chapter: 5 water resources – quality,...
TRANSCRIPT
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Chapter: - 5
WATER RESOURCES – QUALITY, UTILIZATION AND MANAGEMENT
5.1 INTRODUCTION:
Quality, utilization, management and problems are important aspects of the
study of water resources. Water quality is physical, chemical, biological and
bacteriological properties of water for any intended use. Water quality is concerned
with the status of water with respect to its requirement for human being and biological
species. Water Management of water resources refers to optimize the use of water in
order to minimize its potential impacts on the environment. It is very difficult and
many efforts are required to optimize the use of water all over the world. Management
of water needs detail study of surface and groundwater potential of the given area,
various uses for which it may be put, increasing demands, participation of people,
government policy etc. Scarcity of water, floods, salinity, depletion of aquifers, waste
water etc. are severe problems at local, regional and global level.
5.2 QUALITY OF WATER:
Water resource is a unique in nature and present in different forms.
Groundwater is a main source for water for the domestic and agriculture purpose in
Dhule district. Groundwater has become an essential resource over the past few
decades due to the increase in its usage for drinking, irrigation and industrial uses etc.
(Asadi et al, 2007). Hence water has become a scarce resource all over the world. The
availability of potable water in adequate quantity for consumption has been one of the
hot talks in recent past (Jog et al, 2003). Conceptually, water quality refers to the
characteristics of a water supply that will influence its suitability for a specific use,
i.e. how well the quality meets the needs of the user. Quality is defined by certain
physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water. In an ecological
perspective, it can be defined as the aquatic system which can support life without
breaking the food chain and food web of the system.
The geological nature of the soil determines the chemical composition of the
groundwater. Water is constantly in contact with the ground in which it stagnates or
circulates, so equilibrium develops between the composition of the soil and that of the
water: e.g. water that circulates in a sandy or granitic substratum is acidic and has a
few minerals. Water that circulates in limestone contains bicarbonates alkalinity. The
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quality of the water determines its use for various purposes. Thus, if quantity and
quality is adequate, water is a blessing (Kayastha, 2003).
5.2.1 Chemical Analysis of Water: Chemical composition is a result of stage by
stage transformation of chemical composition of water that fell as precipitation. Other
transformations are controlled by climate, relief, lithology, intensity of water
exchange, biological production of the landscape and geo-chemical situation. To
ascertain suitability of water for consumption, it is necessary to undertake
examination of quality of water. Physical properties of water include temperature,
color, taste, and odour, turbidity, foam and froth, conductivity, dissolved solids.
Table No. 5.1 Drinking Water Standards Prescribed by B. I. S., I. C. M. R. and
W. H. O.
Element/
Parameter
B. I. S. I. C. M. R. W. H. O.
Hig
hest
Des
irab
le
Max
imu
m
Per
mis
sib
le
Hig
hest
Des
irab
le
Max
imu
m
Per
mis
sib
le
Hig
hest
Des
irab
le
Max
imu
m
Per
mis
sib
le
Alkalinity 200 600 200 600 200 600
Calcium 75 - 75 200 75 -
Chloride 250 1000 200 1000 200 1000
Colour
(Hazen Unit) 10 - 5 25 - -
Electric
Conductivity No Standards Recommended
Fluoride 0.6-1.2 - 1 1.5
0.6-
0.9 0.8-1.7
Iron 0.3 - 0.3 1 0.3 -
Magnesium 30 - 50 150 50 -
Nitrates 45
No
Relaxation 20 50 10 45
PH 6.5-8.5 6.5-9.2 7-8.5 6.5-9.2 7-8.5 6.5-9.2
Sodium 200
Sulphate 200 400 200 400 150 200
Total Dissolved
Solids 500 1500 500 1500 500 1500
Total Hardness
CaCO3 300 - 300 600 500 -
Dissolved oxygen, pH value, oil content, organic and inorganic compounds, total
coliform counts determines chemical quality while biological quality depends on
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availability of nutrients (Nitrogen and Phosphorus), microbial density and total
aquatic life in water as bacteria, algae, etc.Standard values of various water quality
parameters laid down by Indian Council of Medical Research, Bureau of Indian
Standards and World Health Organization are given in Table No.5.1. Results of water
quality analysis of samples in Dhule district have been discussed below.
i. PH: The P
H of a solution at any given temperature represents the concentration
hydrogen ion. Measurement of PH
gives us very quick and easy way to obtain
appraisal of acid-base equilibrium. It is important in environmental engineering in
considering water supply, water softening, dis-infection and corrosion control. Low
PH affects corrosion, high P
H causes taste, soapy feel and P
H < 8 is preferable for
effective disinfection with chlorine (Maiti, 2004). Wetzel (1975) reported that the
value of pH ranges from 8 to 9 units in Indian waters (Sisodia and Moundiotiya,
2006). Average pH of the groundwater in Dhule district is around 8. Out of 166
samples only 12 show high pH. Normally a groundwater of Dhule district is slightly
alkaline.
Fig. No. 5.1
ii. Electric Conductivity: Electric conductivity (EC) is ability of water to carry
electric current. Ions such as Cl-, SO4
-, CO3
-, HCO3
-, NO3
-, Ca
+, Mg
+, Na
+, and K
+ are
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present in the water that dominates the electric conductivity. By multiplying
conductivity with an empirical factor (which is obtained from samples of known
dissolved solid concentration and conductivities) the total dissolved solids can be
estimated (Abbasi, 1998).
Table No. 5.2 Groundwater classification based on Electric Conductivity (EC)
Sr.
No. Type E.C. S.A.R. Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District
1 Excellent < 250 <10 0 0 0 0 0
2 Good 250-750 10–18 3 6 59 9 77
3 Doubt
full
750-2250 18–26 17 29 22 11 79
4 Unsuita
ble
>2250 > 26 3 6 1 0 10
*E.C. in µmhos/cm** S.A.R. in equivalent per mole. Source: Computed by Researcher
As per EC and SAR water of a single village does not belong to excellent
category (Table No. 5.2). About 2/3rd
villages of Sakri tehsil and half of villages in
Shirpur tehsil have good water (Table No. 5.2). Groundwater of most of the villages
Fig. No. 5.2
in Dhule and Shindkheda tehsil is doubtful and not suitable for drinking purpose.
iii. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): Uncountable solids are found in natural
waters, such as carbonates, sodium, potassium, iron, magnesium, sulfates,
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bicarbonates, chlorides, nitrates etc. In other words total dissolved solids is simply
sum of the cations and anions concentration expressed in mg/l. Chlorine is a major
inorganic constituent of natural waters (Maiti, 2004). Chlorine may take its source
from soil, rocks, discharge of agricultural, industrial and domestic waste water.
Solubility of gases and utility of water for drinking, irrigation and industrial purpose
may be reduced due to high concentration of dissolved solids. In general TDS values
are average to high in the groundwater of the district (Table No. 5.3). Dhule and
Shindkheda tehsil have more villages with high TDS. Dhamane-I (2870) and Icchapur
(2503) represents the highest TDS in the study area.
Table No. 5.3 Distribution of Total Dissolved Solids
Sr.
No. Range Type Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District
1 < 300 Low 0 1 29 0 30
2 300-600 Average 4 10 38 14 66
3 > 600 High 19 30 15 6 70
Source: Computed by Researcher
iv. Total Hardness (TH): All natural waters consist of dissolved cations and anions.
Water dissolves many ions as it flows through different geological formations.
Hardness of water is defined as the quantity of cations with a +2
or +3
charge. When
water containing both carbonate and a calcium ion is heated, calcium carbonate can
precipitate out on to the walls of pipes, boilers and utensils. It decreases the life of
some such items. However, there are some evidences of beneficial health effects of
hard water. Selenium, for example, may help prevent cancer. Soft water drinking
supplies have been associated with an increased heart attack risk
(www.lentech.com/ro/water_hardness). Waters of Dhule district is very hard. Out of
166, 145 sample villages fall into very hard and 15 in hard class (Table No. 5.4).
Table No. 5.4 Distribution of Total Hardness
Sr.
No.
Range
mg/l
Hardness
Rating Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District
1 <60 Soft --- --- --- --- ---
2 61–120 Moderately
Hard --- --- 4 1 5
3 121–180 Hard --- 4 12 --- 16
4 ≥181 Very hard 23 37 66 19 145
Source: Computed by Researcher
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Khede (1024), Dhamane-I (1540), Nardana-I (1180), Vikhurle (1000), Bodhgaon
(2725) and Icchapur (1180) are prominent villages with very high
TH.
Fig. No. 5.3
v. Total Hardness as CaCo3: Hardness is the ability of water to precipitate the soap.
It is due to presence of divalent metallic cations like calcium, magnesium, strontium,
ferrous, manganese ions etc. In general surface waters are softer than groundwater.
Hardness of water bespeaks the geological formation in which it has been in contact.
High level of carbonate hardness leads to scaling in boiler and pipes which causes
considerable economic loss. Hardness of water in terms of CO3 is very to very high all
Table No.5.5 Degree of Hardness in terms of Calcium Carbonate.
Sr.
No.
Range
mg/l
Hardness
Rating Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District
1 < 75 Soft 2 4 0 0 6
2 75-150 Medium
hard
12 17 4 1 34
3 150-300 Hard
6 13 12 0 31
4 > 300 Very Hard 3 7 66 19 95
Source: Computed by Researcher
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over district (Table No. 5.5). Out of 166 villages, 95 have very hard, 31 and 34 have
hard and medium hard waters respectively. Comparatively waters of Sakri tehsil are
very hard. About 2/3rd
villages of very hard water belong to this tehsil.
vi. Calcium: Calcium is the common constituent and important contributor to the
hardness of water hence it reduces utility of water for domestic use. Calcium is
naturally present in water and gives water a better taste. It may dissolve from rocks
such as limestone, marble, calcite, dolomite, gypsum, fluorite and apatite. Ordinarily
concentration of calcium in groundwater of the study area is within permissible limits.
