chapter 4 chapter 4 the lithosphere copyright © 2013 elsevier inc. all rights reserved

Chapter 4Chapter 4

The Lithosphere

Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.


FIGURE 4.1 Silicate minerals are divided into two classes, the ferromagnesian series and the felsic series, based on the presence of Mg or Al in the crystal structure. Among the ferromagnesian series, minerals that exist as isolated crystal units (e.g., olivine) are most susceptible to weathering, while those showing linkage of crystal units and a lower ratio of oxygen to silicon are more resistant. Among the felsic series, Ca-feldspar (plagioclase) is more susceptible to weathering than Na-feldspar (albite) and K-feldspar (orthoclase). Quartz is the most resistant of all. This weathering series is the reverse of the order in which these minerals are precipitated during the cooling of magma.

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FIGURE 4.2 Loss of silicon (SiO2) in runoff as a function of mean annual temperature and precipitation in

various areas of the world. Source: Modified from White and Blum (1995).

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FIGURE 4.3 The relationship between the mean concentration of CO2 in the soil pore space and the actual

evapotranspiration of the site for various ecosystems of the world. Source: From Brook et al. (1983).

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FIGURE 4.4 Dissolution of Ca-feldspar (plagioclase) as a function of soil CO2 concentrations in watersheds of

the Sierra Nevada (California), subject to differential hydrothermal activity. Source: From Navarre-Sitchler and Thyne (2007).

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FIGURE 4.5 Soil temperature and pore-space CO2 concentration (mean ±S.E.) as a function of depth in control

and experimentally heated (+ 5oC) plots in a hardwood forest in Massachusetts. Source: From unpublished work of Megonigal.

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FIGURE 4.6 Content of different rock-forming minerals (% mass) above basalt bedrock in Kauai, Hawaii. Source: From Bluth and Kump (1994).

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FIGURE 4.7 The solubility of aluminum as a function of pH. For pH in the neutral range, gibbsite [Al(OH)3]

controls aluminum solubility, and there is little Al+ 3 in solution. Al+ 3 becomes more soluble at pH < 4.7. Source: From Lindsay (1979).

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FIGURE 4.8 Variation in surface charge on iron and aluminum hydroxides as a function of pH of the soil solution. Source: From Johnson and Cole (1980).

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FIGURE 4.9 The specific absorption of phosphate by iron sesquioxides may release OH or H2O to the soil

solution. Source: From Binkley (1986).

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FIGURE 4.10 The solubility of phosphorus in the soil solution as a function of pH. Precipitation with Al sets the upper limit on dissolved phosphate at low pH (bold line); precipitation with Ca sets a similar limit at high pH. Phosphorus is most available at a pH of about 7.0. Modified from Lindsay and Vlek (1977).

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FIGURE 4.11 Changes in the forms of phosphorus found during soil development on sand dunes in New Zealand. Source: Modified from Walker and Syers (1976).

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FIGURE 4.12 Release of inorganic P, organic P, and Al from a spodic horizon of a pine forest in Florida, following a single oxalate addition at different levels. Source: From Fox and Commerford (1992a). Used with permission of American Society of Agronomy.

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FIGURE 4.13 Soil profile, Nyanget, Svartberget Forest Research Station, north Sweden, showing the E- (whitish) and B-horizons. The scale is in decimeters. The role of biology in the process of podzolization is exemplified by the removal of Al and Fe minerals from the E-horizon in complexes with organic acids and their precipitation as oxides in the B-horizon. Source: From Lundström et al. (2000b).

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FIGURE 4.14 Changes in Si-to-sesquioxide ratio during the long-term development of soils in the southeastern United States (Markewitz and Pavich 1991). The data are recalculated from Markewitz et al. (1989)

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FIGURE 4.15 Depth-to-peak content of clay in the soil profile, an index of weathering and soil development, decreases from east to west across the Great Plains of the United States as a function of the decrease in mean annual precipitation. Source: From Honeycutt et al. (1990). Used with permission of American Society of Agronomy.

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FIGURE 4.16 Depth to CaCO3 in desert soils of Arizona, as a function of mean annual precipitation. The dashed

line shows the prediction from the CALDEP model using current precipitation regimes. The solid line shows the best fit to actual data reported from the field. The dotted line shows the predictions when the model is run with postulated climatic data from the latest Pleistocene pluvial period. Source: Modified from Marion et al. (1985).

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FIGURE 4.17 Annual stream water loss of major cations as a function of the stream discharge in different years in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire. Source: From Likens and Bormann 1995a).

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FIGURE 4.18 Variation in the concentration of total dissolved solids (solid line) and the total annual transport of dissolved substances (dashed line, shown without data) for various streams in Kenya as a function of mean annual runoff. Source: From Dunne and Leopold (1978). Used with permission of Springer-Verlag.

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FIGURE 4.19 Variations in the total dissolved solids in rivers and lakes as a function of the ratio of Cl/(Cl + HCO3) in their waters. Source: From Gibbs (1970). Used with permission of the American Association for the

Advancement of Science.

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FIGURE 4.20 Concentration of particulate matter as a function of stream flow in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest of New Hampshire (U.S.A.). Source: From Bormann et al. (1974). Used with permission of the Ecological Society of America.

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FIGURE 4.21 Rate at which surficial materials are mobilized from the Earth's crust (Gt/yr = 1015 g/yr) in grid cells measuring 1 × 1° latitude and longitude by humans (A) and rivers (B). The massive mobilization of crustal materials in the eastern United States is largely the result of surface mining for coal (Hooke 1999).

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TABLE 4.1 Approximate Mean Composition of Earth’s Continental Crust

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TABLE 4.2 Chemical Composition of Precipitation, Soil Solutions, and Groundwater in a 175-year-old Abiesamabilis Stand in Northern Wastington

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TABLE 4.3 Silicon/Sesquioxide (Al 2O3 þ Fe2O3) Ratios for the A- and B-Horizons of Some Soils in Different

Climatic Regions

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TABLE 4.4 Calculation of the Rate of Primary Mineral Weathering, Using the Stream Water Losses and Mineral Concentrations of Cationic Elements

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TABLE 4.5 Input and Outputs of Elements from Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest

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TABLE 4.6 Net Transport (export minus atmospheric decposition) of Major Ions, Soluble Silica, and Suspended Solids from Various Watersheds of Forested Ecosyterms

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TABLE 4.7 Mean Composition of Dissolved Ions in River Waters of the World

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TABLE 4.8 Chemical and Mechanical Denudation of the Continents

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TABLE 4.9 Sources of Major Elements in World River Waters (in percent of actual concentrations)

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TABLE 4.10 Loss or Gain of major Elements during Chemical Weathering

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TABLE 4.11 Estimates of Some Elemental Fluxes to the Oceans in Rivers (1012 g yr-1)

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