in the world and /enow. "

Roseii, 1991

“The special task o f the social scientist in each generation is to pin down the contemporary facts.

Beyond that, he shares with the humanistic scholar and the artist in the effort to gain insight into

contemporary relationships. ”

Cronbach, 1975

The dominant role of giant MNCs within the global economy today cannot be ignored. With the onset

of the liberalization process in India, MNCs have qualitatively altered the nature and degree of

competition in this countiy too. A primary advantage that a multinational firm brings to foreign

markets is its superior knowledge, which can be utilized in its subsidiaries worldwide (Bartlett and.

Ghoshal 1997). MNCs in India are dominant partners in terms of technology, investment and shares

and have sought to transplant on foreign soil, their own well-established style of functioning. The

execution of activities, however, ends up as fusion of the practices in their country o f origin and the

local cultiu’e they are operating in.

The exercise of managerial control in such scenarios has been one of the most important subjects

examined in literature (Beamish, 1984; Parkhe, 1993). Research has produced highly conflicting

results with respect to the relationship between control and perfonnance. While some studies reported

a positive relationship, others found a negative one. Still others failed to generate any direct

relationship between the two variables. Consequently, it has been suspected that the control-

perfornrance relationship may vaiy in international MNCs in developed versus developing countries

(Beamish, 1983) or may be subject to important mediating variables (Hebert, 1994).

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Research Methodology

Researchers have also shown that there are various barriers to ti'aiisfer success - some relating to the

cliaractcristics of the practices that are being transferred and others of a cultural and organizational

nature (Ghoshal tmd Bartlett 1988; Szulanski 1996; Zander and ICogut 1995).

It is derived from literature that little in-depth work has been done in hidia on MNCs operating in

India. Most studies have discussed economic benefits associated with MNCs. Saxena and Srivastava

(1999), for instance, have discussed the significance o f ‘environmental analysis’ in the host country i.e.

India, which may have an impact on marketing decisions affecting products, price, distribution and

promotions. Some authors have also pointed out the difference in the functioning of the public, private

and multinational organizations (Tripathi 1990; Krishna Kumar 1992; Virmani and Guptan 1991), at

the same time, cautioning that use of advocated practices that are not adapted to suit the expectations of

tiie people within the organization will sooner or later cause the organization to find itself confronted

with numerous difficulties (Virmani and Guptan, 1991).

On the basis of foregomg discussions, the purpose of the present study Is to iiaderstand

iiow MNCs manage local operations in India. Specificaly:

* To observe the lands of practices they adopt

* How these practices are experienced and pereeived by tlielr Mdlan employees.

* Tlieir impact on the commitment of employees, which would, in tarii, affects

organizational effectiveness (OE).

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A Study o f Management Practices ofMNCs in India

The following model (3.1) was found to be most appropriate fo r the study.

MNC OrganizationalPractices

6 Organizational Structure Organizational

o Management— Organizational ►

Effectiveness

Style Commitment® Human

ResourcePractices

® Non-workpractices

32 Operatioiializatioii ®f Coiceptsllie parameters selected for present study are: -

3.2.1 Organizational Practices

3.2.1.1 Organizational Structure

3.2.1.2 Management Style

3.2.1.3 Human Resource Practices

3.2.1.4 Non-work Practices

3.2.2 Orgamizatlottal ConuMitment (OC)

3.2.3 Organizational effectiveness (OE)

3.2.1 OrganizationM Prssctlces

The formed means to execute work and business.

3.2.1.1 Organizational Structure

For the purpose o f the present study, organizational structure is defined as the way, in which activities

are allocated, conducted, organized and coordinated.

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Research M ethodology

The present study defines Organizational Structure as above (e.g., Bhargava and Sinha 1992; Carillo and

Kopelman 1991). Carillo and Kopelman examined the relationship between three structural variables

(size, vertical complexity and administrative intensity) and operating efficiency of 234 metropolitan

branches of a financial services company. Negative relationships were found between size and

productivity and vertical complexity and productivity. However, a curvilinear relationsliip emerged

between administrative intensity and productivity. The smallest branches were approximately 91 % more

efficient than the lai'gcst ones and those with the least vertical complexity (one hierarchical level) were

roughly 44% more productive than of those with the greatest complexity (five levels). Bhargava and

Sinha studied the organizational effectiveness in a hierarchical and hetriarchal structure. They found

significant improvement in organizational effectiveness under a hetriarchal structure.

3.2.1.2 Manasernent Style

The way managers get the work done.