In Dhule, Shirpur and Sakri tehsils all villages show that amount of calcium in
groundwater is low except seven villages. About 11 villages of Shindkheda have hard
water in terms of calcium.
vii. Magnesium: In general it is non-toxic to human beings at the concentration
expected in water. Magnesium salts have a laxative and diuretic effect due to high
doses. Magnesium is the other element that determines hardness of water. It is
observed that the amount of magnesium is low in the premises of Dhule district,
except 17 villages in Shindkheda tehsil. Mean of the magnesium concentration in
groundwater of Shindkheda tehsil is 62 mg/l while it is 55 mg/l, 33 mg/l and 43 mg/l
in Dhule, Sakri and Shirpur tehsils respectively.
viii. Chlorides: Normally chloride is present at low concentration. Primarily chlorine
is used to destroy harmful microorganisms in water and waste water. Amount of
chloride in groundwater of many villages of the study area is within permissible limit.
About 12 samples from Shindkheda tehsil exhibits very high proportion of chloride.
e.g. Nardana (930) and Dondaicha (1030).
ix. Sulfate: Industries that are making use of sulfuric acid and Iron and Steel
industries release sulfate through effluents. As far as public water supply is concerned
it is important because of its laxative effects upon humans due to excessive amount.
High level of sulfate forms scales in boilers, heat exchangers. For the most of the
Dhule district including Dhule, Sakri and Shirpur tehsils sulfate in groundwater is
below highest desirable limit. Eleven samples from Shindkheda tehsil contain more
sulfate than highest desirable limit and seven samples crosses maximum permissible
limit such as Varul (1160), Dhamane-I (1020), Nardana-II (940) etc.
x. Nitrate: The nitrate ions are the common form of combined nitrogen found in
natural water. Igneous rocks, drainage, plant and animal decay forms the source
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nitrates to surface waters. While fertilizers may be significant source of it in rural and
suburban areas. It is important plant nutrient and causes eutrophication in receiving
water bodies. High concentration in drinking water may cause blue-baby disease
(Maiti, 2004). Concentration of nitrate in all samples of the study area is below given
limit.
xi. Fluoride: Fluoride is more common in groundwater than surface water (Maiti,
2004). If the concentration of fluoride is less than or more than the given permissible
limit adversely affects human health. Presence of fluoride in drinking water prevents
dental cavities in children and forms hard, strong and decay resistance teeth, while
high concentration of fluoride causes dental damages, bone fluorosis and other
skeletal abnormalities. Table No. 5.6 signifies that amount of fluoride in 105 sample
villages is less than 0.5 mg/l, it may lead to the dental caries. While all the remaining
samples are within standards prescribed by various authorities. It is good for health.
Fig. No. 5.4
105
Table No.5.6: Health Impacts from Long-term use of Fluoride-bearing Water.
Sr.
No.
Range
mg/l Health Impact Dhule Shindkheda Sakri Shirpur District
1 Nil
Limited
growth and
fertility
--- --- --- --- ---
2 < 0.5 Dental caries 13 26 48 18 105
3 0.5–
1.5
Promotes
dental health 10 15 34 2 61
4 1.5 – 4 Dental
fluorosis --- --- --- --- ---
5 4 – 10 Dental, skeletal
fluorosis --- --- --- --- ---
6 >10 Crippling
fluorosis --- --- --- --- ---
Source: Dissanayake (1991).
5.2.2 Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR):
SAR expresses the suitability of water to be used in agriculture for irrigation,
as determined by the concentrations of solids dissolved in the water. It is a ratio of the
sodium - detrimental element to the combination of calcium and magnesium -
beneficial elements in order to known effects on soil. In other words SAR is
proportion of sodium ions with other anions. High concentration of sodium ions in
groundwater adversely affects the infiltration and permeability of soil. Plants shed
their leaves when SAR is >15. Soil becomes hard and difficult to cultivate. Other
problems to the crop caused by high proportion of sodium are temporary saturation of
the surface soil, high pH, weeds, soil erosion, inadequate oxygen and availability of
nutrient. Sometimes recycled water can be a source of surplus Na+ in the soil as
compared with other cations like Ca+, K
+ and Mg
+. SAR is calculated using following
formula:
SAR =
Where, sodium, calcium, and magnesium are in mill equivalents/liter.
Groundwater of Sakri and Shirpur tehsils is highly suitable for irrigation
because mean of SAR in these tehsils are 1.07 and 1.50 respectively (Appendix No.
VIII). Maximum of SAR in these tehsils are found at Markhedi 4.89 and Boradi 3.32.
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On other hand Dhule and Shindkheda tehsils bespeaks moderate to high SAR. Five
villages of Shindkheda have very high SAR namely Bamhane – 10.78, Chilane –
9.48, Darane-II – 10.27, Hol – 19.76 and Melane-I – 13.23, while several villages
show moderate values of SAR. Especially groundwater of Shindkheda tehsil
Table No.5.7: SAR Hazard of irrigation water.
Water Type SAR Notes
None < 3.0 • No restriction on the use of recycled or groundwater.
Slight to
Moderate 3 to 9
• From 3 to 6 cares should be taken to sensitive crops.
• From 6 to 8 gypsum should be used.
• Soils should be tested every 1 or 2 years to determine
whether the water is causing a sodium increase.
Acute > 9 • Severe damage. Unsuitable
possesses high salinity. The villages with high salinity in Shindkheda tehsil are
located along southern bank of Tapi river. In this area groundwater cannot be used for
irrigation. Table No. 5.7 may guide farmers with respect to irrigation, SAR, crop and
field management.
Fig. No. 5.5
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5.2.3 Water Quality Index (WQI):
Water quality index provides a single number that expresses overall water
quality at a certain location and time based on several water quality parameters. The
objective of Water quality Index is to turn complex water quality data into
information that is understandable and usable by the public (Yogendra, 2008, Kumar
and Dua, 2009). The concept of indices to represent gradation in water quality was
first proposed by Horton (1965). It indicates the quality by an index number, which
represents the overall quality of water for any intended use. It is defined as a rating
reflecting the composite influence of different water quality parameters on the overall
quality of water (Deininger and Maciunas, 1971; Harkins, 1974; and Tiwari and
Manzoor, 1988). The WQI has been calculated from the point of view of the
suitability of lake water for human consumption. (Sisodia and Moundiotiya,
2006).There are some limitations of WQI. For instance, WQI may not carry enough
information about the real quality situation of the water. Also many uses of water
quality data cannot be met with an index. But there are more advantages of WQI than
disadvantages (Kumar and Dua, 2009).
WQI Calculation
For calculation of WQI, selection of parameters has great importance. Since
selection of too many parameters might widen the water quality index and the
importance of various parameters depends on the intended use of water. Eleven
physicochemical parameters, namely pH, total dissolved solids, total hardness,
Chloride, sulfate, nitrate, fluoride, sodium, magnesium, Calcium and alkalinity were
used to calculate the WQI. The calculation of WQI was made using a weighted
arithmetic index method given below (Brown et al., 1972) in the following steps.
Calculation of Water Quality Index
WQI is calculated by using following equation
Calculation of sub index of quality rating (qn)
Let there be n water quality parameters where the quality rating or sub index
(qn) corresponding to the nth
parameter is a number reflecting the relative value of this
parameter in the polluted water with respect to its standard permissible value. The
First of all value of qn is calculated using the following expression.
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qn = 100[(Vn - Vio) / (Sn - Vio)] --------------------------------------------------------------(1)
Where,
qn = quality rating for the nth water quality parameter.
Vn = estimated value of the nth parameter at a given sampling station.
Sn = standard permissible value of nth parameter.
Vio = ideal value of nth parameter in pure water.
All the ideal values (Vio) are taken as zero for drinking water except for
pH=7.0.
Calculation of quality rating for pH
For pH the ideal value is 7.0 (for natural water) and a permissible value is 8.5
(for polluted water). Therefore, the quality rating for pH is calculated from the
following relation:
qpH = 100 [(VpH -7.0)/(8.5 -7.0)]-------------------------------------------------------------(2)
where, VpH = observed value of pH during the study period.
Calculation of unit weight (Wn)
Calculation of unit weight (Wn) for various water quality parameters are inversely
proportional to the recommended standards for the corresponding parameters.
Wn =K/Sn--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3)
Where,
Wn = unit weight for nth
parameters.
Table No.5.8 Water Quality Parameters, their ICMR / WHO Standards and
Assigned Unit Weights.
Sr. No. Parameter Standard (Sn & Si) Unit Weight
1 pH 8.5 0.134118
2 Total Dissolved Solids 1000 0.001140
3 Total Hardness 300 0.003800
4 Calcium 75 0.015200
5 Magnesium 30 0.038000
6 Alkalinity 120 0.009500
7 Chloride 250 0.004560
8 Sodium 200 0.005700
9 Sulphate 250 0.004560
10 Nitrates 50 0.022800
11 Fluoride 1.5 0.760000
Source: Computed by Researcher
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Sn = standard value for nth parameters.
K = constant for proportionality.
K, Proportionality constant is derived from,
------------------------------------------------------------------------ (4)
Where, Sn and Si are the WHO / ICMR standard values of water quality parameters.
Table No.5.9 Number of Villages in Different Water Quality Index Classes.
