CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION

From time immemorial, India has had very strong historical and

cultural ties with Burma (now Myanmar). Literary sources of the

Great Mauryan dynasty of India, speak of the spread of Buddhism in

·subarnabhumi', of which Burma was an integral part by two Indian

missionaries, Sona and Uttara, in the 3rd century B.C. during the

reign of King Ashoka. 1 And with the passage of time, religion spread

by Sona and Uttara became very popular there and this finds its

expression in the construction of many beautiful temples and statues

in honour of Lord Buddha. Even the name ·subarnabhumi' or

"Kanakapura' or "Land of Gold' was coined because of the lucrative

trading activities of Indian traders from Champa, i.e., Bhagalpur,

Broach, Banares and Tamralipti, who used to trade with Pegu,

Moulmein and other cities of Myanmar. 2

Romila Thapar, Ashoka & the Decline of the Mauryas (Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1963, p.4 7.

2 Dr. P.N.Chopra, ed., The Gazetteer of India, Indian Union, History and Culture, Vol.Two (Publication Division, Deptt. Of Culture, Ministry of Education, New Delhi, 1990), p.98.

Apart from Sona and Uttara's missionary activities in Burma,

close contacts with South Indian Pallava dynasty (A.D. 560-903) and

Chola dynasty (A.D. 850-1200) can be found with Burma. The

inscriptions found at the ancient site of 'Sriksetra' in Burma reveal

inscription written in Sanskrit, Pali and South Indian Pallava-Grantha

script with short extracts from the Abhidhamma Pitaka. And

numerous figures of the Buddha in stone, bronze and terracotta have

also come to light and these are all in Indian style. However, this

common historical legacy was broken with the beginning of Muslim

rule in India and Mongol invasion in the last quarter of the 13th

century in Burma. a

The barriers between these two countries were broken with the

coming of the British, which colonised both the countries, firstly India

in the middle of 18th century, then Burma in the late 19th century.

Under British imperialism, both of them realised the same pain of

suppression and economic exploitation, and their sentiments also ran

together to get liberated from the yoke of foreign rule. So, the Indian

nationalist movement was very important in setting the pattern of

Ibid., p.99.

2

direct challenge to British rule in Myanmar, as it not only provided

Burmese people the basic objectives of constitutional reforms but it

also gave them the messages of non-violent struggle and boycott

methods which were eventually employed later on in their fight for

freedom, which will be discussed at length in the following chapters of

the proposed study.

The main objective of this chapter is to identify the socio­

economic-cultural-historical linkages between Myanmar and India

since ancient times till the British colonial rule. It will try to explain

the common problems under British imperialism and trace the

genesis of their nationalist resurgence.

The attempt is made to focus our enquiry mainly during 1906

to 1948, which is considered an important phase of nationalist

movement in Burma. The year 1906 is significant due to the

establishment of Burma's flrst political organisation viz. Young Men's

Buddhist Association (YMBA), which shaped the course of

nationalistic feelings among Burmese people and provided an

important platform for the grov.rth of many talented leaders, like,

Maung Ba Pe, Maung Hla Pe and Maung Maung Gyi and others. On

the other hand, the year 1948 is important because Burma got its

political independence in that year, and the country ushered into an

era of democratic polity.

GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING

Strategically, Burma occupies an important place in Southeast

Asia. The Union of Myanmar (Myanma-Naing-nagan, formerly Burma)

lies in the north-west region of Southeast Asia, between the Tibetan

plateau and the Malay peninsula. The country is bordered by

Bangladesh and India to the north-west, by the People's Republic of

China and Laos to the north-east and by Thailand to the Southeast.4

It has an area of 676,552 square kilometres (261 ,218 square miles)

with long coastline of the Indian Ocean forming a natural boundary to

the south. Roughly in diamond shape, Burma is often compared to a

'kite' with a tail trailing along one side. 5

The Europa World Year Book (Europa Publications, London, 1997), p.2321.

Aung San Suu Kyi, Freedom from Fear and other Writings (Penguin Books, 1991), p.39.

-1

The climate of Burma is hot and tropical, although the Shan

plateau is more temperate, with an average temperature of 27oC

(80°F} with monsoon rains from May to October. The average annual

rainfall is between 2,500 mm and 5,000 mm in the coastal and

mountainous regions of the north and east, but reaches a maximum

of only 1,000 mm in the lowlands of the interior.6

THBLAim

Burma is the largest of all the states of mainland Southeast

Asia with its main part consisting of a valley, some 600 miles long and

100 miles broad, surrounded by mountain ranges on three sides. Its

north-eastern and eastern borders are also marked by rugged ranges,

high to the north and lower behind the Tennsserim coast. 7 Thus

northern mountains could be called as the tail-end of the eastern

Himalayas. Along the north-west border run the 'Paktai Hills' and the

'Naga Hills'. In its western side are the 'Chin Hills' and trailing to the

6 The Europa World Year Book, n.4, 2322.

Uma Shankar Singh, Burma and India ( 1948-62) (Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, 1979), p.3.