Management style was found to greatly influence organizational effectiveness (OE) (Khandwalla,

1995,1988,1977; Likert 1961; Howell; Bower, Dorfman and K.ivrt et al 1990). Likert found the extent to

which the departmental leadership style was participative and human relation-oriented correlated with

departmental productivity and desire for a greater responsibility on the part of the stafi Bowers and

Seashore (1966) also found supportive results for a participative style.

Some Indian research also indicated that a participative management style is associated with staff

productivity and job satisfaction (Singh; Warrier and Das 1979; Moitra 1977). Sinha (1980, 1984, 1988)

proposing the Nurtiirant Style as the most suited style for Indian subordinates.

3.2.1.3 Human Resource (HR) Practices

HR practices include functions such as Recruitment, Training, Performance Appraisal, Compensation,

promotion and incentive plans, Welfarre activities like canteen and transport.

Human resource practices can affect discretionary effort through their influence on employee skills and

provide competencies that are needed to yield return in excess of any relevant costs.

For instance, Russell, Terborg and Powers (1985) found a significant link between the training of

employees and financial performance. Other researchers also indicated significant and positive link

between HR practices and profitability of the organization. (Huselid, 1995; Roberts, 1995).

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A Study o f Management Practices ofM NCs in India

3.2.1.4 Non-Work Practices

Interaction patterns outside wor/c-reiated areas.

Such interaction between colleagues, and the boss and subordinate e.g., during recreational activities,

festivals, social occasions like marriages etc. is the most neglected dimension in literature on areas

within Organizational Behaviour.

Its immense value lies in the fiict that it is likely to facilitate cordial relationships between employees,

and thereby have a significant impact on processes at work. This study has chosen to explore this area. It

was quite a challenge to study how employees interacted beyond ‘work related’ requirements. How

enthusiastically were recreational activities such as picnics, festival celebrations carried out?

3.2.2 O rmnizational Commitment

OC refers to the attitude and behaviour o f employees indicating their identification and commitment to

the organization.

[t will he interesting to study the impact o f transferred Organizational Practices on Commitment levels

of Indian employees ofMNCs.

Kostova (1999) proposed the success of transnational transfer of Organizational practices are mediated

by the congruence between the Social, Organizational and Relational context. Many authors have studied

and established the relationship between commitment and OE (Ostroff 1992; Jayawardane 1995). Lawler

suggests if power, information, reward, and knowledge are appropriately positioned, involvement can be

an effective source of control and organized action, which in turn leads to OE. Vandenberg and

Richardson (1999) also found organizational commitment leads to O.E.

3.2.3 Orsanizational Effectiveness (OE)

(a) For the purpose o f present study, Quinn and Rohrbaugh, 1983, Competing value framework was

referred to compare the case studies. According to this model, there are three important mechanisms by

which an organization demonstrates its values: through its organizational structure, through the objects

on which it focuses, and through the timing o f its focus. More specifically, organizations va.ry as to how

much they value control versus flexibility, internal versus external focus, and means versus ends.

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(h) The present study asks Indian executives working in MNCs to define OE.

The present study asked these executives share their perception about the effectiveness of the

organization.

As noted in recent research, the strength of subjective beliefe about events, mainly practices, exerts

considerable impact over OE, as compared to objective assessment of those practices (Cable and Judge

1996). Hence, even if variety of organizational practices are found in place, those practices will have

little effect unless the pertinent individuals manifest them in some form and put them in use in their own

ways. However it is difficult to summarize a definition or a single perspective on effectiveness.

3.3 Main Researcl Questions

Based on all o f the above areas, to understand the experiences, perceptions and commitment toward the

organization o f Indian employees o f MNCs, as well as the overall impact o f the same upon OE—the

following research questions are proposed:

e What are the praxeptions of Indians worldng in MNCs about organizational practices?

e Given the presence in Indlaa of MNCs from various regionis of the world, what is the difference between western MNC practices (in other words, the organization’s espoused way of worMng) and eastern MNCs?

e What is the difference bettveen MNC practices among the western MNCs themselves and among the eastern MNCs themselves?

® Wliat is the nature of the organizational commitment of employees worldng In MNCs In India?

« How are organizationsil effectiveness and organizatioial commitment Mnked in MNCs operating in India?

3.4 Study Approach

Keeping in view the complex nature of the problem and gaps in literature (as discussed in the previous

chapter); as well as the fact that the study focused on Vjow' and was exploratoi-y in nature, the qualitative

approach (as used in the Street Corner Society) was found to be better suited to the needs of the question

than the quantitative approach.