Sr. No. W.Q.I. Class Dhule Sakri Shindkheda Shirpur District
1 0-25 Excellent 01 28 5 03 37
2 26-50 Good 13 19 14 13 59
3 51-75 Poor 05 24 16 04 48
4 76-100 Very Poor 04 11 04 ---- 19
5 >100 Unfit for
Drinking ---- ---- 02 ---- 02
Total: - 23 82 41 20 166
Source: Computed by Researcher
Fig. No. 5.6
From Table No. 5.9, it has been proved that water quality of very few villages
is excellent except Sakri tehsil, where people of 28 villages enjoy groundwater of the
best quality. As far as WQI is concerned about 1/3rd
villages of the study area fall in
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good class. Again on an average 1/3rd
sample villages belong to poor category. Four
villages each from Shindkheda and Dhule tehsil and 11 from Sakri tehsil have to
adjust with very poor quality of drinking water. Groundwater of two villages of
Shindkheda tehsil is not suitable for drinking purpose. They are Virdel-I and Virdel-
II, situated on the bank of Tapi river. The quality of groundwater at all levels is
generally good and potable with few exceptions.
5.3 YIELD AND UTILIZATION OF WATER RESOURCES:
The territory of the Dhule district receives input in the form of rainfall during
June to September from south-west monsoon winds. The yield of rainfall is the total
quantity of surface water available for utilization within given territory. Calculation of
yield requires runoff. It is amount of water leftover after evaporation, infiltration,
interception etc. flows through rivers and streams in the form of runoff. Runoff is
defined as the portion of the rainfall appearing as river or stream flow (Todd, 2003).
C. C. Ingliss and A. J. Disouza (1930) made a critical study of floods and run-off of
catchments of the Bombay Deccan based on records of 25 years of river and rain
gauges in the Bombay Presidency. The main rivers considered were Tapi, Narmada,
Bhima, Nira, Godavari, Krishna, Ghatprabha and Vardha. They obtained two
equations in connection with rainfall and run-off to calculate runoff of these rivers.
They are as follows.
i. Ghat formula was derived for the large catchments having rainfall between 200” to
30”.
Run-off = (0.85 x P) – 12”----------------------------------------------------------(1)
ii. While Non-Ghat formula was designed for the catchments which are away from the
hills
Run-off = ( P – 7” ) / 100 x P -------------------------------------------------------(2)
As most rivers in the Bombay Presidency except Tapi and Narmada rises in
Western ghat, non-ghat formula is employed to calculate run-off and yield of Tapi,
Narmada rivers and their tributaries.
Yield Calculation of the study area is as follows
Yield of rainfall = R × 2.3232 × Catchment Area ---------------------------------------- (3)
Where R = Runoff in inches. It is calculated by using C. C. Inglis’s (1930) non-ghat
formula (Tapi and Narmada Basin) for Bombay Catchment.
R = ( P – 7” ) / 100 x P -------------------------------------------------------------- (2)
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Where P = is average annual rainfall in inches.
Yield for Shirpur Tehsil considering 50% dependable rainfall can be calculated as
following
First we will calculate runoff using equation (2)
R = ( P – 7” ) / 100 x P
P = 633.55/25.4 = 25.18”
R = (25.18 – 7 )/100 x 25.18
R = 4.577”
Now yield is calculated using equation (1)
Yield = 4.577 × 2.3232 × 236453 / 1.61 × 1.61 × 100
Yield = 9699.75 M. C. ft.
Yield = 9699.75/35.314
Yield = 274.692 M. Cu. m.
Similarly considering 50% dependable rainfall of each four tehsils of Dhule district,
the yield of rainfall is calculated as above.
Table No.5.10 Tehsil wise Yield of Rainfall.
Sr.
No.
Name of
Tahsil
Yield in M. Cu. M.
(Based on 35 years average
annual Rainfall)
Yield in M. Cu. M.
(Based on 100 years
average annual Rainfall)
1 Dhule 182.645 182.031
2 Sakri 179.101 164.328
3 Shindkheda 92.811 106.009
4 Shirpur 289.269 274.692
Total: 743.826 727.060
Source: Computed by Researcher
The pattern of utilization of water is fast changing and the requirements are
increasing due to changing lifestyle of people. (Jog et al, 2003). Since our water
supplies are limited, though recurring from year to year, our income is fixed. It
therefore, becomes imperative to study the present and future demands of water for
various uses (Nasir, Z. A. 1999). India’s growing water shortage despite its being one
of the wettest country in the world is worrisome (Sing, R. B. and Gandhi, N. 1999).
Discussion of the water resources of any country conventionally begins with
either a description of the size of population compared with the availability of
amounts of land and water, or a description of population distribution and rainfall
112
/water availability figures or an inventory of available water resources (Swain, 1998a,
1998b). The study area receives input in the form of rainfall and excess input
flows through streams and main river channel and further flows out of the
district in the form of runoff.
i. Total Yield Available in Dhule District 743.826 M. Cu. M.
(Based on 35 years average annual rainfall)
ii. Utilization for Irrigation 2326.155 M. Cu. M.
iii. Water Supply (Domestic Use) 34.923 M. Cu. M.
iv. Water Required for Livestock 11.240 M. Cu. M.
v. Industrial Use 5 percent of Total Yield 37.191 M. Cu. M.
Total Utilization 2409.509 M. Cu. M.
Total Yield – Total Utilization = –1665.687M. Cu. M.
According to above calculation the calculated yield of rainfall for Dhule
district is 743.826 M. Cu. M. (based on 35 years average annual rainfall) (Appendix-
III) and 727.060 M. Cu. M. (based on 106 years average annual rainfall). Total
utilization of water under major heads within the district is 2409.509 M. Cu. M. ,
which means that 1665.687 M. Cu. M. water is deficit in the district. Though there is
deficit of 1665.687 M. Cu. M. of water, some of the water may be received from
upstream catchments of the rivers such as Aner, Arunavati and Tapi. Groundwater
also contributes towards domestic and crop water requirement. Therefore proper
management of water resources is necessary to utilize total water available through
rainfall and runoff. Existing medium and small irrigation projects can be used to store
excess flood water. Beside various methods of artificial recharge such as percolation
tank, village pond, field pond, K. T. weir, recharge through dug and tube wells etc.
can adopted to augment water resources.
Utilization under Main Headings:
Water is the primary need of the all living organisms. It is also necessary for
various human activities. The quantity of the water required by a society depends
upon the size of population and their economic activities (Borase, 2006). Amount of
water utilized by the people also varies in accordance with level of economic
development and standard of living of the people. The present and future use of water
resources must be known and organize for better development and management.
Hence data regarding the amount of water utilized in various sectors is collected for
113
further analysis. Water requirements (WR) of the district can be grouped in following
categories.
i. Domestic Water Requirement
ii. Agricultural Water Requirement
iii. Water Required for Livestock
iv. Industrial Water Requirement
i. Domestic Water Requirement:
Water supply to the population for drinking and domestic purposes is of
paramount importance. In general people consume 5% of total volume available water
for drinking and domestic purpose in given area. However demand for water is
increasing day by day along with economic and urban growth. Many scholars and
organizations have laid down the norms for water supply in rural and urban habitats.
Water requirement is designated as 70 lit. / person / day for urban and 40 lit. / person /
day for rural areas. Present and projected population has been used to calculate
current and future domestic water requirement of the study area. In year 2001 total
domestic requirement of water was 11.39 M. Cu. M. for 445885 urban populations.
The urban population is estimated for the year 2010 is 522228 and projected annual
water requirement will be 13.34 M. Cu. M. While in year 2025 and 2050 the total
urban population will be 662361 and 982680 which will require 16.92 M. Cu. M. and
25.11 M. Cu. M. water respectively (Table No. 5.12).
Table No. 5.11 Per Capita Annual Water Availability in India
(Cu. M./capita/ year).
Source: Sarbhukan,
Water requirement for rural population has been also calculated. In year 2001
the total rural population was 1262062 and the annual requirement was 18.43 M. Cu.
M. The projected rural population of the district for the year 2010 is 1478151 persons
which will require 21.58 M. Cu. M. of water per year. While the rural population of
the district will reach up to 1874792 and 2781441 will utilize 27.37 M. Cu. M. and
Sr. No. The Past Future Estimates
Year Water Availability Year Water Availability
1 1951 5177 2025 1341
2 2001 1820 2050 1140
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2001. 40.61 M. Cu. M. in year 2025 and 2050 respectively (Table No. 5.13).
Projected population of the district for 2010 is 2000379; it needs 34.92 M. Cu. M. of
water.As per international criterion for classification when availability of water is less
than 1700 cu. m./capita/year is considered as water stressed. In India the water
availability is 1000 cu. m./capita/year. This indicates that 70% of global area
including large part of India will become water stressed by 2025.
Table No. 5.12 Water Requirement of Urban Population in Dhule District.
Water Requirement = 70 liters / person /day
Population Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri Dhule Total WR
M.Cu.M./yr
2001 61694 42436 0 341755 445885 -----
WR lit./day 4318580 2970520 0 23922850 31211950 11.39
2010 72257 49702 0 400269 522228 -----
WR lit./day 5057990 3479140 0 28018830 36555960 13.34
2025 91646 63038 0 507677 662361 -----
WR lit./day 6415220 4412660 0 35537390 46365270 16.92
2050 135967 93524 0 753189 982680 -----
WR lit./day 9517690 6546680 0 52723230 68787600 25.11
Source: Projected Population and WR computed by researcher
Table No. 5.13 Water Requirement of Rural Population in Dhule District.