south is the Arakan Yoma.8 The Pegu Yoma is another chain of

mountains which begins in central Burma and extends down to the

Irrawaddy delta. In the eastern part of the country lies the Shan

plateau and the plains areas of Burma may be roughly divided into

the dry zone in the heart of the country, the coastal lands, Arakan in

the west and the long 'tail' of Tenasserim in the south-east and the

lush delta of the Irrawaddy.9

Because of its mountainous terrain, the land traffic with her

land neighbours are severely restricted and it is accessible mainly

through the Bay of Bengal and Andaman sea apart from air-traffic.

For centuries, Burma's major arteries of economic and cultural

development have been its rivers, and especially the Irrawaddy and

the Chindwin. And in contrast to its northern dry belt the southern

fertile delta part of Burma is often called as 'rice-bowl' of the world.

The main river of Burma is the Irrawaddy which flows from the

Kachin Hills in the north and follows a southerly course for over two

thousand kilometres. The other two rives of importance are the

9

Yoma is a Burmese term for a ridge of mountains.

Aung San Suu Kyi, n.S, p.40.

(,

Salween, and the Chindwin. The Chindwin flows down from the

north-west and joins the Irrawaddy in central Burma. The Salween

comes from a source in the mountains of Tibet and fmds its way

across the Shan plateau in eastern Burma down to the sea. The

Salween having a length of approximately 1,750 miles is the longest

river in Burma. 10

Burmese economy is based on mainly agricultural crops and

timber trade. Its main products apart from rice, are sugarcane,

groundnuts, pulses, maize and sesame and millet tobacco, cotton,

rubber are also product in considerable quantities. Besides these

crops, there is a great range of fruit and vegetables in Burma. The

Shan range of Burma is famous for its oranges, strawberries, pears

and other fruits which requires a more temperate climate. The forests

of Burma are one of the country's biggest source of revenue.

Although variety of forests products and forests are abundant in

Burma but most important are the mixed deciduous forests which

include teak, paduk and pyinkado. Burmese teak's streangh,

durability and lack of shrinkage quality made it one of the most

It! Uma Shankar Singh, n.7, pp.3-4.

7

valued woods of the world. Pyinkado wood is also known as the iron

wood among Burmese because of its hardness and strength. And

Padank is described as all utility wood in Burma next to teak.

Besides having useful agriculture and forests products Burma

is also rich in mineral products. Here, petroleum, natural gas, lead,

zinc, tin, wolfram and silver are obtained in quality. And, sufficient

petroleum is produced in central Burma to satiate the demand of the

whole country. Burma, deficient in heavy engineering and large

manufacturing base, imports commodities like machinery and

transport equipments, mineral fuels, lubricants, chemicals and

related products, animal and vegetable oil fats and waxes, cement,

base metals etc. and major exporting items are forestry products like

teak and other hardwood, rice, pulses, raw rubber and live animals

products like prawns (fresh and dried, fish and fish products etc.). 11

Strategically in Southeast Asia and rich in such mineral and

agricultural resources Burma was a natural attraction to any colonial

power of 19th century. And the Britishers, the epitome of imperialist

design in that period frrmly grounded in neighbouring India in mid-

18th century, acted fast at the disorderly situation of Burma and

ll The Europa World Year Book, n.4, p.2336

X

colonised h~r in three successive Anglo-Burmese wars in the 19th

century.

THE PEOPLE

Burma is comparatively underpopulated country in contrast to

India and Bangladesh to the west and China to the northeast.

Population is mainly concentrated in the deltas of Irrawaddy and

Sittang rivers, in the central dry belt, and along the northern

Tenasserim coast. The majority of Burmese population of about 97.2

percent are Buddhist. Besides having majority Buddhist community,

it has other religious communities like Christians around 5.6 percent,

Muslims around 3.6 percent, Hindus about 1.0 percent and and 2.6

percent population are animists or adherents of other religions. 12

Buddhism plays an important role as a unifying force in Burma.

And its special position was recognised by the Constitution of 1947 as

the faith professed by the great majority of the Burmese people.

Lingua-franca and the official language of the Burma is Burmese

language although the use of English is permitted which is widely

12 Ibid., p.2337.

used in Rangoon and has been the medium of instruction at colleges

and universities at higher levels.

Although ethnically, Burman people constitute the largest

groups in Burma but historically it is Mon people who came to Burma

in earliest phase between 2500 and 1500 B.C. So in the history of

Burma the Mons settled in parts of Thailand, along the Tenasserim

and on the Irrawaddy delta. And from earliest time it is generally

believed that the Mons were predominantly followers of Buddhism.

