Chapter 9: The Republic Launched

The Republic Launched

• Preview: “In 1789 Americans could be divided into those who were rural, largely self-sufficient farmers and those tied more closely to the world of commerce. Politics in the early republic was rooted in this fundamental social division.”

• The Highlights:• 1789: A Social Portrait• The New Government• Expansion and Turmoil in the West• The Emergence of Political Parties• The Presidency of John Adams

Post War New England

• 1789: A Social Portrait– First federal census (1790): about 4

million Americans– Population would double every 22

years, mostly from natural increase– Poor transportation and few

newspapers meant that the movement of people, goods, and ideas was slow

The Semi-subsistence Economy of Crèvecoeur’s America– In 1783 French writer and traveler to rural

America, Hector St. John Crèvecoeur, published his Letters from an American Farmer

– he argued that American society’s distinguishing characteristic was equality

– Fairly broad distribution of wealth– Barter economy predominated

• The Commercial Economy of Franklin’s America– Eastern areas more tied to

commerce than the backcountry was

– Greater inequality of wealth– Values of commercial

economy and of backcountry were in conflict

• The Constitution and Commerce– Urban and rural American

differed on the role of government in the economy

Beginning the New Government

• On April 16, 1789, George Washington was unanimously named president of the United States by the Electoral College.

• Many thought his inaugural speech was too reminiscent of the English monarchy.

• Congress had to decide how to formally address Washington: “His Most Benign Highness,” and other kingly titles fortunately gave way to “Mr. President.”

The New Government

• Washington’s Character– Washington was somewhat

controversial for the pomp that he brought to the White House

– A tough historical figure to penetrate because of enormous attention by historians

• Organizing the Government– Washington created a cabinet

of advisors– Judiciary Act of 1789 defined

the judicial system

• The Bill of Rights– By 1791, 10 amendments

guaranteeing basic freedoms were ratified

• Hamilton’s Financial Program– Alexander Hamilton,

Washington’s secretary of the treasury, promoted ambitious plan for the federal government’s role in the economy

– Wanted to link the interests of the wealthy commercial class to the government

– 1791: first Bank of the United States created

The Bill of Rights• First Amendment: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of

religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

• Second Amendment: A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.

• Third Amendment: No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

• Fourth Amendment: The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

• Fifth Amendment: No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

Bill of Rights Continued• Sixth Amendment: In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy

the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defense.

• Seventh Amendment: In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

• Eighth Amendment: Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

• Ninth Amendment: The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

• Tenth Amendment: The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people

• Opposition to Hamilton’s Program– Madison and Jefferson became leading

opponents to Hamilton and the Federalists– Fear of a financial aristocracy and a system

of corruption

• The Specter of Aristocracy– In spite of fears, Hamilton’s program was an

economic success—inflation was ended, the currency was stabilized, and the government’s credit restored

“The passage of Hamilton’s program caused a permanent rupture among supporters of the Constitution”(239).

The Emergence of Political Parties

• Americans and the French Revolution– Most Americans welcomed news of the

revolution in France in 1789– Hamilton and the Federalists, however, saw

the French Revolution as leading to anarchy– The event became a defining issue between

the Federalists and Jeffersonian Republicans– Jefferson vs. Hamilton

Expansion and Turmoil in the West

• The Resistance of the Miami's– Federal government tried to buy

Indian titles to land in order to promote white settlement in the Ohio River Valley

– Treaty of Greenville (1795): Miami Confederacy ceded two-thirds of the area between Lake Erie and the Ohio River

8-9

• The Whiskey Rebellion– Westerners irritated over new excise tax

(1791) on distilled liquors– Pockets of unrest all over the backcountry– Resistance collapsed with Washington’s

deployment of the army

• Pinckney’s Treaty– 1796: established 31st parallel as the

southern boundary of the United States– Gave Americans free navigation of the

Mississippi River

The Promise and the Peril of the French Revolution

• France’s revolution began in 1789 as an effort to reform the injustices of a weakened monarchy and soon exploded into a radical rebellion with the beheading of Louis XVI.

• For more than a decade the revolution dominated the stage in European politics.

• The violence of the Revolution was astonishingly brutal

• Washington’s Neutral Course– Washington proclaimed American

neutrality and moderated Jefferson’s attempts to support France

– Jay’s Treaty (1795) illustrated America’s secondary position to Britain

• The Federalists and Republicans Organize– By the mid-1790s, most politicians

had aligned themselves with one of the two major parties

“In his Farewell Address, Washington warned against the dangers of parties and urged a return to the earlier nonpartisan system. But that vision had become obsolete: parties were an effective way of expressing the interests of different social and economic groups within the nation.”