Water Requirement = 40 liters / person /day
Population
Year Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri Dhule Total
WR
M.Cu.M./
yr
2001 275859 245081 363092 378030 1262062 -----
WR lit./day 10314360 9803240 14523680 15121200 49762480 18.43
2010 323091 287043 425260 442757 1478151
WR lit./day 12923640 11481720 17010400 17710280 59126040 21.58
2025 409788 364068 539373 561563 1874792 -----
WR lit./day 16391520 14562720 21574920 22462520 74991680 27.37
2050 607962 540130 800214 833135 2781441 -----
WR lit./day 24318480 21605200 32008560 33325400 111257640 40.61
Source: Projected Population and WR computed by researcher
ii. Agricultural Water Requirement:
Water is a prime need of mankind and constitutes the very base of agriculture
(Nasir, Z. A. 1999). It is the prime impute for agriculture. Agricultural water
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requirement is also termed as crop water requirement. Jawar, Bajara, Cotton,
Sugarcane, Pulses, Banana, Oil seeds, Chilly etc. are major crops of the study area.
Water requirement of these crops is determined by crop type and season. Sugarcane
and banana consumes highest amount of water. Water utilized by various crops have
been calculated and summarized in Table No. 5.14.
Table No. 5.14 Agricultural Water Requirement in Dhule District.
W. R. = Water Requirement of crops in Ha/cm.
Crops Area W. R. Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri Dhule Total
Rice Ha. 100 0 0 12442 14 12456
WR 000' cu.m. --- 0 0 12442
0 140 124560
Wheat Ha. 45 1456 1370 6164 2331 11321
WR 000' cu.m. --- 6552 6165 27738 10490 50945
Kharip
Jawar Ha. 12 2181 6058 4 12926 21169
WR 000' cu.m. --- 2617 7270 5 15511 25403
Rabi
Jawar Ha. 18 1361 0 2122 0 3483
WR 000' cu.m. --- 2450 0 3820 0 6270
Bajara Ha. 12 3404 18283 1942 3112 26741
WR 000' cu.m. --- 4085 21940 2330 3734 32089
Maize Ha. 12 118 523 22369 3201 26211
WR 000' cu.m. --- 142 628 26843 3841 31453
Pulses Ha. 7 6286 13431 17049 8530 45296
WR 000' cu.m. --- 4400 9402 11934 5971 31707
Sugar-
cane Ha. 149 1729 266 3545 207 5747
WR 000' cu.m. --- 25762 3963 52821 3084 85630
Onion Ha. 45 84 2231 3523 2225 8063
WR 000' cu.m. --- 378 10040 15854 10013 36284
Cotton Ha. 40 31311 45984 349892 40853 468040
WR 000' cu.m. --- 125244 183936 1399568 163412 1872160
Oil
Seeds Ha. 14 2569 6850 6879 2468 18766
WR 000' cu.m. --- 3510 9590 9631 3455 26272
Chili Ha. 37 242 1099 1077 942 3360
WR 000' cu.m. --- 895 4066 3985 3485 12432
Total Water Requirement M. Cu. M. year 2326.155
Source: Computed by Researcher
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Total area under jawar is 24652 ha. grown in kharip and rabbi requires 31.673 M. Cu.
M. water. About 32.089 M. Cu. M. of water is utilized by Bajara cultivated in 26741
ha. of land. Agricultural land occupied by Pulses is 45296 ha. which consume 31.707
M. Cu. M. water. Sugarcane is cultivated over 5747 ha. and requires about 85.630 M.
Cu. M. During last few years area under cotton cultivation has been increased
substantially due to illness of sugar factories. Hence cotton ranks first among
cultivated crops in the Dhule district. About 468040 ha. of land is engaged in cotton
cultivation. It requires 1872.160 M. Cu. M. of water which is 80.048% of the total
crop water requirement. In all total 2326.155 M. Cu. M. of water is utilized for all
crops during different seasons.
iii. Water Requirement for Livestock:
Table No.5.15 points out tehsil wise livestock population and its water
requirement. Cows, buffalos, Sheeps, goats, horses and poultry are important
Table No. 5.15 Tehsil wise Livestock Water Requirement in Dhule District.
WR=Water Requirement lit/day
Animals W. R. Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri Dhule Total
Cows 58334 43214 127240 69126 297914
WR 68.25 3981296 2949356 8684130 4717850 20332630
Buffalos 772 1251 257 3917 6197
WR 69.20 34740 56295 11565 176265 278865
Sheeps 4086 16195 148912 72289 241482
WR 13.60 55570 220252 2025203 983130 3284155
Goats 58300 73908 99780 88718 320706
WR 13.60 792880 1005149 1357008 1206565 4361602
Horses 213 489 3395 6734 10831
WR 45.50 9692 22250 154473 306397 492811
Donkey 57 148 159 168 532
WR 35.50 1995 5180 5565 5880 18620
Poultry 65209 80052 217224 160785 523270
WR 0.31 20215 24816 67340 49843 162214
Other 9466 11404 12856 20075 53801
WR 49.13 465065 560279 631615 986285 2643243
Water Requirement lit./day 31574140
Water Requirement M. Cu. M. year 11.240
Livestock Data Source: District Statistical Abstract-2011
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domestic animals. Total population of cows is 297914 whose water requirement is
7.42 M. Cu. M. The total number of buffaloes is 6197 which require 0.156 M. Cu. M.
water. The total population of sheeps and goats within the study area is 562188, which
consume 2.79 M. Cu. M. of water. Houses, poultry and other animals are 10831,
523270 and 53801 which require 0.179 M. Cu. M. , 0.0592 M. Cu. M. and 0.964 M.
Cu. M. In all total animals require 11.240 M. Cu. M. of water per year.
Table No. 5.16 Well Density and Well Dependency Ratio in Dhule District.
Sr.
No. Tehsil
Area in
sq. km.
No. of
Wells Population
Dependency
Ratio
Density
per sq. km.
1 Dhule 1981.94 23695 719785 30.38 11.96
2 Shindkheda 1300.53 15162 287517 18.97 11.66
3 Sakri 2416.11 21098 363092 17.21 8.73
4 Shirpur 2364.53 11452 337553 29.48 4.84
Total 8063.11 71407 1707947 23.92 8.86
Source: - M. S. E. D. Co., Dhule.
iv. Industrial Water Requirement:
Almost all industries utilize water. Primarily it is necessary for cooling,
washing, processing and disposal of waste material. It is also consumed by workers
and staff for drinking and washing purpose. About 160 small and medium scale
industries are located within district. Most of the industries are situated in M.I.D.C.
Dhule campus. Cotton mill, oil mill, ginning and pressing mills and textile industries
are located in Shirpur tehsil. Only one sugar factory, one cotton mill and two starch
factory are in working condition within district while others are closed due to various
reasons. There are several cold storages located at Dhule, Shirpur, Dondaicha and
Sakri which require voluminous amount of water. All industries in the study area
consume about 37.191 M. Cu. M. water per year. Therefor sufficient and casual
supply of water should be borne in mind before erection of industries.
5.4 MANAGEMENT OF WATER RESOURCES:
Water is one of the basic vital prerequisites of all organisms and one can’t live
for even few days without it. Water is being used for several purposes such as
household, irrigation, industrial, power generation etc. In a predominantly agricultural
country like India water is a precious commodity (Umamaheshwar Rao, 1993). It is
very difficult to manage water resources in India, because about 70% cultivated area
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direly needs rainwater, moreover increasing urbanization and industrialization
demanding more and more water. According to R.N. Rakshit, management of the
resource means judicious handling, use and development without causing any harm
damaged to the environment (Jagtap, 1984). So it is exigent to conserve and manage
water resources to fulfill the ever increasing needs of population, agriculture and
industry. The harmonizing of water development with environment-quality was a
principal challenge to the sustainable water management (White, 1988). The twenty-
first century belongs to balance water management (Nasir, Z. A. 1999). Water is often
misused or wasted in India (Banergee, 2003).
5.4.1 Artificial Recharge Zones in Dhule District:
Rainfall is the major source of groundwater recharge in the study area and
occurs almost wholly during rainy season when evaporation losses are comparatively
small. Water conservation is the most reliable and least expensive way to stretch the
country's water resources and the challenge is being met in all sectors. There are rich
traditions of community based water harvesting and budgeting in India, to meet the
specific needs of environment (Banergee, 2003). The problem of water resources is
much more acute today owing to the manifold increase in our need for water over the
last few centuries, beginning with the Industrial Revolution; the Green Revolution in
the 1960s led to another major increase in the use of water for growing the new hybrid
crops. Coupled with the exponential growth in population, this has put available water
resources under severe stress. Evidence from palaeoclimatology and archaeological
and historical records shows that man responds to scarcity of water in a variety of
ways which include strategies for water conservation, rainwater harvesting and when
inevitable, migration (Shankar et al, 2004). It is important to note that the increase in
pumpage takes place due to individual initiative and efforts of well digging/drilling,
whereas recharge augmentation is the need of the whole community (Limaye, 1994).
In order to adopt various means of water conservation, it is of prime
importance to know whether the geology, geomorphology, slope, soil, lineaments,
land use/ land cover etc. factors are favorable for recharge or not. Artificial recharge
zones are delineated by integration of various thematic maps using GIS technique.