But, there appears to' have been a period when the Mons in Burma

came under strong Hindu influence when Buddhism declined in

India. However, by the eleventh century, the Mon kingdoms in Pegu

and Thaton are known to have been Buddhist. 13

After the Mons came the Tibeto-Burman people from the north.

As stated earlier the Burmans constitute the largest ethnic

community in Burma and the Burmese believe that their early Tibeto­

Burman ancestors were the 'Pyus', the 'Kanyans' and the 'Theks'.

Although historically very little is known about the Kanyans and

13 Aung San Suu Kyi, n.S, p.45.

ill

Theks beyond their names but much more can be proved about the

Pyus. Archaeological excavations of some Pyus sites have revealed

that they had a well-developed civilization in central Burma, Halin

and at Beikthano. 14

The Shans make up the third important racial group of Burma.

And, according to Shan tradition it is believed that their first kingdom

was set up by the King Beinnaka, a descendant of the kings of

7agaunk' after the fall of the ancient capital of Pyu. Historically

Shans were first mentioned in the stone inscription of twelfth century

in Burmese language. The Shans belong to the Thai groups of

peoples who are mostly distributed in Indo-China region. The Shan

people has a heroic name in the history of Burma in fighting against

the Mongol invasion in the thirteenth century, when they attacked the

eastern pla au of Burma. They fought back against Mongol

domination as well as started attacking the tottering kingdom of

Pagan which was then ruled by the King Yazadhirit between 1385

A.D. to 1423 A.D.ts

14

15

Dr. P.N. Chopra, n.2, p.99.

Aung San Su Kyi, n.5, pp.48-49.

i I

Besides the above mentioned three major ethnic groups in

Burma, there are other minority groups like Chins, Kachins, Karens,

Kayahs, Arakanese or Rakhines and Indian and Chinese community

in Burma; speaking over one hundred languages.

The Chin people live in the hill tracts of north-western part of

Burma. Historically, Chins belong to the Tibeto-Burman racial group

but there are diverse tribes and area demarcated among Chins.

Because of their habitat in hilly areas they are often known as 'zomi'

or Laomi Chins meaning mountain people. During earlier times

Chins were mainly spirit-worshippers but nowadays there are many

who profess Christian and Buddhism religion among them. The Chins

are basically agriculturist and a peace loving community in Burma.

Another ethnic group Kachins have the same antecedents like

Burman people and they belong to the same stock of Tibeto-Burman

people. According to their diversity in language, Kachin people can be

divided into four major language groups - 1) the Jingpaws, 2) the

Mazus, 3) the Yaywins and 4) the Lsus. When Burma became

12

colonised in the late nineteenth century, Christian missionaries

introduced a written form of Jingpaw based on Roman alphabet. And

because of this, Jingpaw became the most popular language in the

Kachin state. So when people talk of Kachin people they usually

mean Jingpaw group of peoples and not others like the Marus,

Yaywins and Lisus. May be because of their less numbers and

unorganised grammar they didn't become such popular like

Jingpaws.

The Karens like the Chins and the Kachins, were traditionally

spirit-worshippers. But under the British colonial rule many among

them converted to Christianity. Although some of them also profess

Buddhism. Some Christian missionaries have even concluded that

they might be descendants of the lost tribe of Israel. And some of

them even believed for a long time that the Karens were a Thai-Shan

people. However, studies of their languages and social customs have

given sufficient proof that they belong to the Tibeto-Burman group.

Like Kachins, Karens have also diverse groups and the Pao, the

Sagaw and the Bwe Karens are prominent among them. Under

British rule Christsianity made the greatest impact on Karen peoples

life. This new religion gave them western education, schools and

colleges and the opportunity to pursue modern profession and to take

up higher studies abroad. 16 And this opportunity also made the

majority of Karens the most loyal subject of British rule among all

Burmese ethnic communities.

The Kayah ethnic community are spread along the

neighbouring tracts of Karen state. Some people also call them

'Karennis' or 'Red Karens' because of the colour of their costumes.

The origin of another group - Arakanese or Rakhenis is

something of a mystery. It is believed that they were a mixture of

Mongolian and Aryan peoples who had come over from India.

Although there is no doubt that their early Kings were of Indian

origin. But there are several groups of people in the Arakan like -

Thek, Dhimt, Myo, Mramagyi and Kaman. Basically Arakanese are

Tibeto-Burman people and their language is very close to Burmese.

But the influence of Bengali language on Arakanese language also

hints to some extent that there were times when Indian influence was

16 Ibid., pp.60-61

14

very prominent on Arakanese affairs. One c:an also draw a conclusion

that because of its geographical proximity to the Indian territory of

Bengal, Bengali culture and social trends played a major role in the

history and civilization of Arakan.

