chapter 4
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Becoming and Effective Policy Advocate by Bruce JanssonTRANSCRIPT
©2011, Cengage Learning, Brooks/ Col©2011, Cengage Learning, Brooks/ Cole Publishinge Publishing
Becoming an Effective Becoming an Effective Policy AdvocatePolicy Advocate
Bruce Jansson, University of Southern CaliforniaBruce Jansson, University of Southern California
PowerPoint created byPowerPoint created by
Gretchen Heidemann, MSW, PhD CandidateGretchen Heidemann, MSW, PhD Candidate
University of Southern CaliforniaUniversity of Southern California
School of Social WorkSchool of Social Work
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Chapter 4Chapter 4Understanding the Ecology of Policy Understanding the Ecology of Policy
in Governmental, Electoral, in Governmental, Electoral, Community, and Agency SettingsCommunity, and Agency Settings
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Understanding the Ecology of Understanding the Ecology of PolicyPolicy
This chapter provides a road map to legislatures, communities, agencies, and electoral politics in the United States
It orients us to the landscape so that we can better find our direction once we have started
It is germane to Task 2 of the policy framework presented in Chapter 3
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Understanding the Ecology of Understanding the Ecology of PolicyPolicy
To be effective, policy advocates must understand: – how decisions are made in each of these four
arenas– how broader forces influence decision making– what rules or procedures are commonly used – who the key players are– what are the mindsets of key officials
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The Players in Legislative and The Players in Legislative and Governmental SettingsGovernmental Settings
Who are the key players and what motivates them– Elected officials (politicians)– Bureaucrats (unelected officials)– Lobbyists, and the interest groups with which
they are affiliated
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The Players in Legislative and The Players in Legislative and Governmental SettingsGovernmental Settings
Three Kinds of Three Kinds of Elected OfficialsElected Officials::1. Heads of Government
– Ex: mayors, governors, and the U.S. president
2. Legislators– Ex: city councilpersons, members of county
boards of supervisors, state legislators, and federal legislators
3. Officials elected to specialized public entities – Ex: school boards
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Heads of GovernmentHeads of Government
The head of government (chief executive) is the elected official charged with developing an administrationWe name an administration after its leader, as in the Obama AdministrationThey are often the titular heads of their political party in their specific jurisdictionsUsually have some guiding principles that shape their approach to the central issues they confront (i.e. ideology)
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The Powers of Heads of Government
They are in charge of the executive branch, comprised of agencies that implement policies
They initiate a budget, even though the legislators make many of the final budgetary choices
They develop a legislative agenda and have vast resources to help them fashion their agenda
They often use their central position as a bully pulpit
They can issue executive orders
They can can veto legislation that the legislature has approved, and often have line-item vetoes
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The Powers of LegislatorsThe Powers of Legislators
They They develop, approve, and reject legislation – both in response to legislation proposed by heads of
government and to introduce their own
They determine the amount of the funds to be used for programs in a specific year
They decide the total of the appropriations for these same programs in a specific year
They often have administrative oversight over governmental programs
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The Structure of LegislaturesThe Structure of Legislatures
Usually divided into two houses– Ex: House of Representatives and the Senate at
the federal level
– Ex: Senate and the Assembly at the state level
Usually, both houses must assent to legislation or a budget before it can become operative
Many legislatures convene annually, but some state legislatures convene only every two years
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The Structure of LegislaturesThe Structure of Legislatures
The length of legislatures’ sessions varies widely– Congress meets almost nonstop each year, but some
state legislatures convene only for several months
The members of each house or chamber of a legislature are elected by districts– Districts are reapportioned as the population shifts
and as the courts decide that existing district lines are unfair to specific groups
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The Structure of LegislaturesThe Structure of Legislatures
The majority party appoints the chairs of all committees and has a majority of the members on each committee of that chamberThe majority party in each house elects the presiding officer of that chamber (i.e. President of the U.S. Senate, Speaker of the House)– They decide when specific measures will be debated
on the floor– They have the authority to establish committees,
assign members, and appoint chairs– They have the power to decide where to route specific
bills for deliberation
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The Structure of LegislaturesThe Structure of Legislatures