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As Patton (1990) notes, it is important to emphasize the emergent nature of qualitative research design,

and because the researcher seel(s to observe and interpret meanings in context, it is neither possible nor

appropriate to finalise research strategies before data collection begins. The current study, therefore,

whilst Iceeping the main objective as focus, did not ignore the issues that emerged in the data collection

phase.

Keeping the emergent nature of qualitative research in mind, the study set aside six to seven days for

observations when the data collection was started, so as to understand the interaction between hidians

and foreign expatriates. However the context was under observation for more than two months.

3.4.1 Why Qualitative Research Design; The Qualitative vs Quantitative Parscilgm

Qualitative research, broadly defined, means “any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at

by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification” (Strauss and Corbin, 1990, p. 17).

Researchers have long debated the relative value of qualitative and quantitative inquiry (Patton, 1990).

Each represents a fundamentally different inquiry paradigm, and researcher actions are based on the

underlying assumptions of each paradigm. Eisner (1991) points out that all knowledge, including that

gained through quantitative research, is referenced in qualities, and that there are many ways to represent

our understanding of the world. As discussed by Cassell and Symon (1994), qualitative research is less

likely to impose a restrictive or a priori classification on the collection of data. Thus, one o f the

cornerstones of the qualitative approach is its acceptance of the inherent subjectivity of the research

endeavour (Bryman 1988).

Since the present study focused upon gleaning the perceptions o f Indian executives in MNCs, this factor

was causative in the selection of the qualitative approach.

Other factors that weighed heavily include the fact that quantitative researchers seek causal

determination, prediction, and generalization of findings; while qualitative researchers seek illumination,

understanding, and extrapolation to similar situations. Qualitative analysis results in a different type of

knowledge than does quantitative inquiry. Thus, qualitative methods are appropriate in situations where

one needs to first identify variables that might later be tested quantitatively, or where the researcher

79

Research M ethodology

determine that quantitative measures cannot adequately describe or intetpret a situation, as was the case

witii the current study.

Research problems, in the qualitative approach, tend to be framed as open-ended questions that vî ill

support discovery of nev/ information. Cronbach (1975) claims that statistical research is not able to

take full account of the many interaction effects that take place in social settings, f ie gives examples of

several empirical “laws” that do not hold true in actual settings to illustrate this point.

hi support of this, Greene’s (1994) study of women in the trades, can be cited, which asked, “What

personal characteristics do tradeswomen have in common? In what way, if any, did role models

contribute to women’s choices to work in the trades?” The ability of qualitative data to more fully

describe a phenomenon is an important consideration not only from the researcher’s perspective, but

from the reader’s perspective as well. “If you want people to understand better than they otherwise

might, provide them information in the form in which they usually experience it,” (Lincoln and Guba,

1985).

The contribution of the qualitative approach has been in the area of theory testing, generation o f new

theory and exploring the research participants’ own experience (Henwood and Pidgeon, 1995). The

qualitative approach has also been extensively used in psychology (Batmister et al, 1994; Richardson,

1996; Smith et al, 19995a). The approach is also preferred in organizational behaviour studies (Blackler

and Brown, 1980; Cassell and Filter, 1992; Symon and Clegg, 1991).

There is a kind of continuum that moves from the fictional that is “true”— the novel for example—to the

highly controlled and quantitatively described scientific experiment. Work at either end o f this

continuum has the capacity to infomi significantly. Qualitative research and evaluation are located

toward the fictive end of the continuum without being fictional in the narrow sense of the term (Eisner,

1991, pp. 30-31).

Patton (1990) believes a “paradigm of choices” that seeks “methodological appropriateness as the

primary criterion for judging methodological quality” will allow for a “situational responsiveness” that

strict adherence to one paradigm or another will not. Several writers have identified what they consider

to be the prominent characteristics of qualitative, or naturalistic, research (see, for example: Bogdan and

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A Study o f Management Practices o f MNCs in India

Bikleii, 1982; Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Patton, 1990; Eisner, 1991). The list that follows represents a

synthesis of these authors’ descriptions of qualitative research:

e The i-esearcher attempts to observe, describe and interpret settings as they are, whilst maintaining

what Patton (1990) calls “empathie neutrality”. According to Patton, "'empathy is a stance towards

the people one encounters while neutrality is a stance towards the findings.” (In other words, to

walk in another’s shoes without letting biases get in the way of interpreting the other’s perception

of his or her experiences of his or her reality).

