CHAPTER-I

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The thesis entitled "Party politics in Nellore district" aims at comprehensive

study of the political scenario that dawned in Nellore district from pre-independence

to 1990 which is an important epoch in the history of Andhra Pradesh in general and

Nellore district in particular

Nature and scope

Electoral politics in a participatory democracy assume great significance

since it is regarded as an index of popular consciousness. Emphases on the political

development of a system enable one to provide the basis for prediction as well as

description and explanation. The processes of political change are extremely

complex and depend upon a large of interacting factors. The Congress party which

united the socio-economic, ethnic and cultural forces of the society on its drive

during national movement for independence maintained its national character in

independent India up to 1975. But it lost the mass character during the period 1975-

86, due to personal rivalries, lust for power, factionalism and communal cleavage.

After eighties the political party systems were subjected to the pressures of certain

unhealthy trends which were not known before. Political development in the states

witnessed the emergence of new systems in politics namely regionalism,

fiagrnentation of-political parties, high incidence of communal articulation and

agitational type of politics.

personal character, leadership skills and charisma always played an

important role in Indian politics. Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhabhai Patel,

Pandit Jawaharlal, La1 Bahadur Shastri, Rammanohar Lohia, Jayaprakash Narian,

Balagangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpatrai, Abdul Kalam Azad Tanguturi Prakasam

pantulu,Tenneti Viswanatham Bezawada Gopala Reddy and a host of others had

attracted and mobilized the Indian masses with their leadership skills and

impeccable character and charisma. The same qualities besides their political

ideologies are responsible for attm@bg the Indian voters. Of late the charisma hctor

is creating waves in t6e states too. Since 1983 Andhra M e s h too has joined

charismatic politics. ~ r i . ~ . ~ . ~ a m a & . h a d been a telugu cine artist for thnc daades,

entered politics by bringing into existence the Telugu Desam a regional party.

Within nine months of the creation, the new political outfit entered the fray and

came to power with a landslide victory by defeating the Congress Party. As against

the national swing in favour of the d i n g Congress party, there was a complete

swing in favour of Telugu Desam party in Andhra Pradesh during 1984 Loksabha

elections. The prominent and mass based national parties were reduced to

insignificance in these elections and an infant regional party i.e. Telugu Desam party

has emerged main opposition party in the Loksabha. Hence it can be surmised that it

has become quite clear that element and flavor of regionalism is permissible under

nationalist politics.

Caste, class and pressure groups were not important determinants of voting

behaviours. The leaders of the political parties were the main targets of the voters.

Credibility and capacity of the leader were the main issues in the elections. Until

1975 the voting was for the party rather than for individuals. However the pattern of

voting undergone a change giving credence to individuals, their community and

region.

Nellore district is chosen as the primary unit of study and analysis of party

politics in relation to electoral process. Politicians and ~olitical institutions, in fact,

organize activities only in terms of district coverage. This thesis is an attempt to

throw light on the changing political conditions of Andhra Pradesh in general and

Nellore district in particular. The major part of the present Nellore district of Andhra

Pradesh, 'when it was formed extended from Tada in the south to Donakonda in the

North West abutting Guntur district in the North. When a new district Prakasam was

carved out the Kandukur division of Nellore district was detached and appended to

the newly formed district of Prakasam.Hence, the present study covers the present

Kandukur division of Prakasam district too.

The inter cast feuds ar& the unique and striking f-eaturei of Nellort district

politics. The intensive' inm caste fiictiom in N e l l o ~ district may perhaps be

attributed to the fact that the pred~&ant communities economically and sodally

and hence, politically in Nellore district are Reddy in the eastern and southern part

of the district and Kamma in the north and north-western part of the district.

Factions with less degree can be observed even among backward classes and

scheduled castes.

This work is aimed at the study of the political trends in the pre-

independence and post independent periods, general elections to the Legislative

Assembly 'and to the Lok Sabha. The study confine to the examination and analysis

of the party politics and their contribution to the district of Nellore.