A 2nd tier of powerful leaders: The floor Leaders– They include the majority leader and the
majority whip – They are also elected by caucuses – Shepherd legislation through floor
deliberations – Decide which measures their party will
support or oppose
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The Structure of LegislaturesThe Structure of Legislatures
A 3rd tier of powerful leaders: the Committee Chairs – They are members of the majority party – They have considerable power over the fate
of legislation in their committees
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The Structure of LegislaturesThe Structure of Legislatures
The minority party often has considerable power in a specific chamber– It has its own leader who can mobilize support
of or opposition to pieces of legislation– The minority party is allocated seats on all
committees of a chamber in proportion to its share of the chamber’s total membership
– Its members sometimes obtain a majority vote on a committee by teaming with committee members of the majority party
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The Structure of LegislaturesThe Structure of Legislatures
Legislatures are divided into specialized committees– Ex: the Ways and Means Committee processes
Social Security, Medicare, and tax legislation
Many pieces of legislation go to multiple committees when they pose issues that cut across committee divisions
Chairpersons may either be elected by the committee’s members or appointed by the chamber’s presiding officer
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The Legislative ProcessThe Legislative Process
A bill starts in one chamber, progresses from committees to a floor debate and then a vote. It is then referred to the other chamber, where it follows a similar course. After the 2nd chamber enacts its own version, representatives seek a common version. If the conference committee creates a joint version, each chamber must ratify it. It then goes to the president (or governor), who signs it into law or vetoes it. – Congress can override a veto if each chamber musters a two-
thirds vote. – Otherwise, the legislation dies.
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Unelected OfficialsUnelected Officials
Bureaucrats are Bureaucrats are unelected public officials who work in government agencies in city, county, state, and federal jurisdictions
They are either political appointees or civil servants
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Unelected OfficialsUnelected Officials
Political appointees – High-level persons appointed to top jobs by
heads of government– They serve at the pleasure of the heads of
government– They become spokespersons and
representatives of their mentor– They are likely to have the same ideology as
their mentor
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Unelected OfficialsUnelected Officials
Civil ServantsCivil Servants– Obtain their jobs through competitive exams,
often working their way up the hierarchy– Are the engines of government bureaucracies
administer programs
draft regulations
collect data
disburse funds to programs
– Often have close ties with legislators
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Lobbyists and Interest GroupsLobbyists and Interest Groups
LobbyistsLobbyists– Professional advocates who represent
interest groups or causes– They voice their perspectives to legislators
and to officials in the executive branch of governments
– Powerful lobbyists represent interest groups with considerable money and clout
– Shoestring lobbyists represent groups with relatively little money and clout
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Lobbyists and Interest GroupsLobbyists and Interest Groups
Lobbyists’ character shapes their effectiveness– They need reputations as straight shooters– They must be persistent and not let defeats deter them
Their power hinges on the groups they representThe can gain power by offering:– Carrots (rewards and incentives)
Campaign contributionsVolunteersTechnical assistance on issues
– Sticks (implied or actual threats)Withdrawal of carrotsEndorsement of opponents
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Lobbyists and Interest GroupsLobbyists and Interest Groups
Interest groups with scant resources can augment their power by building a reputation for the quality of the technical information they give legislators– Ex: Children’s Defense Fund and the Center
for Budget and Policy Priorities
The develop credibility for their research and their principled positions
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Connections Among Connections Among Lobbyists, Legislators, and Lobbyists, Legislators, and
BureaucratsBureaucratsSo-called iron triangles sometimes link civil servants, legislators, and lobbyists (or interest groups) when the legislature considers specific issuesThey may share similar points of view and past patterns of collaborationThey cooperate and bargain to develop a mutually acceptable policy, and may pool their resources to seek its enactment
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Public OpinionPublic Opinion
Public opinion is part of an environment of Public opinion is part of an environment of uncertaintyuncertainty
It It can end a politician’s career and bring down an administration
It is difficult to measure; even accurate polls cannot predict future changes in public opinion
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Advocacy GroupsAdvocacy Groups
Advocacy Groups place pressure on decision makers in city councils, boards of supervisors, and state and federal legislators.