Besides heterogenous indigenous minority groups or racial

groups in Burma, there were alien minority groups like the Indians,

the Chinese and others. During the sixty-three years of British

colonial rule or as a part of British India, large numbers of Indians

drawn mainly from Madras, Bihar, Orissa and Bengal migrated as

labourers or moneylenders to Burma. Till 1958 the total Indian

population stood at 7 lakhs besides one lakh Pakistani, mostly in

Arakan. And they were mainly concentrated in the Irrawaddy Delta

region and Rangoon. 17 During British rule there was no control on

the numbers of Indians and Chinese who came to seek their fortune

in Burma but when it became an independent nation, many Chinese

and Indian communities left the nation. However, there are still large

numbers of Indian and Chinese people in Burma largely concentrated

in the towns and cities. Some among them even intermarried with the

I; Uma Shankar Singh, n.7, p.S.

l"

local people and for them, Burma is the only home they have ever

known and they love it as their own motherland. And these diverse

ethnic groups and cultures and customs make Burma fascinating

country rich in variety and tradition. ts

And observing Burma's diverse ethnic map, Britishers under its

colonial rule never gave a serious thought to the development of

anything like a 'national culture' or a 'national society' that would

transcend the group loyalties of the Burmese and of the minority

groups in the country. On the other hand, they utilised the same

tactics of 'divide and rule' policy which they had earlier used in India

and else where of encouraging the non-Burmese groups to retain their

group characteristics. The '"excluded areas" were separately

administered from Burma proper, and under its tested administrative

policy common ties between the Burman and non-Burman groups

were discouraged. Thus the people of Burma were governed by

British impeiialists, in ways that served to perpetuate their

differences.

18 Aung San Suu Kyi., n.S, p.66

But Britishers failed to observe that even with the sharp

differences of certain customs among Burmese diverse minority

group, there was a strong current of cultural unity and oneness as a

'fheravada Buddhism' existed in Burmese peoples mind and heart

across the country. And whenever the opportunity came to stand up

with the voice of liberty across Asia, they valiantly stood as one nation

with cry of 'freedom and liberty'. Burmese people are by nature

considered as a peace loving and generous. India's great leader and

keen observer of human behaviour, Gandhiji very aptly remarked

about Burmese people while addressing a large public gathering at

Fytchi Square in Rangoon on March 8, 1929, that, "Whenever I have

come to Burma, I have looked forward to the visit. I am in love with

the men and women of Burma. You in your address have well said

that the people of Burma are generous and liberal hearted. I know

they are generous to a fault," again he stressed it more emphatically

that, "I know also, I recognised it in 190 1 when I came here for the

first time to see my life-long friend and companion Dr. P.J. Mehta that

I did not take much time before I fell in love with the men and women

of Burma. I recognize that your women are the freest in the world. I

17

recognize the openness in men and women of Burma which captivated

me."t9

BURMA AJm INDIA: ANCIENT PERIOD

As stated earlier India has had very strong socio-economic-

cultural and historical linkages with Burma (now Myanmar) since

early times of Burmese civilization.

According to the traditions current among the people of Pegu,

an important city of Burma, the Indian colonist from the country of

the lower courses of the rivers K.istnu and Godavari, had at a remote

time crossed the sea and established the settlements in the delta of

the Irrawadi and on the adjoining coast. And in Buddhist legends the

country they occupied became known as 'Suvama Bhumi' or 'Golden

land'. This name resembles the Pali form of this designation, Sobana,

which occurs in Ptolemy's 'Geography' and is applied by colonel Yule

in his remarks on the ancient map of India to a place on the Coast of

19 The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.XL, February­March 1929, The Publication Division, Ministry of Information a~d Broadcasting, Govt. of India, Navajivan Trust, Ahmedabad, 1970, p.l04.

IX

the Gulf of Martaban. Historian Lassen observes that the country

named by that geographer, Chryse, means approximately the present

Pegu. And the 7hahtun' or 7haton' the native name of the ancient

capital or more correctly by Phayre Htawtun has in the Mon language

the same significance as the Sanskrit name. 20

Even in the ancient text of the 'Periplus of the Erythrean Sea'

which deals specifically with trading activities in ancient age, occurs

the following passage: "Immediately after leaving the Ganges there is

an island in the ocean called 'Khrusi' or the golden isle, which lies

directly under the rising Sun, and at the extremity of the world

towards the east. '2t And this golden isle or Khryse, about which even

Ptolemy referred in his geography is generally accepted as a region in

which Modern Bunna falls.

The earliest reference of Suvarnabhumi or Burma in Buddhist

Legends is found in the 'Jatakas' preserved in Ceylon. And it is

20 P. Arthur Phayre, History of Burma including Burma proper, Pegu,Taungu, Tenassirim and Arakan, Trubner's & Co., Ludgate Hill, 1883, London, p.24.