Sources

The primary sources to be consulted are mainly the personal diaries of the

freedom fighters, archival records, police records, reports of the District Collectors

of Nellore district of the Madras presidency from 1935 to 1947,Letters exchanged

between the individuals and political party leadership of different political parties

that took active part in the National struggle. Records maintained in the Libraries of

the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly and Council. News papers namely The

Hindu, The Mail of English language, Zaminryot, Andhra Patrika and other local

vernacular language, of pre-independence era too forms primary source. Census

reports and Gazetteers were consulted for data.

The sewn6 sources like published books and articles in different research

journals are also consulted to collect the material and required data for the study.

Geographically, Nellore district occupies a very important position. Nellore

district, the southern most coastal district of Andhra Pradesh lies between 13" 30'

and 16" of the northern latitude and 70" 5' and 80" 15' of the eastern latitude'. It is

bounded on the north by the Guntur district, on the east by the Bay of Bengal, on the

south by Chittoor district and Chengalput district of Madras State (now Tamilnadu)

and on the west by Vetigonda hills which separate it from Cuddapah and Kumool

districts. This shows that Nellore district circumambulated by three important

geographical regions, nbmdy coastal region, Rayal-a region and the region

where the Chittoor and ChengalP& districts are located. These three regions

experienced divergent cultures. The culture that prevailed in the Coastal Andhra

region is urban and sophisticated, because the region is economically and

educationally far advanced. The Rayalaseem, a region is s backward region. The

culture is semi-urban or rural. The fertile land is less and the imgational facilities

were at the lowest ebb. Thus the people of this region are not sufficiently cultured

since the historic times. But these two regions were Andhra in thought and

sentiment. The Chittoor and the Chengalput regions which formed the southern

boundary of the Nellore district is dominated by Tamilians more and hence their

culture is alien to the people of Andhra Pradesh. The language, manners, customs

and traditions adopted by the people of these regions are sharply different. Nellore

district which is located in between these important geographical regions naturally

acted as a bridge district. It transmitted the culture of one region to the other. It

became the meeting place of different cultures. Thus the people of Nellore district

were quite homely when they move with the people belonging to these three

geographical regions. This is the unique and the most interesting feature of Nellore

district.

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES

The district derives its name from 'Nellore, i$ headquarters. Nell means

paddy and ur means town. Nellore is also known as Vikrama-Simha-Puri. It is

known from tradition that the founder of the later Pallava dynasty, Simha-vishnu or

Simha Vishnu Avani Simha was the founder of the town of Nellore. Whatever may

be the derivation of the name of the district, it is even now famous for the production

of superfine paddy i.e. nell (tatnil t m for paddy)2

The Eastern Ghats are the most important mountain ranges that pass through

the Nellore district. These mountain ranges are locally known as the Veligonds.They

run in a north-westerly directi'on from the south of Venkatagiri to the north of

Kanigiri taluk and hrm the lide of demarcation between Nellore, Cuddapah and

Kumool districts. Thus the Veligondas played an important part not only in

separating district h m the n e i g h k g districts but also gave and independent

geographical entity to the district. It literally shaped the historical and political

factors which played an important role in the annals of Nellore district. In the

~ e l i ~ o n d a range the Penchalakonda is the highest point with an elevation of 914

metres3. The Udayagiri Durgam (fort) is an isolated hill in the district. It has no

connection with the Veligonda range and it is 938 meters high. This became an

important place during the rule of the Reddy kingdom and the Vijayanagara.

Several rivers and tributaries pass through Nellore district. Pennar,

Kandleru, Swantamukhi, Paleru, Manneru, Gundlakamma and Musi are the

principal rivers and rivulets of Nellore district. However the Pennar River is

supposed to be the most important river in the distrtict. It rises in the Chennakesava

hills in Karnataka and after a course of 456 Kms in Anantapur and Cuddapah

districts, it enters into Nellore district through a fine gorge in the Veligonda range at

Somasila. It flows in a broad and sandy bed for about 112 kms in the eastern

direction through the taluks of Atmakur and Nellore and merges into the Bay of

Bengal through several openings at a distance of 29 Krns. from Nellore '.