9 The researcher acts as the “human instrument” of data collection.

® Qualitative researchers predominantly use inductive data analysis.

e Qualitative research reports are descriptive, incorporating expressive language and the “presence

of voice in the text” (Eisner, 1991, p. 36).

® Qualitative research has an interpretive cliaracter, aimed at discovering the meaning events have

for the individuals who experience them, and the interpretations of those meanings by the

researcher.

9 Qualitative researchers pay attention to the idiosyncratic as well as the pervasive, seeking the

uniqueness of each case.

9 Qualitative research has an emergent (as opposed to predetermined) design, and researchers focus

on this.

9 Qualitative research is judged using special criteria for trustworthiness.

Patton (1990) points out that these are not “absolute characteristics of qualitative inquiry, but rather

strategic ideals that provide a direction and a framework fbr developing specific designs and concrete

data collection tactics”. These characteristics are considered to be “interconnected” (Patton, 1990) and

“mutually reinforcing” (Lincoln and Guba, 1985).

In the light of the above potential of qualitative research it is pertinent to note that:

® Most research studies on MNCs, carried out so far in hidia have been based on the quantitative

or predominantly questionnaire-based approach. Major drawbacks associated with

questionnaires are that:

® Responses may be socially desirable.

e They end up establishing what the variables (dots) are and causal linkages (draw lines) between

them.

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The qualitative approacli, on the other hand, allows the researcher to focus on the precise meaning of the

pliciiomena as understood by the persons in their normal social context (Cassell and Syraon, 1994).

Since the present study is largely conceriei with uiderstanding tlie processes UHderlyliag the

interplay of parameters in their natural social contexts_the qualitative approach suited researcli

needs best.

3.4.2 Strategy: T ie Case-study Approach

Patton (1990) emphasizes that the particular design of a qualitative study depends on the purpose of the

inquiry, what information will be most useful, and what information would have the most credibility, hi

other words, puiposive sampling is the dominant strategy in qualitative research. It seeks information-

rich cases, which can be studied in-depth. Case study research was found to be the most useful in this

regard, since it allows the detailed investigation of one or more organizations with a view to providing an

analysis of the context and processes involved in the phenomenon under study.

Ei'landson et al (1993) found the case study better suited for emic inquiry (a reconstruction o f the

respondents constructions). It allows for demonstration of the interplay between inquirer and

respondents, provides the reader an opportunity to probe for internal consistency (factualness and

trustworthiness). Lincoln and Guba, (19

' Study o f Management. Practices ofM NCs in India

Case studies have been widely used while studying organizational behaviour, especially in understanding

organizational innovation and change, as shaped by both internal forces and external environment (for

example, Biggart 1977; Burns and Stalker 1968; Pettigrew and Whipp 1991; Pettigi'ew et al 1992). Cases

have been useful in understanding formal and informal processes in organizations. Much research has

also been conducted on technological change (for example, Bladder and Brown, 1980; Cassell and

Filter, 1992; Symon and Clegg, 1991). Many researchers have taken more than one organization to study

the phenomenon (Lawrence and Lorsch 1967, Pettigrew and Whipp 1991).

T ie ciin*ent study also adopted the multiple case study approach.

Evidence from multiple cases is more compelling, and the overall study becomes more robust. Single

case study is descriptive information alone and would have to be revelatory (Yin 1984). However,

multiple cases must be considered as multiple experiments i.e., replication logic. An example of a

multiple case study is Lawrence and Lorsch’s (1967) study often organizations within the same industry.

The existing study also chose a holistic multiple case design over an emljedded one.

Holistic multiple case studies cover the phenomenon being explored as well as its context, on yielding a

large number of potentially relevant variables. In other words, this approach allows the investigator to

retain the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real-life events such as organizational processes, the

maturation of industry among other things. On the other hand, an embedded multiple case design calls

for conducting the survey at each case study site. The data is quantitative in natiu'e, still to be used only

for interpretation purposes. Whereas, the holistic multiple case design relies on observations and

interviews for the collection of data.

India has several MNCs, including those from Korea and Japan along with American and European

MNCs. While cultural differences between European, American versus Indian organizations are

expected, the general feeling may be that Asian cultures have many similar ways of doing things or

approaching a problem. However, it has been found that even these cultures are quite dissimilar.

83


To get ffl fair representation of this corporate global diversity in India, one Korean, one JapaHese,

one Svredish and one Anglo-AmericaB BINC were chosen and treated as individual cases. The

Bsmes «f the organizatioiK have been clianged.