21 Ibid., p.25.

l<J

mentioned in it that after attaining 'perfection' when Gautama

Buddha was in contemplation in the Kiripalu forest or grove, two

brothers, named Tapusa and Palikat arrived with five hundred carts

of merchandise to pay their respect to lord Buddha from the city of

'Ukkalaba' (Burma) which was then a port city of Survarna Bhumi.

And the two brothers made an offering of honey to Buddha and they

entreated that he would bestow upon them something that they might

honour as a relic. And therefore Lord Buddha gave them eight hairs

of his head, which they brought to their own country and enshrined it

in a pagoda, which is since known as 'Shwe Dagon Pagoda' near the

modern town of Yangon (Rangoon). Phayre explains Ukkalaba as a

town west of the present town of Rangoon and near a village now

called Twantay'.

During the third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra in B.C. 241,

when missions were sent to foreign countries to propagate religion,

two revered monk Sona and Uttara were deputed to Burma by the

Great Indian Emperor Asoka. And according to the Talaing chronicles

when they arrived to do the same they were first violently opposed but

gradually they pacified the Burmese community and converted the

20

people to Buddhism. 22 This reference in the authentic Buddhist

records of ancient time proves continuity of Burmese contact with

India since the time of Buddha till third century B.C. and shows the

deep interest taken in India at that time in the affairs of the country.

It also supports the view of local traditions as to the previous

establishment of Indian colonists on the coast, and as to the existence

of one or more important commercial ports at an early period of

'Periplus of the Erythrean Sea'.

Further, the close connection between both the countries, is

proved by the reference made by the famous Chinese pilgrim of

Seventh century Hiuen Tsang. He mentions that after reaching at

'Samatata', which is identified with the delta of the Ganges or more

especially Eastern Bengal, he further went to the east of that region

'Srikhetra', which is identified as a place near to Prome by James

Fergusson. During the time of Hiuen Tsang in the seventh century,

the influence of Hindu culture can also be seen in the names of

various cities of Burma, where 'Rama' has been applied to several

places on Burmese coast. At that time, the delta of Irrawadi was

2l Ibid., p.26.

-n:.. ... J...;~ THESIS

320.5409591 R1377 My

Ill II 111111111 II IIIII/ Ill TH8374

21

known as 'Ramalanka' and 'the Irrawadi' was known as 'Ramayana'.

And the classic name of the city of Moulmein at that time was

'Ramaapura', Burmese coast as the island of Ramru and there was

also Ramanagar not far from Rangoon. Further east, the pilgrim state

is the kingdom of 'Tolopoti which is recognized as 'Dwarawati' by

historian M. Julien and he identifies it as the classic name of the town

and district of 'Sandoway' in southern Arakan.23

Among the various ethnic communities of Burma, Mons were

the frrst to come in contact with Indian culture and civilization, which

can also be affirmed by their structure of languages, which has

various Sanskrit and Pali words and one of the interesting feature of

fusion of Indian culture among Mons is that they modelled their script

on the South Indian script named "Pallava Granthi'. Even when the

Buddhism declined in most parts of India, Mons of Burma and other

ethnic communities continued with this religion and remained in

contact with Conjivuram in South India, where Hinayana Buddhism

at least found its refuge till the eleventh century. A.D.

Ibid., p.32.

One of the significant contributions of South Indian script

'Pallava Granthi' on the development of Burmese linguistic basic is

that through Mon script it gave an important basis to Burmese script

which is developed on Mon script. And this linguistic link became the

pivotal vehicle for the dissemination of the Indianised Mon culture,

Law and literature and many of the Burmese Monarchs adopted the

Indian concept of kingship, royal duties, powers and the court

etiquette, the divine origin, ministrations of Brahman priests at the

place, royal patronage of the Buddhist religion acceptance of the

traditional Hindu code of Manu as the prime source of law.24 Its

impact could be also seen on social and religious ceremonies of many

kinds, i.e., casting of horoscopes of the new born, domestic rituals of

womenfolk; 'shinbyu' ceremonies for boys; earpiercing ceremonies for

girls. And the Indian pattern of royalty with all its associated

paraphernalia included the royalty with umbrellas decorated with

golden leaves and bejewelled handles, coronation ceremonies,

24 D.R. Sardesai, South East Asia Past & Present (Vikas Publishing House, New Delhi, 1981), p.33.

weddings, processions, audiences, presentations of gifts and award

and so on.25

Influence of Indian culture can also be seen on other

historically significant ethnic people of Burma- The Pyus. The Pyus

probably migrated from south-west China in about the third century

B.C. Ruins of their capital city- Srikshetra six miles east of Prome at

the mouth of the Irrawaddy Basin testify to a flourishing culture

between the fourth and eighth century A.D. The Pyus were liberal in

following religions and they professed Hinduism as well as Hinayana

and Mahayana Buddhism during successive phases of their history.