The river Pennar has several tributqies. Jayanagali, Chitravati, Kunderu,

Papa*, Sagileru and Cheyyuir ?re some of them. Two anicuts were built during

pre-independence period across this river at Nellore a?d Sangam (Kovur Taluk)

during the British administration. They supply water for numerous tanks and imgate

much land through channels. A reservoir was built at Vaweru located near

Buchchireddypalem .Sangam anicut provides feeder channels to this reservoir. The

Kanigiri reservoir supplies water to the lands 'to grow wet crops like paddy and

sugarcane in the eastern part of the district '. This region is supposed to be the

richest region in the Nellore district and it used to produce in the 1950s and even up

to 1980s a particular stain or variety of paddy known as 'Molagolukulu'. This

variety of paddy has brought lot of fame and name to this district. The fertility of the

soil, the quality of the water and the type of atmosphere that prevailed m this region

made the above refared pddy irllaiety famous not only in Andhra region but also in

the madras presidency. .This paddy was known as 'Nellore rice'. Mention may be

made in this connection that the pken t 'Nellore rice' is different, bemuse the

original 'Molagolukulu' is being discontinued by the agriculturists for many a

reason.

The Kandaleru, which fists in the Veligond region, flows past Gudur and

merges itself into the Bay of Bengal near Krishnapatnam a port town.

The Swarnamukhi rises in the Chandragiri hills in the Chittoor district and

flows between Venkatagiri and Sulurpeta taluks and cross Gudur taluk. It enters into

the Bay of Bengal near Siddhavaram in Gudur taluk. The Paleru and the Manneru

originating in the Veligond region flow across Kanigiri and Kandukur taluks. The

Pillaperu and the Upputeru are tributaries of Manneru. Of these, the Pillaperu flows

across the taluk of Udayagiri, while the Upputeru flows across Kavali and

Kandukuru taluks6.

The Gundlakamma, which rises in the Nallamala hills in the Kurnool district,

flows on the western boundary of the Podili taluk and the northern boundary of

Darsi taluk. The Musi rising in the Veligonda range skirts the taluk of Kandukuyr

and enters Ongole taluk in the present Praksam district. Apart fiom these rivers there

are rivulets flowing in the district, like the Kattarnanneru, and Kalleru(Kavilya) in

Venkatagiri region.

Of all these rivers, the Pennar provides water f a irrigation and drinking to

the maximum area in the district. The Penn delta region is supposed to be the richest

in the district. This may be termed as the "Nile of Nellore district"

Natural setting

The forests in the hilly tract of Nellore district are of mixed deciduous type

with high growth, small girth and low density. The forests in the plains tend to be

evergreen associated with a sprinkling of dry deciduous spices in the upper storey.

Towards the extreme south, especially in the Sriharikota island region and along the

coast in the southem taluks dry ever- fmests make their appearance.

'Ihe vegetation in the di&ct depends on the influence of the south-west or

the north-west rnoasoon'and the type of rock and soil. In the laetrile and red soils,

the north-east monsoon predominates- as in the southern taluks, the dry vegetarian

oawrs. Along the sea coast also this forest type exists. On the hilly slopes the

tropical dry deciduous forest predominates. Glass I forests which have been under

scientific management for a long time register good growth. The forests in the

erstwhile Zamindari estates and those maintained by the panchayats in the past come

under this category.

The hill forests of Nellore harbour wild life like bear, panther, spotted deer

and Sarnbar. Occasionally tigers cross over to thids district from forests of Cuddapah

and Kurnool districts. Jungle fowl, sand grouse, partridge, peafowl, pigeon etc are

common. The Jordan's courser is reported to have been sighted decades ago in the

forest of Nellore district '. The Pulicat Lake is a very important region in the district. It is situated on

the route of migratory birds and accommodates a host of wading and water birds.

Flamingo, Pelican, Kingfisher, Snipe, darter, stark, spoon-bill and duck are found in

this lake. The Government of Andhra Pradesh declared this lake region as protected

bird sanctuary.

Nellore district has a hot climate, the summer especially trying. The year

may be divided into four seasons. The summer season fiom March to May is

followed by the -south-west monsoon season which hxtends up to the end of

September. October and November constitute retreating monsoon or post monsoon

season. The period fiom December to February is the north-east monsoon season.