Adams vs. Jefferson

• The 1796 Election– John Adams defeated

Jefferson, who, because of a quirk in the Constitution, became vice-president

– Federalists’ political base was the more commercial Northeast; the Jeffersonian Republicans’ was the West

The Election of 1796

• The presidential election of 1796 reflected the political uncertainty of the times as Washington announced he would not seek a third term.

• The potential successor was narrowed to Jefferson or John Adams, two very different men who had a great deal of shared experiences in the Revolution and the creation of the government.

• Adams won the election, with Jefferson to serve as his Vice President.

The Presidency of John Adams

• The Naval War with France– Adams’ first trial as president was the interference

of American shipping by French naval vessels. raiding of American shipping became a major issue for Adams

– 1797: Adams sent diplomats to France to negotiate, and the French demanded bribes

– This event, subsequently known as the XYZ Affair, aggravated tensions with France and between the two political parties

Cartoon of the XYZ Affair

The Alien and Sedition Acts The Federalist-dominated Congress acted to staunch

the flow of aliens into the country through:

• The Naturalization Act – raised citizenship requirement of residency from 5 to 14 years

• The Alien Act – authorized the president to expel aliens whom he judged dangerous

• The Alien Enemies Act – allowed the president to imprison or banish the subjects of any hostile nation at will.

• The Sedition Act – made punishable by fine and imprisonment for anyone to conspire in opposition to the government. (Persecuted Republicans enlarged their interpretation of the freedom of the press)

The Election of 1800Jefferson and Adams ran again; this time, Jefferson won

Election of 1800

– Political tensions sometimes threatened to devolve into armed conflict

– Ideology of republicanism made activists vigilant protectors of liberty

– Federalists achievements capped by strengthening stability and order of nation’s society and foreign affairs

Political Violence in the Early Republic

Republican Identities in a New Republic

• An age of rapid population growth– 7.2 million in 1810; two million more than

1800– 20% black slaves– children under 16 the largest single group

• Strong regional identities

• Early secession movements threaten national unity

North America in 1800

Westward the Course of Empire

• Intense migration to West after 1790• New States

– Kentucky--1792– Tennessee--1796– Ohio--1803

• Western regional culture rootless, optimistic

Native American Resistance

• Western settlers compete for Indian land• Indians resist

– Tecumseh leads Shawnees, defeated– Creeks defeated

• Settlers reject Indian-White coexistence

Commercial Life in the Cities

• Economy based on agriculture and trade• American shipping prospers 1793-1805• Cities associated with international trade,

otherwise marginal role in national life • Industrialization and mechanization just

beginning to frighten skilled craftsmen

Attack on the Judges: Judiciary Act

• Judiciary Act of 1801 creates new circuit courts filled with loyal Federalists

• 1802--Jeffersonians repeal Judiciary Act of 1801 to abolish courts

• Federalists charge violation of judges’ Constitutional right of tenure

Attack on the Judges: Marbury v. Madison

• Marbury v. Madison (1803) rules Judiciary Act of 1789 unconstitutional

• Federalist Marbury denied his judgeship• Republicans claim victory• Chief Justice John Marshall ensures

Federalist influence through judicial review

Attack on the Judges: Impeachments

• 1803--Federalist John Pickering impeached, removed for alcoholism, insanity

• Republicans begin fearing the destruction of an independent judiciary

• Jefferson exacerbates fears by seeking to impeach Federalist Samuel Chase

• Republican Senate refuses to convict

Jefferson as President

• Jefferson personifies Republicanism’s contradictions

• Despises ceremonies and formality• Dedicated to intellectual pursuits• A politician to the core• Success depends on cooperation with

Congress

Jefferson in Power

• The New Capital City– Washington, D.C. replaced Philadelphia as

the nation’s capital in 1800– Isolation of swampy city reflected Jefferson’s

preference for decentralized government

• Jefferson’s Character and Philosophy– Jefferson maintained a fervent belief in

human reason– Jefferson’s radicalism has been exaggerated

• Republican Principles– Belief in limited government– 1800 election established tradition of

having an opposition party

• Jefferson’s Economic Policies– President made series of spending cuts – National debt reduced from $83 million to

$57 million– Failed to abolish Hamilton’s program

Jeffersonian Reforms

• Priority to cutting federal debt, taxes• Federal expenses trimmed by cutting military • Reduction of the army removes threat to

Republican government• Competent bureaucrats retained regardless

of party• Federalists retire from public life• Ambitious Federalists become Republicans