However by the seventh century A.D., Hinayana faith had become the

dominant element in Pyu society and government. And like Indian

Vikrama era they also established their own Vikrama ern in the

beginning of 638 A.D., which later on spread over to Thailand and

Cambodia and is still followed in Burma and Thailand. 26

25 Uma Shankar Singh, n.7, p.9.

D.R. Sardesai, n.24, p.34.

The Buddhist stupas, cylindrical with a pointed dome built by

Pyus at Prome are remarkable monuments of artistry indicating Oriya

architectural influence from the northeast cost of India. And

characteristic of Pyu architecture is emobodiment of the Sikhara,

reminiscent again of the Bhubaneshwar temples of Orissa but further

refmed in its architectural form, it is consisted of a structure with an

inner chamber supporting a rounded-conic superstructure.27 So

apart from trading activities, missionaries like Sona and Uttara's

interaction with the Burmese people and architectural form express

close affinity of Burma with India during ancient period.

MEDIEVAL PERIOD:

Even during the medieval period or in the early eleventh century

many common concepts of Indian civilization are found in Burma.

The great Burman king Anawratha {1044-1077 A.D.) married an

Indian princess of Vaisali (which presently falls in Tirhut), and brick

bearing symbol of King Anawratha in Sanskrit text have been found in

various parts of Burma. Anawratha's traditions of the fusion of Indian

culture was continued by his son King Kyanzisha (1084-1112 A.D.) or

Ibid., p.35.

Kyansittha in later years as a great temple builder. He desired to

marry his daughter to an Indian Prince of Pattikera, although this

ended in tragedy and death of the prince by committing suicide but

this love episode is still reflected in poems and songs of Burma. 28

According to the Talaing chronicles at the Shwesandaw Pagoda of

Prome, Kyanzitha was instrumental in converting a Chola Prince to

Buddhism in his times during his visits to Burma. Kyanzittha was

also noted for decorating Buddhist temple of Bodh Gaya with precious

gems and to offer lights which should burn there forever. His father

king Anawratha's greatest achievement was the complete

transformation of the Burmese culture by its fusion with the Hindu­

based Mon culture of Lower Burma. After conquering the Mon

territories he brought with him monks, artisans, craftsmen as well as

Buddhist scriptures and sacred relics. During this Mon invasion he

ws converted to Theravada Buddhism by the Mon monk Araban and

afterwards this form of Buddhism became the dominant religion of

Burma. Temples built by him reflect an interesting fusion of Hindu

Sir Arthur P. Phayre, n.20, p.38.

and Burmese architecture and some of its ruins can still be seen

particularly at the site of the old capital Pagan. 29

Kyansittha was succeeded by his grandson, who took the title of

Alaungsithu. He visited the western province of his dominions,

travelling through Arakan to the adjoining part of Bengal in India.

One of significant achievements was building the Shweku temple at

Pagan and reforming the administrative law (with regulating weights

and measures unit) of Burma. One of his greatest works was the

renovation of Bodh-Gaya temple. A stone inscription in the Burmese

language exists at Bodh Gaya which testifies to this generous act. A

facsimile of this inscription also mentioned in Vol.XX of the "Asiatic

Research Journal' which saysthat frequent repairs had been done by

Letyamengnan who is called therein Pyutathinmeng.30 Finally the

Anawratha dynasty was overthrown by Kublai Khan, the Mongol

Emperor of China in the thirteenth century.

29 Uma Shankar Singh, n.7, p.lO.

30 Sir Arthur P. Phyre, n.20, pp.39-40.

27

There are many other contact points between India and Burma

in the antiquities of Burma. Many references to Indians in Burma as

peasants, traders, astrologers, Indian epics, the Ganges water,

Buddhist missionaries from India, Bodh Gaya or to the great centres

of pilgrimages can be found in ancient texts. Indian resident colonies

could be seen at Pegu, Linschoten, a European traveller in his

"voyages to the East" written in 1592 says that his account of Burma

was derived from the Indian residents of Pegu who met in Goa.

Albuquerque mentions about three hundred Indians who he besieged

Malacca in 1510 A.D. Even the last dynasty of Burma founded by

Alaungpaya, usually called the Konbaung Dynasty ( 1752-1885)

revived the glories of the Burmese kingdom by conquering Ayuthia

(Thailand) and extending its boundaries beyond Arakan to cover

Assam and Manipur, which eventually led to the First Anglo-Burmese

war in 1824-26 and the loss of Burmese sovereignty in later years,

followed the Indian pattern of royalty and authorised the compilation

of a new Burmese Law Code -- 'Manu Kye Dhammathat' (based on the

Hindu Code of Manu) including the basic principles of the modern

Burmese Buddhist law. King Bodawpaya of this dynasty was proud of

2X

his Pandits and priests in Shastra and wisdom. 31

It is important point to note that before the British conquest of

Burma, Indians never entered this land of disciples of Buddha as a

invader, but as non-violent cultural messengers of Indian civilization,

even in the times of Great Mauryan dynasty or Moghul dynasty when

India was the greatest power of Asia with the possible exception of

Chinese empire.