The average annual rainfall in Nellore district is 952.2.m.m (37.48") The rain

fall in the district, in general, decreases fiom the south-east towards the north-west

and varies fiom 629.7 mrn(24.79") at Darsi near the northern border to 1,287.4

mm(49.50")at Tada near the south-eastern comer of the district8. Nellore district gets

the benefit of rainfall both in the south-west and the retreating monsoon seasoy.

The rainfall during the south-west monsoon season amounts to only 31 per cent of

the annual normal rain fall, u M e about fifty perce~t of the annual rainfall is

received during the retr&ng monsoon season. In the southem half of the district,

particularly in the coastal parts themis some W a l l in early north-east monsoon

season too. The period h m January to April is comparatively dry, October and

November are the rainiest months. The variation in rainfall from year to year is

appreciable. In the recent times rain with storm became a regular phenomenon and

this is causing inestimable damage to the fanners. The erratic rains brought a great

change in the paddy cultivation. One important change is that the farmers prefer to

cultivate short tenn paddy variety. This is one of the reasons for discontinuing the

famous and popular 'Molagolukulu' paddy. Farther the yield from the short term

paddy varieties is also very high9.

The only meteorological observatory in Nellore district is at Nellore town

and the records of this observatory may be taken as fairly representative of the

meteorological conditions prevailing in the district. In the interior parts of the

district, the day temperature may be higher than the night temperature. Fro, about

the middle of February, the day temperatures progressively increase and by May, the

hottest month, the mean daily minimum 27.7"C. The heat during the summer

months is oppressive, particularly in the interior parts of the district. In the coastal

region, the sea breeze in the afternoons brings relief fiom the heat. After the onset of

the south-west monsoon in the first week' of June, there is some decrease in

temperatures. After September, temperature decreases W e r and by December,

which is the coolest month the mean daily maximum t&perature is 28.7 C and the

mean daily minimum 20.2'.

The air is humid throughout the year in the coastal parts. The driest part of

the year is fiom May to August, when the humidity is on an average between 45 and

55 percent. The relative humidity in the interior parts of the district may be slightly

lower.

The history of the district can very well be pushed back to the prehistoric

period. PreHistorians and t6e Geologists assert that the early and middle

palaeolithians flourished in t h e ' b area stretching fiom Orissa to South Arcot

particularly in Cuddph, Guntur and Nellac districts. Thc gcograph~cal situation of

the district and the completely Dravidian character of its vernacular seem to indicate

that the district came under Dravidian occupation as early as the other parts of thc

Peninsula The existence of Megalithic cdture is indicatedlO. The Aryans by

thousand B.C. started infiltrating into the Peninsular India Nellore district might

have experienced the impact of Aryan expansion. The fourth century B.C. witnessed

the emergence of the mighty Mauryan Empire in the north. The Mauryan emperor

Asoka extended his swat over the Deccan and South India Thus Nellore formed the

part and parcel of the Mauryan Empire. The Mauryans were succeeded by the

Andhra Satavahanas in the Deccan and South India. They ruled the entire Telugu

speaking region h m the third century B.C. to third century A.D. thus Nellore

district experienced the rule of the Satavahanas. Nellore district, after the fall of the

Satavahanas came under the control of the Pallavas. The Pallavas ruled the district

unhampered h m the third century A.D. to the sixth century A.D. The Pallavas

disappeared fiom the political scene by ninth century A.D. This paved the way for

the emergence of Imperial Cholas of Tanjavur. Meanwhile, the Eastern Chalukyan

kingdom with Vengi as its capital came to lime light in the coastal Andhra region

and extended their power up to'Nellore region. The Eastern Chalukyas and the

Imperial Cholas became friends and relatives during the time of Rajaraja Chola the

Great. (A.D.985-1013) The dipl~matic matrimonial alliances that were affected

between these two dynasties finally culminated into an union and thus Kulottunga I , a Chalukya-Chola prince ruled the Eastern Chalukyan and the Chola empires. Thus

Nellore district came under the control of the Cholas.