Weightage to the each class of thematic layer is assigned according to its response to
percolation or recharge of water. Three artificial recharge zones are discovered in
Dhule district namely, High, Moderate and Low favorable zones (Fig. No.5.7). They
are as follows:
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High Favorable Zone: High favorable zone for artificial recharge takes up about
1783.1 sq. km. which is 22 % of the geographical area. Eastern and south-eastern part
of the Shirpur tehsil is highly favorable for artificial recharge of groundwater. High
favorable zone also occur in the form of patches along the Tapi river in Shirpur tehsil
Table No. 5.17 Weightage Assigned to Various Thematic Maps.
Thematic layer
Class
Weight
assigned
Geology Alluvium 6
Deccan trap 2
Soil Deep black soil 2
Medium black soil 3
Shallow black soil 4
Slope Level to nearly level (0–1%) 7
Very gently sloping (1–3%) 5
Gently sloping (3–5%) 2
Moderately sloping (5–10%) 2
Moderate steeply sloping (10–30%) 1
Stream Present 4
Absent 1
Geomorphology Valley fill 7
Alluvial plain 7
Eroded land 5
Highly Dissected plateau 4
Medium Dissected plateau 3
Un-dissected plateau 2
Western ghat (Rocky outcrop) 1
Lineament Present 7
Absent 2
Land use Agriculture 5
Scrub land 4
Forest 5
Water Body 0
Settlement 2
Bare land 1
Lineament
Density 0 – 0.40 2
0.40 – 0.80 3
0.80 – 1.36 5
Source: Compiled by researcher.
because it is composed of alluvial aquifer which is highly porous. Whole course of
Panzara river is also favorable for artificial recharge. It may be attributed due to the
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fault zone along Panzara river. Area along the Tapi river and middle course of Burai
river in Shindkheda tehsil are favorable for recharge.
Moderate Favorable Zone: This zone is spread all over district. Moderate favorable
zone occupies extensive area admeasuring 5068.75 sq. km. of the district. It is about
63 % of the study area. Dhule, Shindkheda and Sakri tehsils relatively possess more
Moderate Favorable zone as compare to Shirpur tehsil.
Fig. No. 5.7
Low Favorable Zone: Upper course of Panzara and Kan rivers in Sakri tehsil, eastern
portion of Dhule tehsil, northern and southern part of Sakri tehsil, western Shindkheda
tehsil are the least favorable for recharge of groundwater. Very little area of Shirpur
tehsil is not favorable for recharge. This zone covers 1209.15 sq. km. area of the
district. These areas are least favorable for groundwater recharge because they are
upper courses of Panzara, Amaravati, Burai, Bori rivers which are highly dissected,
barren, thin soil cover, thin layer of weathered rock material. Therefore, it is
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necessary to think well before implanting any scheme or project for groundwater
augmentation or recharge for the same area.
5.4.2 Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting:
It is a system of catching rainwater from house, building or industrial roof
tops where it falls. In roof top harvesting, the roof becomes the catchments and the
rainwater is collected from the roof of the houses or buildings. This method is
suggested mostly for urban areas where cement concrete houses are constructed and
sufficient roof top is available to catch rainwater. It can either be stored in a tank or
diverted to artificial recharge system. This method is less expensive and very effective
and if implemented properly helps in augmenting the groundwater level of the area. It
has been also proved successful in the rural areas where amount of rainfall is low and
people experience scarcity of drinking water.
The term rainwater harvesting is being frequently used these days, however,
the concept of water harvesting is not new for India. Water harvesting techniques had
been evolved and developed centuries ago. Groundwater resource gets naturally
recharged through percolation. But due to indiscriminate development and rapid
urbanization, exposed surface for soil has been reduced drastically with resultant
reduction in percolation of rainwater, thereby depleting groundwater resource. In
other words it is conscious collection and storage of rainwater to cater to demands of
water, for drinking, domestic purpose and irrigation is termed as Rainwater
Harvesting. There are several types of systems to harvest rainwater, ranging from very
simple home systems to complex industrial systems. The amount of water can be
collected from the system is depends on the area of the house or building, its
efficiency and the intensity of rainfall .It can be calculated using simple formula given
below.
Amount of rain water harvested = annual precipitation (mm per annum) x roof top
area in square meter = liters per annum
Ex. A 200 sq. m. roof catchment with 1,000 mm of annual rainfall yields 160 Cub. M.
The same calculation can be obtained from following table prepared by Ministry of water
resources, Central groundwater board, Faridabad. In spite of drought prone area,
scarcity of drinking water, lowering of water table and high salinity, the tool of rain
water harvesting is not adopted in Dhule district. Roof top rain water harvesting is
practiced in some government buildings. Common people are unaware of this simple,
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cheap and effective measure of water conservation. It imperative need to adopt it cope
up with the various problems of water resources in Dhule district.
Table No. 5.18 Availability of Rainwater through Roof Top Rainwater
Harvesting
Rainfall
(mm) 100 200 300 400 500 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Roof Top Area sq. m. Harvested Water from Roof Top (Cub.M.)
20 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4 8 9.6 12.8 16 19.2 22.4 25.4
30 2.4 4.8 7.2 9.6 12 14.4 19.2 24 28.8 33.6 38.4
40 3.2 6.4 9.6 12.8 16 19.2 25.6 32 38.4 44.8 51.2
50 4 8 12 16 20 24 32 40 48 56 64
60 4.8 9.6 14.4 19.2 24 28.8 38.4 48 57.6 67.2 76.8
70 5.6 11.2 16.8 22.4 28 33.6 44.8 56 67.2 78.4 89.6
80 6.4 12.8 19.2 25.6 32 38.4 51.2 64 76.8 89.6 102
90 7.2 14.4 21.6 28.8 36 43.2 56.6 72 86.4 100.8 115
100 8 16 24 32 40 48 64 80 96 112 128
150 12 24 36 48 60 72 96 120 144 168 192
200 16 32 48 64 80 96 128 160 192 224 256
250 20 40 60 80 100 120 160 200 240 280 320
300 24 48 72 96 120 144 192 240 288 336 384
350 32 64 96 128 160 192 256 320 384 448 512
400 40 80 120 160 200 240 320 400 480 560 640
500 80 160 240 320 400 480 640 800 960 1120 1280
Source: Ministry of water resources, Central groundwater board, Faridabad.
5.4.3 River Linking:
The basic objective of the river link programme is to ensure water supply in
arid and semi-arid areas of the country from water surplus area and remove economic
and regional disparities (Banergee, 2003).
Sir Arthur Cotton, the British engineer, has suggested initially the idea of Inter
Linking of Rivers in the 18th
century for inland water transport as an alternative to the
roads in India. Thereafter K. L. Rao former Union Minister for Irrigation proposed
the same idea of Inter linking of rivers in 1970. It is necessary for south India where
people and crops are mainly depend on monsoon rainfall. The occurrence and
distribution of monsoon rainfall is uncertain, unreliable, and uneven with limited
rainy days. The prolonged dry spells, fluctuation in seasonal and annual rainfall
posses serious problem of deficit of rainfall and frequent droughts in the states of
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Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamilnadu etc. while
excess rainfall in Uttar Pardesh, Uttaranchal, Bihar, West Bengal causes devastating
floods. The best way to mitigate droughts and floods, to increase irrigation potential,
consequent increase in food production and decrease regional imbalance in terms of
availability of water, it is to transfer water from surplus river basins to deficit areas. It
is also termed as Inter Basin Water Transfer (IBWT). It may also provide additional
irrigation, domestic and industrial water supply, hydel power generation, navigation
facility etc.
River linking has a long history and following are the examples of river
linking in our country and abroad:
� Water of Mahi river was diverted in Sabarmati basin in Gujarat.
� Krishna river water carried to Pennar basin through Caddapah canal in Andhra
Pradesh.
� Yamuna - Bhakra canal.
� In 1952, drought Gomai river was diverted into Susari river in Shahada tehsil of
Nandurbar district.
� In USA California Water Project 4 cu. km. water carried up to the south central
California through 715 km. long canal.
� In the countries like Russia, China, Srilanka, Iraq, Mexico about sixty river linking
projects are in progress.
River linking has social, economic, political, climatic, environmental benefits
to all. They are as follows:
i. Existing canals and other systems can be utilized to maximum capacity,
minimum modification and expenditure for river linking.
ii. In river linking short links can be constructed to divert higher discharge during
monsoon floods.
iii. Hope to solve the problem of drinking water of numerous villages in Dhule,
Sakri and Shindkheda tehsil.
iv. Increase in area under irrigation.
v. It helps to increase in water table and well recharge.
vi. It proves life saver for standing crops.
vii. Repair of old canals for river linking which further leads to reduce in seepage and
other losses.
viii. It improves economic and social status of farmers.
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ix. It decreases out migration of poor people in the search of jobs towards urban
areas.
x. This alternative saves the huge expenditure on Employment Guarantee Scheme
(EGS).
xi. River linking causes no destruction of valuable forest.
xii. River linking has the benefit as no submergence of valuable land, no land
acquisition required hence positive attitude increased among people.
xiii. Water conservation, climate change, percolation of water favorably affects the
vegetation growth, wet lands and aquatic ecosystem.
xiv. River linking has proved that the cost of big projects reduces which in turn
reduces corruption.
xv. Disputes between states, districts or region for share of water are marginalized.