Burma had been open to cultural influences from India since

the early days of her history. And of these influences, the most

important was Buddhism, which became so mingled with the

Burmese ethos, that it has become common saying: 'To be Bunnese is

to be Buddhist'. These early cultural and religious Indian imports

were selected and adapted by the Burmese in a way which brings out

the contrasting value of the two societies.

So by the time of the British conquest of Burma, cultural

influences from India and other neighbouring countries had long

31 Uma Shankar Singh, n.7, p.ll.

2')

since matured and one can even say that it developed into the

attributes of Burmese way of life. 32

Although, there is no doubt that being geographically closest to

India among Southeast Asian countries, its inhabitants must have

been the f:rrst in Southeast Asia to receive elements of Indian culture.

And in the adoption of their Indian practices and cultural norms, the

Burmese people exercised discretion in rejection of the Indian

hierarchical caste system and giving women a high place in society, 33

which was even noticed by Gandhiji in his visit to Burma in the year

March 1929.34

So the concluding remarks of this section are that the most

distinctive quality of Burmese religion and culture was its capacity to

absorb the cultural penetration of India and to reshape it in the

Burmese mould or framework.

Aung San Suu Kyi, n.S, p.83.

33 D.R. Sardesai, n.24, p.33.

34 The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.XL, February-May 1929, The Publication Division, Min. of Information & Broadcasting, Govt. of India, Navajivan Trust, Ahmedabad, 1970, p.104.

AJIGLO-BlJRIIESE WARS AJm RISE OF lfATIOIIALJSM IN BURMA:

The annexations of Burma after three phases of Anglo-Burmese

war, i.e., 1824, 1852 and 1885, was endeavoured at the extension of

complete colonial command over India and its resources. Burma for

Britishers was the country of strategic importance in their imperialist

design which was geographically falling between the lucrative inland

Chinese trade route and making it an important buffer zone between

French colonial possession of mainland Indo-China. Although the

story of the British conquest of India was a long process which took

nearly two hundred years from the days of East India Company till

the proclamation of Queen Victoria as a Queen Empress of India in

1858. First time Britishers entered India as a humble trader but in

Bunna they arrived as a colonial master.

British view of Burma in the nineteenth century was that

culturally, economically and politically, it was an extension of India.

Having a firm base established in the middle of eighteenth century in

the eastern part of India, they saw Burma as a natural field of grazing

ground for their colonial thirst. And even before the first Anglo-

Burmese war of 1824-26, Britishers taking full advantage of the civil

war of 1753 in Burma between the forces of Alangapaya, the founder

of the last Burmese dynasty of Konbaung, and the Mons, they (East

India Company) occupied the strategic island of Negrais. By this, the

British hoped to check French activities in the Bay of Bengal and also

to gamer Burmese trade coming down the Irrawaddy. Burmese King

Alaungapaya first protested mildly against this British interference

and wrote a letter directly addressed to King George II, but the British

Government's failure to reply and the knowledge gathered from Mon

prisoners about British help to the Mon side in the Burmese civil war

provoked the Burmese King and he ordered a general massacre of the

East India Company's officials on the Negrais Island. But then the

British who were preoccupied with French power in their traditional

rival.Jy in Indian subcontinent for their colonial possession, swallowed

this humiliation resulting from the Negrais episode of Blackhole and

left Burma undisturbed for coming through decades. 35

After the 'Negrais episode' British officials sent their first

mission in 1795 under the captaincy of Michael Symes and then in

D.R. Sardesai, n.24, p.160

1802 under Symes again in the Court of Ava to investigate the

possibility of establishing trade communications between India and

China through Burusa. But Symes and his imperialistic co-partners

had other designs in their plan which was more than establishing

trade relations with Burma, which clearly reflected in the comments

of Symes after his 1802 visit to Burma and he reported to his masters

at India and England that, "A positive, and to us a very detrimental,

alliance between the Burmese and the French has been prevented and

French influence, if not eradicated, has at least been considerably

diminished.... At the same when there is a choice there may be

preference, and I am decidedly of opinion that a paramount influence

in the Government and administration of Ava, obtain it how we may,

is now become indispensably necessary to the interest and security of

the British possessions in the East. 36

But the British historian project the first Anglo-Burmese war as

aggressiveness on part of the Burmese king and on their wanton

pugnacity and in the flrst Anglo-Burmese war of 1824-26 ended with

36 D.R. Sardesai, British Trade and Expansion in Southeast Asia, 1830-1914 (Allied Pub., New Delhi, 1977), p.102.

:n

Arakan and Tenasserim passing under the British rule and in the

same way the second Anglo-Burmese war of 1852 added the province

of Pegu to the British empire and fmally the third Anglo Burmese war

of 1885-36 led to the surrender of the whole country under British ~~

colonial rule and an end of the Burmese sovereignty and monarchy.