The following simple criteria were applied tbr the selection MNCs for the present study;

® Financially successixil.

® Have a positive brand image.

e Each must represent a diverse socio-economic national reality.

3.43 Data Collection StrategyFrom the vantage point of interpretation, organization studies would involve the study of those symbolic

processes through which the subjective experiences o f an organization are created; through the

application of the two methods of participative observations and ethnographic interviewing. These take

the researchers close to the experiences of those whonr they study (Gephart 1993, Prasad 1993).

While the qualitative research approach has no strict criteria for sample size, a qualitative research

proposal must specify:

® The primary question or questions to be explored; and,

® Plans for data collection strategies.

3.4.3.1 Purposive Samplins

The data collection strategy employed in this study used purposive sampling. Interviews were conducted

with employees at each level and in each department—including workers, supervisors, managers and

senior level managers. Since the study focused on MNCs, multiple sites were chosen to gain variety and

depth and employees were interviewed at the head office, at sales offices, at the factoiy or plant and the

research office, wherever such an office was available.

3.4.3.2 Oiiasi-ethnosraphic Approach

The classic form of data collection in naturalistic or field research is observation of participants in the

context of a natural scene. Observational data are used for the purpose of description—of settings,

activities, people, and to describe the meaning of what is observed from the perspective of the

participants. A skilled observer is one who is trained in the process of monitoring both verbal and

nonverbal cues, and in the use of concrete, unambiguous, descriptive language. Qualitative research

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I'eports, typically rich with detail and insights into the participants’ experience of their world, “may be

episteniologically in harmony with the I’eader’s experience" (Stake, 1978, p. 5) and thus more

meaningful.

The present study adopted a qMasi-ethnograptiic approach to eoHect data.

'fhis approach is used more in sociological and anthropological studies (Whyte's Street Comer Society)

rather than in management studies. However, in this case the following limitations of participative

observation directed the above choice:

® It is difficult to gain entry into organizations to work as a participative observer since it is likely

to cause interference in organizational functioning. ^

e Tlie i-esearcher plays a role in which he/she becomes associated with that particular position in

that particular system. Thus, employees in that organization would relate to the observer in that

role, which in turn affects data accessibility.

Advantases

The obsei-vation method is less obtrusive when compared to participative observation and, therefore,

researchers are less likely to influence data collection. Secondly, this can lead to a greater level of

detailing during data collection. This makes them more sensitive to variations (Symon and Cassell 1998).

Observation can lead to deeper understanding than interviews alone, because it provides knowledge of

the context in which events occur, and may enable the researcher to see things that participants

themselves are not aware of, or are unwilling to discuss (Patton, 1990).

Disadvantaees

However, in non-participative observation the researcher may not be allowed in certain situations like

critical processes of the organization. The other disadvantage of this method is that it is more time

consuming than an experiment or a survey method. In the present study, therefore, data was collected

with the help of non-participative observations and interviews. The present study is, thus, quasi-

ethnographic.

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3.4.3.3 Time-frame

In order to undertake an in-depth study, approximately two months was spent in each organization to

observe employees in organizational settings and collect first hand data. As mentioned earlier, the time to

stop collecting data, in the case of a retrospective study, is when all participants have been identified

thi'ough purposive sampling and when similar trends emerge in interactions with various employees or

when no further usellil information is emerging, i.e., the saturation point has been achieved. (Glaser and

Strauss, 1967).

3.4.3.4 Nature o f Interviews

As mentioned earlier, interviews were conducted across all levels and functions. Unstructured

interviews were conducted around the theme of the study. The core purpose was to explore employee

understanding of organizational practices and garner 'lived-experiences' of Indian executives of

MNCs operating in India. Certain questions were asked from every respondent to understand

perceptions about the organization and to build rapport. Most of the questions asked were meant to

explore the nature of the relationship between Indian bosses and expatriates, the stiiicture of the

organization, target orientation, decision making, formalization, and interdepartmental coordination

— termed as Boundarylessness. Perceptions about the role of HR practices were noted during

interviews. Employees were asked to share their experiences in relation to non-work practices such as

morning exercises, clean your desk, birthday celebration, calling other by the first name etc.

1. Compare your present job with previous jobs (or in case an employee was a fresher he/she was

asked to compare it with the jobs their friends had in other organizations). This question helped

to explore employee perception about the organization.

2. Share your experiences in relation to the merger (this question was asked to employees

working in western MNCs, who had seen the merger happening).