River Linking Project in Dhule district:
Dhule district experiences diverse climate with respect to rainfall and
temperature. District is facing endless cycle of droughts. River linking project on
small scale was initiated in Dhule district by Mr. Bhaskar Mundhe, District Collector,
in August 2005. Dhule district was under drought situation in 2005. Therefore some
the elder villagers suggested to divert water from the Girna canal (Malegaon tehsil of
Nasik district) to the drought prone area of Dhule district during the village meeting
on drought. As a result of the district collector implemented the idea of river linking
very seriously and following river links came in existence.
a) Girana – Bori – Kanoli river link: The left canal of Girna Dam namely Panzan
canal passes from Dhule district boundary for Bhadgaon, Chalisgaon, Pachora and
Parola tehsils of Jalgaon district. The excess water of Girna Dam and flood water
is diverted in Kanoli and Bori rivers for Dhule district. Panzan canal was cut off
near Mordad and Khordad villages and it was diverted in Bori river through a
small stream. Then the same Panzan canal was again cut off near Tarwade village
and third time it was cut off near Pinjarpada village. In this way excess flow of
Girna Dam diverted to the Bori river through three small streams. Using the same
water, Tamaswadi Dam across Bori river located on the boundary of Dhule and
Jalgaon districts is filled up and 13 villages are benefited of drinking water and
12,000 ha. land under irrigation in Rabbi season.
125
Fig. No. 5.8
b) Haranbari - Mosam – Girna – Kanoli rivre link: With the success of Girana –
Bori – Kanoli river link the people, engineers, administrators and politicians
started to search out other options of river link. Another option Haranbari Project
of Malegaon tehsil in Nasik district always gets full of water which was diverted
in Mosam river and then into Girna river. In between Girna and Mosam rivers
have Phud system bund; water accumulated in this bund diverted in Dahikute
small irrigation project and then excess water was discharged into Kanoli river. A
medium irrigation project is constructed across Kanoli river on the boundary of
Dhule and Jalgaon district. About 13 villages benefited of drinking water and
irrigation due to the water diverted in this Kanoli project.
c) Panzara – Iras nala – Waghada nala - Nakane Reservior Link: The engineers
noticed Malngaon, Latipada and Jamkheli irrigation projects in Sakri tehsil were
overflowed while at the same time Dedargaon, Nakane reservoirs were dried up.
A phud system bund near Sayyadnagar in Sakri tehsil and 25 km long canal used
to divert water from Panzara river to Iras nala, Waghada nala and in Nakane
reservoir through Express canal. Total journey of this diverted water is 56 km. It
126
only required repairing of existing canal. After filling Nakane reservoir about 255
small ponds were filled with same diverted water.
Table No. 5.19 Proposed River Linking Projects in Dhule District.
Sr. No. River Link
Volume of
water to be
diverted
M.C.Ft.
Cost
(lakh
Rs.)
1 Panzan Left canal-Bori-Kundane-
Anchale joint canal 780 5280
2 Burai-Nai-Amaravati joint canal-
First Stage 260 120
3 Burai-Nai-Amaravati joint canal-
Second Stage 380 2,437
4 Malangaon-Burai river link canal 780 5,245
5 Burai-Amaravati river link canal 260 763
6 Panzara river – Lendi nala to Varshi joint
canal 260 780
7 Amaravati left canal-Chorzira-Dhavade
Zirve joint canal 130 580
8 Amaravati-Right canal- Madari nala river
link canal 130 170
9 Purmepada left canal- Moghan-
Dedargaon joint canal 260 900
10 Panzara to Sonvad canal-Hol-
Shindkheda-Burai river link canal 730 1,500
11 Lower Panzara left canal-Ghanegaon
joint canal 50 900
12 Lower Panzara left canal-Kothare-
Borsule joint canal 20 500
13 Lower Panzara left canal-Kheda joint
canal 150 500
14 Lower Panzara left canal-Gondur joint
canal 40 130
15 Lower Panzara left canal-Devbhane joint
canal 70 270
Total: - 4,300 20,075
Source: - Zende, Sanjay (2007)
d) Panzara – Bhat nala – Sonvad Project Link: There is phud system bund on
Panzara river and about 14 km. long canal near Nyahlod village in Dhule tehsil.
Water diverted into Bhat nala through the canal. It merges in to Sonvad Project.
This river link has solved the drinking water problem of near about 50 villages.
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Same water is utilized to irrigate 2000 ha land and standing crops. Pnazara – Bhat
nala – Sonavad Project river link solved the drinking water problem of 116
villages comprising 6, 50,000 population inclusive Dhule city.
The people, engineers, administrators and politicians were inspired with
success of River Linking on small scale in Dhule district and suggested some river
links for the future. (Table No. 5.21)
Fig. No. 5.9
5.5 STUDY OF WATER CONSERVATION MEASURES IN DHULE
DISTRICT:
Dhule District is one of the drought prone districts of the Maharashtra. The
NGOs have done ‘Water Conservation’ through watershed management activities in
Maharashtra as well as in Dhule district. Full involvement of villagers and
cooperation extended by NGOs outside the district made the miracle for water
conservation a reality. Some unique examples of watershed management have been
observed in the study area. They are as follows:
5.5.1 ‘Angioplasty Technique’ Model of Shirpur Tehsil:
The mega project of water conservation in Shirpur and Shindkheda tehsils is
undertaken by Priydarshini Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur under the supervision
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and guidance of Mr. Suresh Khanapurkar, retired Senior Geologist. The basic idea of
water conservation was put forth by Hon’ble Amrishbhai Patel (M.L.A.) and being
implemented by Mr. Suresh Khanapurkar. According to Mr. Khanapurkar due to over
exploitation of groundwater resources, the groundwater levels have declined and all
the dug wells in the Tapi alluvium dried up. Semi-pervious alternate layers of silt and
sand transmit very little water. Hence the situation was becoming more critical day by
day. However, the wells which are very close to canals from last 20 years also dried
up. It very clearly shows that there is very little lateral and vertical percolation
through yellow silt. Secondly, 85% area of the district is covered by the hard rock
such as basalt. Heavy rainfall within short duration (36 rainy days) increases runoff
while percolation is very little. Hence the dug and bore wells in basalt area hardly
yielding water at the most up to December. There is severe scarcity of drinking water
as well as for irrigation only kharip crops were possible.
The project was initiated over 100 sq. km. non–command area of 16 villages
in 2004 and covered 35 villages till today. To overcome these problems 14 small
streams in the project area were widened up to 20 to 30 m and deepened up to 10 to
15 m from their origin in basalt and alluvial area. (Photo Nos. 27, 28, 31 and 36) Total
length of streams widened and deepened are about 30 km. In this way impervious
layer of yellow soil in alluvium and hard massive basalt were removed and 91 cement
plugs of appropriate dimensions without gates and waste ware were constructed.
(Photo Nos. 32 and 33) Hence the Project is named as ‘Angioplasty Technique’ in
Water Conservation. Storage capacity of these bunds range from 10 T.C.M. to 150
T.C.M. Along with this method, direct inject of surplus water is being carried out.
Surplus water of Karwand and Aner dam is injected in to 59 dry dug wells having
depth of 50 m. directly with proper filtration. (Photo No. 28) About 26 km long canals
are constructed for the same. It was supported by three Field Ponds. Due to this
watershed both in alluvium and basalt area water table has raised to a great extent. In
basalt area even dry bore wells of 150 m. in depth attained water level at a depth of 6
m. below ground level and in alluvium area at a depth of 20 m. below ground level.
Total expenditure of the total conservational work is around Rs. 15 crore to recharge
1019 crore liters (10.19 M. Cu. M.) of water. Area brought under irrigation due to this
project is 1952 ha. in Shirpur tehsil. (Photo Nos. 34, 35 and 38) Cost benefit ratio of
Direct recharge method is 1:71 while 1:15 for Cement bunds.
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Visible results of the mega project of water conservation in Shirpur and Shindkheda
tehsils which is undertaken by Priydarshini Co-operative Cotton Mill, Shirpur are as
follows:
• Water level in basalt area, which has depleted up to 150 m. has risen by 140 m.
Now mean now water level is at 10 m. below ground level.
• Water table in alluvium area, which has depleted up to 150 m. has risen by 110m.
Now mean water level is at 40 m. below ground level.
• Streams flow up to the month of March which previously dried in November
• Area under irrigation has been increased and farmers are cultivating two or three
crops in rain fed and non- command area.
• Energy consumption has decreased due to reduction in suction height, means low
HP pumps have been installed.
• Fishery was started in cement plug reservoir in order to increase their income.
• Water table increased up to 100 to 150 feet in two km on both sides and 1 km in
downstream side of cement bund.
5.5.2 Self Development of Baripada Village, Sakri Tehsil:
Baripada is a part of revenue village Manjari in Sakri tehsil of Dhule district.
It is located to the far east, along state boundary between Maharashtra and Gujarat. It
represents a unique example of community participation in rural development through
soil, water and forest conservation. Rural development activities in the village
Baripada are being initiated by local youth and supported by two NGOs.
Total revenue land of the Baripada is only 445 ha. As the village Baripada is
located in the arms of the Sahyadri ranges, it was blessed with thick forest cover and
rich in biodiversity. Numerous plant and animal species were present in abundance.
But illegal cutting of teak and other plants mainly by the outsiders proved the
degradation of the forest cover. Subsequently, hills slopes turned into barren lands.
Water table decreased considerably and out of 35 about 12 dug wells in the village
dried up. Problem of drinking water became so severe that women have to bring water
from 3 to 5 km distance. Supply of fuel wood becomes lean and irregular. Means of
livelihood were diminishing slowly. Hence women of the village turned to liquor
production which led to social disquiet and problems in the village. In this scenario,
Chaitram Pawar, a village youth noticed overall situation and felt to do something for
the village at the cost of his job in HAL, Nasik. Dr. Anand Phatak who was associated
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with NGO Vanavasi Kalyan Ashram inspired, guided and helped him. Later on Forest
Department also helped the village. Pawar mobilize the village community and urged
them to act. He convinced villagers that deforestation leads to peter out sources of
fuel wood, fruits, wild vegetables, medicinal plants and other minor forest products.