The Cholas and the Chalukya-Chola supremacy over Nellm district was

long and as a consequence of which numerous Telugu Chola feudatory families

came into existence in Nellore and its neighborhood about the middle of the twelfth

century A.D. The Telugu Cholas of Vikramasimhapuri were one of them. Tikkana,

Manumasiddhi etc., were the representatives of this dynasty. Tikkanna somayaji one

of the greatest Telugu poets adorned the court of Manumasiddhi. Manumasiddhi

became subordinate of K d d y a s of Warangal due to fast changed political

atmosphsc in the &. Thus Nellon district came under the hegemony of the

Kakatiyas of ~araugal". Nellore &d pros@ a lot unds the rule of the

Kakatiyas. The present Nellore tank was the result of the patronage extended by

Ganapatideva maharaja of Kakatiya dynasty. A very important political

development that took place in the extreme south at this time i.e. Pandyas rose to

power on the ruins of Imperial Cholas making their capital Madurai. The Pandyan

forces swept away all opposition and reached Nellore and conquered it. thus Nellore

district became a part of Pandyan kingdom. However the Kakatiyas during the reign

of Rudramadevi (A.D. 1259-1295) and later on under the dynamic leadership of

Pratapamdradeva (A.D. 1295-1 325) reasserted their position in the southern regionI2.

The Andhradesa faced Muslim incursions in the first quarter of the fourteenth

century A.D.Allauddin Khilji and later on Muharnmaud-bin-Thughluq conducted a

series of expeditions against south and occupied major part of the country. Thus the

entire Andhra m e under the control of Crescent.

The downfall of Kakatiyas paved the way for the establishment of Reddy

kingdom with their capital at Kondavidu. They were originally belonged to the

Nellore district. Thus the Nellore district not only saw the emergence of the Reddi

rulers but also their rule for some centuries13.The Reddi kingdom gradually lost its

vitality and virility. The Vijayanagara kings consolidated their power in this district

by fortifying Udayagiri and making it their chief and important stronghold in the

east. Sri Krishnadevaraya (A.D.1509-1530) was the gr&test representative of the

Tuluva dynasty. The entire South India came under his control. Thus Nellore district

experienced the glorious rule of Sri ~rishnadevara~a". After the death of Sri

Krishnadevaraya the Vijayanagara Empire started loosing its strength. Nellore

district was benefited immensely by the rule of the Vijayanagara emperors. The

most important benefit was the establishment of Kalikiri reservoir near

Buchchiredd ypalern

The Vijayanagara period was succeeded by the Qutub Shahis of Golkonda.

They ruled the Andhra rejion from A.D. 15 1 8to 1687. The Qutub Shahi rule came to

an end by 1687 A.D. Aurangazeb conquered the Golkonda region. Thus the Deccan

passed into the hands of Mughul rulers. Though the district of Nellore came under

the rule of Qutub Shahis and the ~ u g h u l s it did not play an important part as it

played in the previous periods. The end of @tub Shahis and the weak later Mughul

emperor's rule paved the way for the rise of Asaf Jehis. By this time the English and

the ~rench East India companies were very p o w d in South India

The European companies vied with each other in establishing their power in

South India The result was the csrhatic wars. In these wars the English East India

Company came victorious. As a consequence the districts of Nellore and Chittoor

which were included in the Carnatic came under the Company's rule in 1802 and

Lord Wellesley was responsible for it Is. Thus the district of Nellore came under the

company's rule in the first quarter of nineteenth century A.D. Nellore district was

them famous for producing fine quality of 'Romals' (hand kerchief) and they were

in hot demand in England and Europe 16.

The British East India Company's interest was to gather as much money as

possible fiom India. Indian economic interests were subordinated to the economic

interests of Britain. Several other factors paved the way for the outbreak of the

Revolt of 1857. It was very intense'in Northern India but feeble in South, except in a

few places like Aurangabad, Hyderabad, Cuddapah and ~achili~atnam". The

educated community in different tc~wns vied with each other in expressing their

loyalty to the British administration. In all the important towns, like Visakapatnam,

Rajhamundry, Vijayawada, Guntur Nellore and Chittoor public meetings were held

and expressed their loyalty 18. It would thus be clear that the district of Nellore and

the people of Nellore played a part in the Revolt by expressing its unflinching

loyalty to British administration.