3. How do you feel about working in an open office environment?

4. What is the status of interdepartmental coordination?

5. How long does it take to implement a decision?

6. What happens when you make a mistake?

7. What happens when you have a problem and approach the boss? How does the boss react?

8. How do you perceive the role of the Department of Human Resources in your company?

9. Your perceptions about non-work practices such as calling others by their first name; birthday

celebrations; morning exercises etc....

86

A Study o f Management Practices o f MNCs in India

ii . How does your family feel about your association with this organization?

11. Would you lecommend tiiis coiiipany to your friends as a place to work?

12. What are the strengths of tiie oi'ganization?

13. What changes would you like to sec in your company?

14. Executives were also asked to define organizational effectiveness in the context of MNCs in

general, and share their perception of the effectiveness of their organization in particular. It is

similar to when Gumming (2001) asked research interviewees what they understood the term

“stakeholder dialogue” to mean. From their collective response several components were

identified.

3.4.3.5 Decision to Stop Samplinf^

The decision to stop sampling must take the following factors into account (Guba 1978):

e Research goals.

® Need to achieve depth through triangulation of data sources,

e Possibility of greater breadth through examination of a variety of sampling sites.

® Exhaustion o f resources.

® Emergence of regularities,

e Overextension, or going too far beyond the boundaries of the research.

In the current study, the decision to stop sampling was based on the concept of theoretical saturation-

i.e,, once similar trends start coming through, data collection stops (Glaser and Strauss, 1967), In fact,

among the best-known cases in this regard is Tayeb’s (1998) case study to understand the transfer of

HRM practices of the Scottish subsidiary of an American MNC, using a sample of 13 employees. The

author conducted semi-structured interviews across the main research question, which lasted between 45

minutes and one-and-a-half hours.

Sample Profile: overall data was collected from all the levels in the four cases. The sample distribution is

given in the following table (3.1).

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Table: 3.1: Sample Profile in four MNCs

Levels Angltt-Amerlcan

MI^C

Sweden MNC Korean MNC Ittdo-Japanese

MNC

Senior 9 18 7 13

Middle 32 13 5 14

Lower 41 28 9 17

Workers 9 5 8 14*

Total 92 64 29 58

With regard to this study a l of the above criteria were met before tfceoretical saturation was

achlevedj and it was felt that once the research purpose hat! been met through the d ea r

emergence of trends and the other criteria also satisfied it couM be dearly decided that

theoreticisl satnration had been achieved.

3.5 Data Analysis

Data was qualitatively analysed with template analysis being carried out on collected data. This is a

widely used approach in qualitative research, although it is often referred as codebook analysis or

thematic coding. When researchers look for the themes in the text they follow template analysis. King

(1994) uses the term template analysis fol [owing Crabtree and Miller (1992).

The essence of the approach is that the researcher produces a list of codes (a template) representing

themes identified in their textual data. Some of these are usually identified a priori, but are modified and

added to as the researcher reads and interprets the texts. A code is a label attached to a section of the text

to index it as relating to the themes or issues or dimensions in the data, which the researcher has

identified as important to his/her interpretation. For convenience, codes are organised hierarchically

(Flierarchical Coding), with groups of similar codes clustered together to produce more general higher-

order codes.

Advmtmes

The template approach can, thus, be seen as occupying a position between content analysis (Weber

1985), where codes are all predetermined and their distribution is analysed statistically, and grounded


theory (Glasei' and Strauss, 1967), where there are no a priori codes. Within this middle ground, there is

scope for wide variation in analytical technique Ixoni those which are veiy close to content analysis, with

codes tightly defined and largely predetermined, allowing statistical as well as qualitative analysis of the

same data to those which start with only a few defined codes and which use the template in a highly

Hexible way to produce an interpretation of tlie texts.

It is more flexible with fewer specified procedures, permitting researchers to tailor it to match their own

requirements, as compared to the grounded theory appi'oach. Moreover, it is also a useful approach for

those who take a phenomenological and experiential approach to organizational research.

In the preseat study the dimensions taken In the model were referred to as tkepriori identified

codes. However, as the analysis proceeded mew themes were also identified.

Disadvantases

The lack of substantial literature on this technique compared with that on groimded theory or other

qualitative techniques is a drawback. Template analysis is also considered by some as being too simple

to allow any depth of interpretation or too complex to be manageable,

3.6 Reiabffity and Validity of Research

Unless the study undergoes quality checks, research is insignificant, becomes fiction, and loses its utility.