In village gathering on May, 23rd
1993 a local informal committee was formed
which later known as ‘Forest Protection Committee’. The committee members are
appointed for one year and each family gets a chance to represent it. Forest Protection
committee framed following rules to regulate human and cattle movement in the
forest area:
i. To appoint two elderly persons as watchmen and would be paid by all villagers.
ii. A person found tree cutting, carrying wood or grazing would be punished
accordingly.
iii. Bullock cart is not allowed to enter the forest for any purpose.
iv. Fifty acres of forest land was reserved for grazing cattle. Villagers are allowed to
collect dry fuel wood to fulfill needs of whole year in particular 30 days.
v. To enroll children to the school.
vi. To construct toilet for each house.
Environmental Impacts and Social Empowerment: Along with these activities
NGOs Jaseva Foundation and Vanvasi Kalyan Ashram helped and guided villagers to
install improved toilets, setting kitchen garden to recycle waste water etc. Village
undertake watershed programme to protect soil, water and forest and adopt measures
like CCT, loose boulder and earthen dams and plantation. (Photo Nos. 41, 45 and 46)
As a result of motivation several collective activities have increased such as group
marriages, a method of conflict solving within village. Thus the village became
popular in the district. It received a award of Rs. 100000/- from Government of India.
The amount utilized to start jaggery making unit which employees 25 youths in the
village. A group of nine youths received training for honey bee keeping at
Mahabaleshwar. The forest department legitimated the informal village protection
group under ‘Joint Forest Management’ scheme. (Photo No. 40) Plantation of certain
species was undertaken through JFM scheme. Gradually village Baripada became
self-sufficient in terms of water, fuel wood, vegetables, food grains etc. Now it
supplies water to neighboring settlements. Women started a fish farming in common
village pond. Now liquor production is completely stopped by the women. The
collective efforts of villagers have cleared the way for other development activities
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and also won accolades at national and international levels. The village community
participated in a competition on "Local Knowledge and Innovation of the Rural Poor"
in the Asian region, organized by the International Fund for Agricultural
Development, Rome, and SRISTI in 2003 and won 2nd
prize. Thus village Baripada
has put forth the best example of local level resources management through
community participation. (Photo No. 42)
5.5.3 Water Conservation in Lamkani, Dhule Tehsil:
Village Lamkani is located in the heart land of Dhule district. Administratively
it is a part of Dhule tehsil. According to Census 2001 population of the village was
6150. Dhule district is a part of drought prone region of the state. Annual average
rainfall of the village is 350 to 400 mm. Hence the vegetation is restricted to scrub
and grasses and agriculture is rain fed. High temperature and scanty rainfall makes
summer harsher. It results in to scarcity of drinking water. Production of fodder is also
limited. An east-west running dyke is located to the south of the village. It has
become barren due to overgrazing and tree cutting. Many farmers dug tube wells,
very soon over drafting resulted in lowering of water table. About 200 tube wells
became dry and farmers were not able to repay the loans for the same. Overall the
situation was worst.
Dr. Dhananjay Newadkar, a consultant pathologist working in Dhule city and
native of Lamkani, met with an accident in 2003 and came in contact with local
people. He inspired the villagers of Lamkani to undertake eco-developmental
activities. They visited some model villages in this respect in Maharashtra. A slope of
400 ha. in area of the dyke lies within boundaries of the village under the possession
of forest department was selected for the watershed management programme.
First of all, the bans on grazing and tree cutting were implemented by the
villagers in the meeting. Joint Forest Management committee was established. During
the year 2002 Continuous Contour Trenches work was completed on 50 ha. land.
Next year Continuous Contour Trenches, gully plugging and loose boulders dam were
undertaken on next 50 ha. under employment guarantee scheme. Many people
participated voluntarily. (Photo Nos. 19, 37 and 39)
Father Baker granted 15 lakh and villagers donated Rs.65,000 for the further
watershed management. Eco-developmental activities of soil and water management
were completed on 300 ha. with strict ban on grazing and tree cutting up to year 2007.
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Some people were found guilty of grazing and more than Rs. 1 lakh deposited to
forest department in the form of fine.
Visible result of the joint efforts of the villagers and eco-developmental
activities come up in different forms. Now the dyke slope is covered by dense grass.
Farmers and milk producers of 20-25 villages utilize grass with minimum charges.
Livestock and milk production has been substantially increased. During year of
drought 2008 farmers utilized about 400 tones of grass as fodder and minimize the
intensity of drought. Increased vegetation resulted in number of various animals such
as dear, fox, snake, sparrow, parrot etc. The main result of all water conservation
activities is increased water table. Not only tube wells but abandoned dug wells also
full of water. Now farmers are cultivating two to three crops in a year.
Government of Maharashtra declared 1st prize under the ‘Mahatma Phule Jal
Abhiyan’ to Lamkani in Dhule district. It also received ‘Sant Tukaram Vangram’
Prize in the year 2007. District Rural Development Agency, Dhule included village
under ‘Hariyali Scheme’. So it is possible to undertake watershed management on 500
ha. in next 5 years.
5.6 PROBLEMS OF WATER RESOURCES:
According to G. N. Pradeep Kumar (2006) water is the most valuable and vital
resource for sustained of life and also for any development activities with the surface
water source dwindling to meet the various demands, groundwater has become the
only reliable resource. The indiscriminate use of the vital natural resource is creating
groundwater mining problems in varies parts of the world (Todd, 2005). India’s
growing water shortage despite its being one of the wettest country in the world is
worrisome (Sing and Gandhi, 1999). Area under study experiences problems of
various intensities like scarcity of water, salinity, droughts, floods and depletion of
aquifers.
5.6.1 Scarcity of Drinking Water or Water Stress:
Scarcity is associated with concepts of ‘security’, a much-used term in global
policy circles that not only means the provision of adequate water to households but,
in water resource development and planning discussions, paints the picture of a bleak
future that conveys a sense of urgency to deal with the ‘problem’. Globally, ‘water
security’ is represented as a simplistic linkage between increasing populations,
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increased environmental scarcity, decreased economic activity/migration and
weakening of states resulting in conflicts and violence. (Lahiri - Dutt, Kuntala, 2008).
Table No. 5.20 Villages Facing Scarcity of Drinking Water.
Sr.
No. Particulars Dhule Sakri Shindkheda Shirpur Total
1 Total Inhibited Villages 168 225 141 147 681
Inhibited Pada 13 258 0 100 371
2
Villages with Perennial Water
Supply 162 216 141 131 650
Pada with Perennial Water
Supply 11 258 0 32 324
3
Villages with Water Supply
Scheme 157 216 135 131 639
Pada with Water Supply
Scheme 11 214 0 32 257
4 Villages facing Water Scarcity 9 35 36 4 84
Pada facing Water Scarcity 0 1 0 34 35
5 Tanker fed Villages 9 33 32 4 78
Tanker fed Pada 0 1 0 34 35
6 No. of Tankers 4 13 12 4 33
Source: District Statistical Abstract, 2011
According to World Business Council for Sustainable Development, it is a
situation where enough water is not available for all uses i. e. agriculture, household,
industrial etc. It is difficult to express the stress of water in terms of per capita
availability of water. But it has been suggested that if annual availability of per capita
water is less than 1700 cu. m., the region begin to experience water stress. And below
1000 cubic meters water scarcity impedes human health and overall economic
development of the region. Table No. 5.20 shows the total availability, utilization, per
head and per hector availability of the major river basins of Maharashtra. Tapi basin is
only basin which experience scarcity of water because per head and per hector
availability of water is the lowest in the state.
Due to low, erratic and poorly distributed rainfall, the availability of water
resources in Dhule district is low. Moreover major part of the district is covered by
hard rock like Deccan basalt. It has low primary porosity. Hence the groundwater
potential is dependent on the thickness of weathering. Deposition of alluvium is
restricted to the both banks of Tapi river and the lower reaches of her tributaries. All
above geographical, geological and climatic conditions are unfavorable for
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availability of surface and groundwater. Therefore, it is very difficult to fulfill the
household, irrigation, industrial and livestock water needs of the study area. The
rivers and streams become dry immediately after monsoon season. Dug wells hardly
yield up to November to January and during summer season the situation becomes
worst.
Table No. 5.21 Basin wise Availability of Water and Utilization in Maharashtra.
Name of
Basin
Natural
Average
Availability
Present
Utilization
(1996)
Availability
per head
(1991)
Availability
per
hectare
Classification
For
Planning
Godavari
Basin
50880 12795 1756 4520 General
(1795) (451) -- --
Tapi
Basin
9118 2747 803 2444 Scarcity
(322) (97) -- --
Narmada
Basin
580 24 3602 9063 Abundant
(21) (1) -- --
Krishna
Basin
34032 6881 1827 6048 General
(1200) (243) -- --
West
Flowing
Rivers in
Konkan
69210 3076 3497 37130
More Than
Abundant (2441) (108) -- --
Maharashtra
Region
163820 25523 2076 7267 General
(5779) (900) -- --
Source: - Sarbhukan, 2001.
• Availability - M. Cu. M. (TCM) •Utilization - M. Cu. M. (TCM)
• Availability / Head - M. Cu. M. (TCM) •Availability / Hectare - M. Cu. M. (TCM)
Major part of Dhule, Sakri and Shindkheda experiences severe scarcity of
drinking water. Table No. 5.19 depicts the scarcity of drinking water in the study area.