Examples include: – community groups– coalitions– think tanks– public interest groups– groups of consumers– professional groups like NASW
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The Electoral ProcessThe Electoral Process
The electoral process is the institutionalized guts of any democracy
It provides a nonviolent way of solving the problem of succession to office
It is competitive because it is a win-lose conflict where only one candidate can win
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The Electoral ProcessThe Electoral Process
The precise format of elections are described in legal statutes and regulations that prescribe: – how candidates get on ballots– how votes are counted– how runoffs are held– how campaigns can be financed– how long the terms of office are
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The Electoral ProcessThe Electoral Process
Getting elected to public office generally Getting elected to public office generally involves:involves:
1.1. Early maneuveringEarly maneuvering
2.2. Running a campaignRunning a campaign
3.3. Implementing a public service careerImplementing a public service career
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The Environment of Public The Environment of Public Servants: Elected OfficialsServants: Elected Officials
For various reasons, you might have reelection on For various reasons, you might have reelection on your mind throughout your tenureyour mind throughout your tenureYou will look at most issues with an eye to their You will look at most issues with an eye to their effect on your reelectioneffect on your reelectionYou will spend hours wondering about the general You will spend hours wondering about the general public’s preferencespublic’s preferencesYou will nervously eye the statements and positions You will nervously eye the statements and positions of potential opponents in the next electionof potential opponents in the next electionNonstop campaigning will make you sensitive to the Nonstop campaigning will make you sensitive to the political ramifications of certain choicespolitical ramifications of certain choices
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The Environment of Public The Environment of Public Servants : Elected OfficialsServants : Elected Officials
In addition, yIn addition, you are a member of several major committees and subcommittees
You must read technical reports and briefing papers
You make weekly trips back to your district to meet with constituents
You try to raise funds for your reelection bid
Your party pressures you to go along with policies and procedures you dislike
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Shortcuts: Aides, Lobbyists, and Shortcuts: Aides, Lobbyists, and PrioritiesPriorities
Aides manage the bulk of your interactions with constituents, lobbyists, and othersYou hire specialists to deal with legislative matters, handle constituent demands, and for fund-raising and public relationsYou develop priorities by taking some pieces of legislation seriously, and only giving glancing attention to othersYou decide to expend your political capital on issues that will bring you large political dividends when you come up for reelection
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The Calculus of ChoiceThe Calculus of Choice
Eight factors that shape legislator’s choices:Eight factors that shape legislator’s choices:1. Electoral considerations
2. Existing and potential opponents
3. Personal values and life experiences
4. Wanting to obtain credit for initiating a measure
5. Hoping to become a personal expert
6. Attending to the public interest
7. Political feasibility
8. Habit or tradition
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The Mindset of Nonelected The Mindset of Nonelected Officials: Public AppointeesOfficials: Public Appointees
Appointees will not usually support, at least openly, legislation that their mentors would not approveThey often make choices in a relatively ambiguous context– They might provide technical assistance on a
measure, attempt to influence it to avoid veto, or engage in defiance and support a measure not supported by their mentor
They are likely to be interested in the facets of a measure that they will be called on to implement
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The Mindset of Nonelected The Mindset of Nonelected Officials: Civil ServantsOfficials: Civil Servants
View themselves as professionals with specific expertise, and are not under the same compulsion to act politicalYet they also work in a political environment– They must be sensitive to the desires of the high-level
political appointees they work under
They can provide indispensable technical information, such as reports, studies, and data germane to writing a proposalTheir cooperativeness is often related to their personal disposition, their values, and their perceptions of the advocate
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Advocating for ResourcesAdvocating for Resources
When seeking legislation that establishes new programs or regulations, advocates should remember:– Such legislation is enacted by authorizing committees
that write and enact legislation– Appropriations committees decide what resources to
allocate to specific programs and departments– Resources for social policies hinge upon the kind and
level of tax revenues that governments collect
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The Law and Social PolicyThe Law and Social Policy
The courts assume a major role in social policy
They issuing many rulings that directly impact social policies
Policy advocates can use legal strategy to obtain specific objectives
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The Political Economy of Social The Political Economy of Social AgenciesAgencies
Policy advocates must be familiar with Policy advocates must be familiar with organizational processes to understand organizational processes to understand how social agencies workhow social agencies work