As Eisner (1991) observes, “Qualitative studies typically employ multiple forms of evidence...[and]

there is no statistical test of significance to determine if results ‘count’.” Judgments about usefulness and

credibility are, therefore, left to the researcher and thereafter, the reader.

Hence, a great deal of attention needs to be given to reliability and validity in all research methods.

Rather than explicating how rigour was attained in qualitative inquiry, a number of leading qualitative

researchers have argued that reliability and validity were terms pertaining to the quantitative paradigm

and were not pertinent to qualitative inquiiy (Altheide and Johnson, 1998; Leininger, 1994). Others have

suggested adopting new criteria for determining reliability and validity, and hence ensuring quality

check, in qualitative inquiry (Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Leininger, 1994; Rubin and Rubin, 1995).

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In quantitative researcli, a valid instrument is one which actually measures what it claims/intends to

measure. Likewise, in qualitative research, a study is valid if it truly examines the topic, which it claims

to have examined. Tlie difference lies in the notion of validity. In quantitative research the nerve center is

a method for eg., the validity of rating scale. In qualitative research, the concern is for the validity of

interpretation: whether a researcher’s conclusion that J i s the main theme to emerge from an interview is

valid.

Eisner (1991) believes that the following features of qualitative research should be considered by

reviewers:

® Coherence: Does the story make sense? How have the conclusions been supported? To what

e.xtent have nudtiple data sources been used to give credence to the interpretation that has been

made? (p. S3).

® Consensus; The condition in which the readers of a work concur that the findings and/or

interpretations reported by the investigator are consistent with their own experience or with the

evidence presented (p. 56).

e Instrumental utiUty: The most important test of any qualitative study is its usefulness, A good

qualitative study can help gain understanding about a situation that would otherwise be enigmatic

or confusing (p. 58). A good study can help anticipate the future, not in the predictive sense of the

word, but as a kind of road map or guide. "Guides call our attention to aspects of the situation or

place we might otherwise miss" (p. 59).

® Addressing trustworthiness in qualitative research: The basic question addressed by the notion of

trustworthiness, according to Lincoln and Guba, was simple: “How can an inquirer persuade his or

her audiences that the research findings of an inquiry are worth paying attention to?” (1985, p.

290). When judging qualitative work, Strauss and Corbin (1990) believed that the “usual canons

o f ‘good science’...require redefinition in order to :fit the realities of qualitative research" (p. 250).

Lincoln and Guba (1985, p. 300) identified an alternative set of criteria that correspond to those

typically employed to judge quantitative work.

e Credibility: The naturalistic researcher assumes the presence of multiple realities and attempts to

represent these multiple realities adequately. Credibility becomes the test for this. Credibility

depends less on sample size than on the richness of the information gathered and on the analytical

abilities of the researcher (Patton, 1990).

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® Transferability: In the naturalistic paradigm, the transferability of a working hypothesis to other

situations depends on the degree of similarity between the original situation and the situation to

which it is transferred. The researcher cannot specify the transferability of findings; he or she can

only provide sufficient information that can tlien be used by tlie reader to determine whether the

findings are applicable to the new situation (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). Eisner says it is a form of

"retrospective generalization" that can allow us to understand our past (and future) experiences in

a new way ( i 991, p. 205).

® Dependability: According to Lincoln and Guba (1985): "Since there can be no validity without

reliability (and thus no credibility without dependability), a demonstration of the former is

sufficient to establish the latter". Nevertheless, Lincoln and Guba do propose one measure which

might enhance the dependability of qualitative research, That is the use of an "inquiry audit," in

which reviewers examine both the process and the product of the research for consistency (1985).

® Conformability: the degree to which the researcher can demonstrate the neutrality of the research

interpretations, through a “conformability audit.” This means providing an audit trail consisting of

1) raw data; 2) analysis notes; 3) reconstruction and synthesis products; 4) process notes; 5)

personal notes; and 6) preliminary developmental information.

Reliability and validity was achieved as follows in the current study:

® Coherence (Eisner, 1991) and credibility (Lincoln and Guba, 1985): conclusion is supported using

multiple data.

The present study was exploratory in nature. The present study was more concerned about

understanding the processes underlying inteiplay of parameters in their natural social contexts. In

order to undertake an in-depth study, a substantial time, of approximately two months, was spent in

an organization to observe employees in their organizational settings and collect first hand data. A

major focus was on sensing the lived-experience of a social setting.