36 villages of Shindkheda tehsil, 35 villages of Sakri tehsil and nine villages of Dhule
tehsil are facing acute shortage of drinking water. Therefore, several villages of
Shindkheda, Sakri and Dhule tehsils depend on tankers for drinking water (Fig. No.
5.9).
5.6.2 Salinity in Shindkheda Tehsil:
Problem of the salinity is very complex and there is uneven pattern of
occurrence of saline water. Electrical conductivity (EC) measured in microsiemens
per centimeter (µS/cm) with reference to a temperature of 25oC is known as Salinity.
Salinity of groundwater can be a useful indicator for potential severity of land
135
salinisation. It is important to monitor the groundwater salinity if the water is to be
extracted for uses such as irrigation for agriculture, drinking water supplies etc.
Salinisation of water resources is one the most widespread processes that degrades
water-quality and endangers future water exploitation (Gaye, 2001). Therefore,
monitoring and identifying the origin of the salinity are crucial for both water
management and remediation. Especially, in arid and semiarid regions, salinity of
water restricts use of water for household and agricultural purpose. This salinisation is
often due to inflow of saline dense water during heavy withdrawals of fresh water
from coastal aquifers and or mobilization of saline waters by over-exploitation of
inland aquifer systems. Now a days salinity of water in certain places is also growing
due to extensive irrigation and use of fertilizers and other pesticides.
“Salinity” includes hundreds of different ions; however, relatively few make
up most of the dissolved material in water bicarbonate, calcium, chloride, nitrate,
magnesium, sodium and sulfate. Local concentrations of boron, bromide, iron and
other trace ions may be important.
A tract of 10 to 12 km. to the south of the Tapi river in Shindkheda tehsil
(Fig. No. 5.10) is found to be Saline. This part of the study area does not produce
irrigated crops because of saline groundwater. It does not permit well irrigation. From
the observation in the field, it is noticed that the farmers do not use groundwater for
irrigation purpose. Rather farmers cultivate the crops which tolerate saline water such
as cotton.
According to the American standards the following limits for the safe use in
irrigation were indicated:
• Chlorides – 100 ppm
• Bi-carbonates – 450 ppm
• Total Solids – 2000 ppm
From the chemical analysis of the groundwater it is proved that above said
elements are present in the groundwater of several villages in excessive quantity,
which are not safe from the irrigation point of view (Appendix-I, II and III). Amount
of chlorides in groundwater crosses the upper limit in several villages such as:
Nirgudi - 710, Chimthane – 532, Melane – 470, Nardana I – 462, Nardana II – 930,
Dondaicha – 1030, Patan – 618 and Rami – 589 etc. The concentration of sulfate is
also very high in Dhamane – 1020, Varul – 1160, Shindkheda – 760, Nardana – 940,
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Dondaicha – 600. Likewise Total Solids in the groundwater of Dhamane - 2870,
Melane – 1758, Nardana – 2330, Shindkheda – 1243, Dondaicha – 2850, Betawad –
1270, Salve – 1015, Chimthane – 1710, Virdel – 1260 and Bahmane – 1031 villages
is beyond permissible limits.
5.6.3 Flood Affected Villages:
Tapi is the second largest west flowing river of India with the catchment area
of 65145 sq. km. Dhule district which is located in the middle Tapi basin, where the
gradient is only 0.41 m/km. as compare to the total gradient 1.04 m/km. The river has
constructed several meanders in this section, so it becomes difficult to discharge a
large volume of water during rainy season. Therefore, river Tapi experiences
devastating floods submerging settlements and agricultural land. There were several
records of severe floods in the study area in historical and current past
Fig. No.5.10
such as 1930, 1944, 1945, 1959, 1968, 1978, 1979, 1989, 1994, 2004 and 2006.
Following are villages which are frequently hit by floods of Tapi and its tributaries
(Fig. No. 5.10).
137
• Shirpur tehsil – Shirpur, Tonde, Holnanthe, Bhaver, Pilode, Japora, Savalde,
Gidhade, Vanaval, Upparpind, Tekwade, Anturli.
• Shindkheda tehsil – Dondaicha, Humbarde, Kamkheda, Sukvad, Sulwadw,
Varpade, Ranjane, Betavad.
• Dhule tehsil – Dhule, War, Kundane, Nakane, Khede, Akalad, Ner, Dhule, Morane,
• Sakri tehsil – Tamaswadi, Datarti, Sakri, Malpur, Kasare, Varkhede, Japi,
Shirdhane, Nyahlod,
5.6.4 Depletion of aquifers:
The study area is well known for the cultivation of crops like cotton and
sugarcane. The fertile alluvial soil, availability of assured irrigation has promoted the
cultivation of the above crops in the district. The northern tehsils, including Shirpur
and Shindkheda, are intensively cultivated by these water intensive crops for last 30
years. The cultivation of these crops has resulted in the lowering of water table and
depletion of aquifer. The tube wells are going deeper and deeper. Dug wells have
replaced by deep tube wells. It is important to note that the increase in pumpage takes
place due to individual initiative and efforts of well digging/drilling, whereas recharge
augmentation is the need of the whole community (Limaye, 1994).
Foster et al (2007) observed that despite generally very limited potential, these
recourses are very intensively exploited, but such development has encountered
significant problems. Dhule district has been suffering from depletion of aquifers due
to increase in number of tube wells for irrigation and chronic water shortage for years.
Around 1980s the water table was about 30 m. b.g.l. Thereafter number of tube wells
and dug wells increased tremendously. Thousands of pumps of various capacities are
currently extracting groundwater throughout the district. As many as 71407 dug wells
and bore wells are presently in use within district for irrigation and water supply
schemes. Hence this area has been experienced sinking of water table between 10 to
50 m. mainly in alluvial part of Tapi basin in Shindkheda and Shirpur tehsils. Now
water table is about 60 m b.g.l. Ever increasing population and land under agriculture,
demand for water has been increasing day by day. It means that due to human
consumption as well as agricultural irrigation water table is sinking. Future risk to
groundwater resources in basalts or Deccan traps of western India is likely to occur in
sub-basins in which groundwater pumpage for irrigational use has increased
considerably in the past two decades. Such sub-basins occur in the high rainfall area
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as well as in the low rainfall area. The main threat is the declining yields from dug
wells and bore wells (Limaye, 1994). The depletion of aquifer has become a problem
and may increase in the near future. There is variety of impacts of depletion of
aquifer. The first and most important impact is the loss of base flow. Secondly almost
all the lined dug wells of this area have been dried up and abandoned. (Photos No. 43
and 47) The loss of base flow results into following adverse effects on various
components of landscape.
• Increased cost of pumping and maintenance.
• Loss of wetland vegetation.
• Increased intensity and frequency of droughts.
• Loss of wildlife and reduction in biodiversity.
• Changes in channel morphology.
• Accelerated erosion and gully formation.
5.6.5 Frequent Droughts:
Drought is defined as a deficiency in precipitation over an extended period,
usually a season or more, resulting in a water shortage causing adverse impacts on
vegetation, animals and or people. Average annual rainfall of the study area is 592
mm. The district suffers from uncertain and poor distribution of rainfall. Many parts
of the district experiences dry spells of 2 – 10 weeks. The region is also affected due
to delayed onset and early withdrawal of monsoon winds. Historically, Dhule district
has been known for the droughts. Droughts of various intensities occur once in 4 to 6
years, which adversely affect the agricultural produce and the economy of the district
as a whole (Sarbhukan, 2001).
Long-term rainfall data (1901-2006) for four tehsil is used to compute normal
rain- fall and the departure of the yearly rainfall from the normal to study the
recurrence of drought and to demarcate drought-prone area of the district. Gamma
distribution is fitted to the frequency distribution of annual average rainfall. From
Gamma probabilities we have calculated the estimated frequencies of each class and
tehsil (Table No. 5.22). This table clearly indicates that drought and severe droughts
will hit Shirpur tehsil in only 15 out of 106 coming years. On the other hand Sakri
tehsil have to go through droughts for 37 out of 106 years. It is the highest probability
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Table No: 5.22 Probabilities of Normal Rainfall and Drought Years.
Rainfall
in mm
Tehsil Dhule Shirpur Shindkheda Sakri District
Climatic
Condition
Years
(%)
Years
(%)
Years
(%)
Years
(%)
Years
(%)
<150 Acute
Drought 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)
150-300 Severe
Drought 4 (4) 1 (1) 4 (4) 6 (6) 1 (1)
300-450 Drought 21 (20) 14 (13) 25 (24) 31 (29) 19 (18)
450-600 Normal
Rainfall 34 (32) 29 (27) 37 (35) 39 (37) 42 (40)
600-750 Moderate
Rainfall 27 (25) 30 (28) 26 (25) 22 (21) 31 (29)
750-900 High
Rainfall 14 (13) 19 (18) 10 (9) 7 (7) 11 (10)
900-1050 Very High
Rainfall 5 (5) 9 (8) 3 (3) 1 (1) 2 (2)
1050-1200 Excess
Rainfall 0 (0) 3 (1) 1 (1) 0 (0) 0 (0)
>1200 Excess
Rainfall 1 (1) 1 (1) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)
Years 106 106 106 106 106
Mean 597 665 560 526 586
C. V. 32.03 30.51 30.36 29.86 24.90
Source: Computed by Researcher
of droughts within district. Likewise Shindkheda and Dhule tehsils will experience 29
and 25 years of drought condition in forthcoming 106 years. The total probability of
Fig. No.5.11
140
normal, moderate, high and excess rainfall is also in the favour of Shirpur tehsil. As
far as rainfall is concerned, about 91 years will bring prosperity for Shirpur tehsil and
these years can be described as normal, moderate, high and excess rainfall.