Reality #1: Agencies require ongoing, regular resources to meet their payrolls and other overhead costs
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The Political Economy of Social The Political Economy of Social AgenciesAgencies
When resources dry up, agencies have When resources dry up, agencies have several options:several options:– go out of existence– downsize– merge with other agencies– renegotiate their relations with the external
world by changing their mission, their fund-raising strategies, or their marketing strategies
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The Political Economy of Social The Political Economy of Social AgenciesAgencies
Social agencies were subjected to a particularly harsh set of realities in the 1980s and 1990s
Large numbers of social agencies have to compete for the scarce resources of foundations, corporations, and private donors
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The Political Economy of Social The Political Economy of Social AgenciesAgencies
Reality #2: Social agencies receive clients Reality #2: Social agencies receive clients from many different sourcesfrom many different sources– Directly through word of mouth, advertising,
and outreach programs– Through referrals from other agencies, courts,
probation departments, etc.– Interorganization exchanges
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The Political Economy of Social The Political Economy of Social AgenciesAgencies
Reality #3: Reality #3: Demographic, cultural, social, and technological factors affect agencies– shifts in population– changes in public opinion– new perceptions of social problems
These changes influence the extent to which people use agency services, the social problems they have, and the agencies they believe are relevant to their problems
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The Political Economy of Social The Political Economy of Social AgenciesAgencies
Reality #4: Legislation imposes procedural Reality #4: Legislation imposes procedural requirements on social agenciesrequirements on social agencies– Americans with Disabilities Act– Mandatory reporting laws– Restrictions on the use of restraints– Informed consent to treatment– Anti-discrimination laws– Accrediting regulations
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The Political Economy of Social The Political Economy of Social AgenciesAgencies
Reality #5: Social agencies face pressure Reality #5: Social agencies face pressure from many sourcesfrom many sources– Community groups, organized groups of
clients, or individual clients often request or demand policy changes
– The mass media can portray “horror stories” about services that clients have or have not received
– Competition from the broader community
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The Political Economy of Social The Political Economy of Social AgenciesAgencies
Reality #6: Social agencies must develop Reality #6: Social agencies must develop strategies to negotiate and manage relations strategies to negotiate and manage relations with their political and economic environmentswith their political and economic environments – Build relationships with existing and potential funders– Develop services that appeal to sufficient numbers of
clients to provide revenues– Satisfy external funders that their services meet
specific evaluative criteria– Develop public relations campaigns to attract funders
and clients to the agency– Modify their services as competitors encroach on their
traditional sources of clients
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The Political Economy of Social The Political Economy of Social AgenciesAgencies
Reality #7: Social agencies must attend to Reality #7: Social agencies must attend to their internal operationstheir internal operations– build and maintain a staff– design programs– mediate internal disputes and conflicts– develop decision-making processes– produce budgets– attend to logistical tasks– maintain their facilities
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The Political Economy of Programs and Social Work UnitsMany social workers work in large Many social workers work in large organizations dominated by other organizations dominated by other professions, or in specialized units within a professions, or in specialized units within a broader social service organizationbroader social service organization
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The Political Economy of Programs and Social Work UnitsReality #1: Programs and units depend on Reality #1: Programs and units depend on their host organizations for resources and their host organizations for resources and for permission to perform specific roles or for permission to perform specific roles or functionsfunctions– The political and economic factors that
impinge on the host organization influence the subsidiary programs’ ability to command resources and mandates from that host organization
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The Political Economy of Programs and Social Work UnitsReality #2: Reality #2: Some program units within larger agencies derive funds from both the host organization and special external funders– The directors and staff need to be attentive to
both sets of funders to ensure the program’s survival
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Mapping Agencies’ PoliciesMapping Agencies’ Policies
Agencies must have policies (rules, regulations, Agencies must have policies (rules, regulations, protocols, priorities) in order to:protocols, priorities) in order to:– Describe the agency’s mission and activities to
outsiders– Communicate to clients which services they can
obtain and for how long– Let clients know their rights, and what protections or
safeguards are in place– Govern the relationships among staff members – Establish clear priorities, which are reflected in the
agency budget
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Mapping Agencies’ PoliciesMapping Agencies’ Policies