® Dependability (Lincoln and Cuba, 1985): dependability of the research was achieved both by the

process and product of the research for consistency. A similar process was followed in each case

and the questions asked to employees in all the MNCs were the same, in order to achieve

dependability.

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The researcher was attaclieci to a coordinator from the HR section in all MNCs. In order to get the feel

of the place and make non-participative observations, the coordinator was asked to make an

arrangement for her to sit quietly at a place in the office complex from where she could observe

employees executing their official roles and their interaction with other employees. However, the

process was twisted considering organizational concerns. The Anglo-American MNC (Sl-Iiidia) was

not pleased with this request, as it has a policy of not permitting visitors at workstations. As a result,

the researcher then formulated a strategy of hanging around workstations; visiting workstations on

any conceivable excuse; and prolonging her stay at the workstations as long as she could.

71ie researcher, built a rapport with employees over coffee and lunch (in all four cases). This helped

to break the ice. As time passed, a few employees approached her on their own and volunteered to

share their perceptions.

.lust as at Sl-hidia, the Korean MNC (PC-India) also objected to the researcher’s presence. After two

or three days one of the expatriates asked his Indian subordinate to find out purpose of the

researcher’s presence in PC-India. An Indian executive asked her, “May I help you? Were you

waiting for somebody?” The researcher replied that she was seated there with the HR section’s

consent. She discussed this episode with the HR coordinator. He immediately changed her location

and said, “If the expatriate speaks to the VP-HR then he might stop the project. So please bear with

it.” The observer requested for permission to interview expatriates, besides the Indian employees but

was given to understand that the Koreans had decided they would not interact with any stranger. The

VP-HR refused to grant permission to for the researcher to intei'view any VP saying that they were all

very busy. After a couple of days, the coordinator pointed out that many people had begun to question

her presence since they were now conscious of being observed, he hence suggested that the researcher

start interviews.

On the other hand the Japanese MNC (BW-India) and Swedish MNC (AL-India) allowed her to sit at

workstations, However, both organizations eventually objected to her inactive, silent presence. The

researcher, therefore, requested the HR-department at each to allow her to take one or two interviews

in a day, so that she could make observations and get a feel of the place, as well as build up rapport

with the employees.

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Tlie researchei' was allowed to travel by company bus while conducting research at the Korean and

Japanese MNCs. It was not possible at the Swedish and Anglo-American MNCs because there was no

extra space in those buses.

Around two months time was spent in all the MNCs, Employees at all levels and from all departments

were interviewed in the office complex. Most interviews were held in the conference/visitor’s room.

Unstructured interviews (list of questions are given in data collection strategy) were conducted with

employees around the main purpose of the study. Most of the questions asked were meant to explore

the nature of the relationship between Indian bosses and expatriates, the structure of the organization,

target orientation, decision making, formalization, and interdepartmental coordination — termed as

Boundarylessness. Perceptions about the role of HR practices were noted during interviews.

Employees were asked to share their experiences in relation to non-work practices such as morning

exercises, clean your desk, birthday celebration, calling other by the first name etc.

® Confornialjility: This was achieved by providing detailed cases. The data on each MNC is shared at

length with various incidents and observations in the next section on data sharing. This has helped to

demonstrate the neutrality of the research interpretations.

9 Transferability (Lincoln and Guba, 1985); Each case provides sufficient information that can be

used to determine the applicability of the findings to the new situation, i,e to other MNCs of similar

nationalities.

All interpretations are subjective (in qualitative research), so the issue here lies in tracing the ways by

which researcher has arrived at this particular interpretation. In other words, the researcher did not

“invent” interpretations, but are the product of conscious analysis. This involved a constant justification

of the interpretation and a relentless intemal evaluation of the researcher’s motives for interpreting in a

particular way. Literature reviews were utilized for data interpretation while comparing the cases. Data

interpretation is therefore rarely the product of a flash of inspiration.

Thus observations, critical incidents, informal interactions in company buses, over coffee and lunch, as

well as interviews were undertaken for 'understanding the social context’ o f the Indian employees o f

MNCs in India. Eisner (1991), and Lincoln and Cuba’s (1985) coherence, credibility, dependability and

transferability was achieved as discussed in the foregoing section.

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Taking a lead from tlie above discussioji, local fmictioniiig in IVINCs would be understood from the

various standpoints highlighted above. Further tlieir impact would be seen on the cornrnitment level o f

the Indian employee and upon the overall effectiveness of the organization.

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chapter 3 eesearcli methodology -...

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