The Louisiana Purchase

• 1801--France buys Louisiana from Spain• 1803--Jefferson sends a mission to France

to buy New Orleans• Napoleon offers to sell all of Louisiana for

$15 million• Constitution vague on Congressional

authority to purchase• Purchase departs from Republican

principle of strict interpretation

The Louisiana Purchase (2)

• Louisiana inhabitants French & Spanish• Jefferson denies them self-rule• Louisiana governed from Washington• Another Jeffersonian departure from

Republicanism

The Lewis and Clark Expedition

• Lewis and Clark Expedition commissioned prior to purchase of Louisiana

• Expedition left St. Louis May 1804 and reached the Pacific Ocean November 1805

• Report on Louisiana’s economic promise confirms Jefferson's desire to purchase

The Louisiana Purchase and the Route of Lewis and Clark

Conflict With the Barbary States

• North African states demand tribute from ships sailing in Mediterranean

• Jefferson dispatches U.S. fleet to “negotiate through the mouth of a cannon”

• U.S. cannot defeat the Barbary States• Action induces respect for U.S. rights

The Barbary States

Jefferson’s Critics

• Dispute over federal court system• Conflicts between Republicans• Sectional dispute over the slave trade

• The Second Great Awakening– Beginning in the late 1790s, the new

religious revival swept the backcountry– Revival reached its climax with camp

meetings at Cane Ridge, Kentucky, in 1801– African Americans attended revivals,

spurring fear by slave owners of growing egalitarianism

– Revivals were attractive to all groups because of the emotional escape they provided

The Slave Trade

• Congress prohibits slave trade after 1808• Northern Republicans call for

emancipation of any black smuggled into the U.S.

• Southern Republicans win passage of law to hand such persons over to state authorities

Embarrassments Overseas

• 1803--England and France resume war• American ships subject to seizure

– by England through “Orders in Council" – by Napoleon through Berlin, Milan Decrees

• Jefferson refuses war to preserve financial reform

• Embargo--Jefferson’s alternative to war

Embargo Divides the Nation

• 1807--Congress prohibits U.S. ships from leaving port

• Purpose: to win English, French respect for American rights

• Embargo unpopular at home– detailed government oversight of commerce– army suppresses smuggling – New England economy damaged

A New Administration Goes to War

• 1808--James Madison elected President• 1809--Embargo repealed in favor of Non-

Intercourse Act– U.S. will resume trade with England and

France on promise to cease seizure of U.S. vessels

A New Administration Goes to War (2)

• Madison reopens English trade on unconfirmed promise of British minister

• English reject agreement, seize U.S. ships that opened trade with England

A New Administration Goes to War (3)

• Macon’s Bill Number Two replaces the Non-Intercourse Act

• Trade with both England and France reestablished

• First nation to respect American rights wins halt of U.S. trade with the other

• Napoleon promises to observe U.S. rights but reneges when trade reopened

Fumbling Toward Conflict

• Tecumseh’s Western campaign seen as supported by British

• Congressional War Hawks demand war on England to preserve American honor

• June 1, 1812, Madison sends Congress a declaration of war

• War aims vague

The Strange War of 1812:Early Course

• Americans unprepared for war– Congress refuses to raise wartime taxes– New England refuses to support war effort – United States Army small– state militias inadequate

• 1813--U.S. wins control of Great Lakes in Battle of Put-In Bay

Strange War of 1812:The War’s Conclusion

• 1814--three-pronged English attack – campaign from Canada to Hudson River

Valley stopped at Lake Champlain– campaign in the Chesapeake results in

burning of Washington, siege of Baltimore– campaign for New Orleans thwarted by

Andrew Jackson, January, 1815• Treaty of Ghent signed December, 1814

The War of 1812

Hartford Convention: The Demise of the Federalists

• Federalists convene December, 1814• Proposed Constitutional changes to

lessen power of South and West• Treaty of Ghent, victory of New Orleans

makes Convention appear disloyal• Federalist party never recovers

Treaty of Ghent Ends the War

• Most problems left unaddressed• Senate unanimously ratifies Treaty of

Ghent • Americans claim success in a "second war

of independence"

Republican Legacy

• Founders begin to pass away in 1820s• Thomas Jefferson and John Adams both

die July 4, 1826 • James Madison dies in 1836

– despairs that Declaration’s principles not yet extended to African Americans

• Monroe’s Presidency– James Monroe won the election of 1816– Transcontinental Treaty (1819) with Spain

gave Florida to the United States

• The Monroe Doctrine– Improved relations with Britain – Monroe affirmed America’s opposition to

future European colonies in the Western Hemisphere

• The End of an Era– End of foreign threat and beginning of

American nationalism