Although the first two events of annexation had not an

empowering effect on Burmese life but the third Anglo-Burmese war

and the complete subjugation of the Burmese people touched the

pride of the Burmese people and shook their confidence. As long as

the last King Thibaw reigned at Mandalay in his royal capital the

symbol and pride of the Burmese freedom and liberty remained intact.

Phillip Woodruff in his articles in the Guardian, focused on vital

aspects of British rule that, 'the people in the province of British

Burma looked to the king in Mandalay with respect and indeed

reverence, they were proud that he still ruled but they showed no

great anxiety to count among his subjects. The Talaings (Mons), the

Arakanese, the Karens and the rest had at frrst been glad to see the

English, as memories of anarchy and extortion faded, they, no doubt,

like people in India, began to be less sure. But hardly any native of

Burma was pleased by the outcome of the Third Burmese war. 37

So as a result the third Anglo-Burmese war came as a rude

shock to most of the Burmese people, they hardly knew how to deal

with the new circumstances and the new experience of complete

political conquest and soon to be followed by cultural bondage or

subjugation. In 1886, Burma became politically and administratively

a part of India. But British policy makers failed to foresee the results

and its repercussions while determining to attach the country to the

Indian Empire. Although it was natural thing for them since each

course of the conquest was organised and executed by the

Government of India. And its ultimate result was the standardisation

of Burma's administration on Indian colonial model. Till 1862, lower

Burma consisted of three Commissionership of Pegu, Tenasserim and

Arakan; but in 1862 these three regions were combined into a single

province called British Burma and placed under a chief commissioner

with headquarters at Rangoon. And after the annexation of upper

and central Burma in 1886, the entire country as a single province

Aung San Suu Kyi, n.S, p.85.

was placed under the chief commissioner in 1897 Burma became a

Lieutenant-Governorship and in 1923 her status was further raised

when it was placed under Governor. And by the act of 1935 and

actually in 1937 Burma was separated from India and the Governor

was made directly responsible to the Government of the United

Kingdom.38 The study of these constitutional developments of Burma

and their repercussions as a nationalist resurgence are the subject of

study of later chapters and will be discussed at length in subsequent

chapters.

Although by 1886 the whole of Burma had become a part of

British colonial India still it took nearly further ten years to gain over

the control on simmering discontent against foreign rule. Although

the administration got established in urban or city areas but British

rule foreign in nature at every respect never gained ground in Burma

like its counterpart in India.

38 D.G.E. Hall, A History of Southeast Asia (New York, 1968), p.730.

In the first phase of British colonial rule, contacts with the

villages in Burma were disrupted with the adoption of its new revenue

policy. The social balance stabilizing pre-British Burma,with its

•egalitarian character of society" based on Theravada Buddhism was

upset by the colonial system. The end of monarchy, suppression and

economic exploitation ultimately became the genesis of the rise of

nationalism and forceful spirit to demand independence. 39

So the causes of nationalist resurgence in Burma could be seen

in the very nature of British rule in Burma. The decline of Burmese

culture and traditions under British rule occurred in many ways.

They came to assume the role of first citizen of the world with the

unquestioned right to mould the destinies of the less fortunate as

historian James Morris writes, "The British were now exporting to

their dominions a kind of package civilization, offered in competition

with the local product, and backed by powerful service arrangements.

Sometimes this was conscious policy.... More often, though, it was

instinctive or even incidental, and was seen by the British, if they saw

39 E. Sarkisyanz, Buddhist BackJ!rounds of the Burmese Revolution (The Hague/Martinus Nijhoff, 1965), p.148.

17

it at all, simply as an aspect of historical determinism. 40 And in the

course of exporting these package civilization, expert craftsmanship

which was earlier patronised by monarchy disappeared with the

growth of cheaper manufactured imports from Liverpool and

Manchester under British colonial rule. High literacy competence in

the Burmese language and literature gradually disappeared with the

disappearance of its masters and English became the language of law

courts and the government in new administrative setup. And as a

result monastic discipline also determined and British officials

refused to support disciplinruy measures of the Sangha and

eventually subjected the wearers of the yellow robes to the humiliating

control of the secular courts and the ordinruy police in the name of

civilized law of the people. The administrative tactics of the colonial

system reached out the villages at the end of 19th century bringing

irreversible changes and destroying the natural fabric of countryside

of self-sustaining economy into subservient economy on urban

centres.

Aung San Suu Kyi, n.S, p.86.

So the ball of discontent and discord was set against the British

colonial rule by Britishers themselves in pursuance of the same policy

which had triggered off the revolt against them in India in 1857.

Although the theatre of action was different territory, Burma, but they

miscalculated to understand the semblance of the same Asian

culture, which was passing from its churning phase to 'new life'.