Internalized policies establish specific rules, such as: – intake procedures– staffing requirements – content of services– reporting mechanisms– general statements about the program’s purposes
An agency that has a number of externally funded programs will also have multiple sets of externally established policiesCourt rulings can also shape agency policies
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Mapping Agencies’ PoliciesMapping Agencies’ Policies
Mission statements establish the agency’s general philosophy
Agencies also set certain objectives, goals, or priorities
Annual budgets serve as policy statements; they shape priorities by distributing resources to various programs
Many other policies are fashioned through informal systems and networks (i.e. informal policies)
Each agency employee has a set of personal approaches to his or her work (i.e. personal policy preferences)
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The Players in Organizational The Players in Organizational SettingsSettings
Most organizations have a Most organizations have a hierarchyhierarchy::– The chain of command that gives high-level
executives such powers as creating policies, hiring staff, and making budgets
– The division of labor, or specialization, divides staff into units that focus on specific tasks
– This is sometimes associated with control, rigidity, and fragmentation
– But hierarchies also serve positive purposes
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The Players in Organizational The Players in Organizational SettingsSettings
Hierarchy and the distribution of power in an Hierarchy and the distribution of power in an organization is often depicted in an organization is often depicted in an organizational chartorganizational chart
However, it may overstate or understate the However, it may overstate or understate the power of specific individualspower of specific individuals
We need to understand the interactions among We need to understand the interactions among the staff of an organizationthe staff of an organization– We can do this by conceptualizing organizations as
transparent overlays, placed on top of one another
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Overlay 1: Overlay 1: The Organizational ChartThe Organizational Chart
We can infer a person’s perspective from her/his position– Top executives are concerned about the budget
implications of specific choices– Lower-level professional staff emphasize budget
implications for clients and staff workloads– Supervisors may share the perspectives of both
higher-level and lower-level personnel– Program directors view policy choices and agency
budgets only from the perspective of that program
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Overlay 1: Overlay 1: The Organizational ChartThe Organizational Chart
The board of directors makes many important policy decisions: – establishes the agency’s high-level policies– hires its executive director– oversees the development of personnel
policies– examines the agency’s budget– serves as the general overseer
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Overlay 2: Budget PrioritiesOverlay 2: Budget Priorities
Examining budget trends in organizations is useful for:– Establishing the organization’s priorities– Deducing the power that each unit has
However, budgets can sometimes be misleading
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Overlay 3: Boundary Spanners Overlay 3: Boundary Spanners and Mission Enhancersand Mission Enhancers
Boundary spannersBoundary spanners are persons who have links are persons who have links with institutions, officials, and agencies that can with institutions, officials, and agencies that can bring substantial resources to an agencybring substantial resources to an agency– Such people enhance the agencies’ resources and
often derive power from these roles
Mission enhancersMission enhancers promote goals that highly promote goals that highly placed persons in organizations favorplaced persons in organizations favor– Units or staff whose activities are peripheral to the
organization’s central objectives are likely to have less power
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Overlay 4: Informal Relationships among Organizational MembersProximity in the organization’s hierarchy does not tell us about patterns of friendship and trust, enmity, or social distance
Persons will often band together to enhance their power within an organization– Ex 1: Ongoing informal clusters of persons who share
knowledge and who support one another– Ex 2: Groupings that are constructed during specific
controversies or crises
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The Political Economy of The Political Economy of CommunitiesCommunities
Reality #1: Many kinds of communities existReality #1: Many kinds of communities exist
Reality #2: Communities have vertical and Reality #2: Communities have vertical and horizontal dimensionshorizontal dimensions
Reality #3: The mass media often assume a Reality #3: The mass media often assume a pivotal role in local communitiespivotal role in local communities
Reality #4: Many kinds of policy issues develop Reality #4: Many kinds of policy issues develop in communitiesin communities
Reality #5: The community politics of many Reality #5: The community politics of many issues can be highly conflictingissues can be highly conflicting
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Different Layers of Government Different Layers of Government and Policyand Policy
Different policies and resources exist at Different policies and resources exist at each level - federal, state, local, each level - federal, state, local, community, and agency - for any given community, and agency - for any given issueissue
Policy advocates have to understand Policy advocates have to understand specific policies and funds that exist at specific policies and funds that exist at each level so that they can tap resources, each level so that they can tap resources, and know the policies they wish to changeand know the policies they wish to change