India experienced a radical change after the suppression of the Revolt, for it

came under the authority of the Crown. Thus Nellore district was under the Crown

right fiom 1857 to 1947. It became a .part and parcel of the Madras province. In

1885 the Indian National Congress was fonned and this was the starting point of the

h e d m struggle. In the M o m struggle Nellore district played a very important

part. The national lead& and the p p l e after waging mlentless struggle against

British colonialism, nearly for ninety years, liberated India h m the foreign

domination. The leaders of political parties and the people of Nellore were in no way

inferior to others in contributing their might for the cause of independence.

It is thus evident fiom the foregoing discussion that the antiquity of Nellore

district can very well be pushed back to the pre-historic times. The historic period

starts fi-om the Mauryas. A h the ~auryas," the Satavahanas, the Pallavas, the

Eastern Chalukyas, the Cholas, the Chalkyas-Cholas, The Telugu Cholas, the

Kakatiyas, the Pandyas, the Reddis, the Vijaytanagara kings, the Qutub Shahis, the

mughuls the Asaf Jhahis, the English East India Cornpanay and the British ruled the

district of Nellore. It experienced development during the rule of Indian rulers either

Hindu or Muslim but not under the Company and Crown as was desired.

NeUore district as an administrative unit

. Any amount of discussion on the district of Nellore would be incomplete

without a reference to the district as an administrative unit. The district of Nellore

includes the amalgamation of both coastal and hill tract cultures and it represents in

all aspects the two significant features of Andhra Pradesh-the Coastal Andhra and

the Hilly tract Andhra. The district of elli ire according to the Census of 198119

ranks fifteenth among the districts of Andhra Pradesh with a population of 2,004,914 I

which accounts for 3.75 per cent of the total population of the State, while in respect

of the area it occupied according to the census of 1961, the second place with an

extent of 20,615.9 square kilometers which accounted for 7.50 per cent of the total

area of the State of Andhra Pradesh *'.

The district of Nellore has not always been a homogeneous unit and its

consitituents parts changed from time to time. During the early British rule, the

district consisted of thirteen taluks, of which Ongole was one. In 1904, Ongole taluk

was transferred to Guntur district owing to its geographical proximity to that district

thus reducing the number of taluks of Nellore district to twelve. But as in 1910

Kovur taluk was carved out oFMellore Taluk, it became the thirteenth taluk of the

district. In 1951 one Gllage fiom the Kandukur taluk, namely Chelamcherla was

transferred to Kavali taluk. The di& did not undergo any change in its territorial

jurisdiction till 1955, when the village Kotikalapudi in Darsi taluk was transferred to

Ongole taluk of Guntuyr district. However in 1959, Darsi taluk gained the villages

of ~rishna~uram, Pedda Yuyyalawada and China Uyyalavada from Ongole taluk of

Gunturu district. From 1959 to 2* February 1970, Nellore district did not witness

any territorial changes. During this period, the district comprised thirteen taluks,

grouped under four revenue divisions as shown below. They contained 1,626

inhabited villages, 116 uninhabited villages and 9 towns. Nellore city has a

population over one lakh *'. Name of the Revenue Taluks attached Area in square miles Revenue Division

1 .Nellore 1. Nellore taluk 1,504-00

2. Rapur taluk 2,594-00

3. Atmakur taluk 3,639-00

2.Gudur 1. Gdur taluk 1,463-00

2. Sullurpet taluk 2,573-00

3. Venkatagiri taluk 3,427-00

r

3. Kandukur 1. Kanigiri taluk 1,000-00

2. Podili taluk 564-00

3. Darsi taluk 590-00

4. Kandukuru talk 781-00

4. Kavali 1. Udayagiri taluk 67 1-00

2. Kavali taluk 568-00

3. Kovur taluk 365-00

The district is roughly mtangular in shape and is about ,150 miles long and

60 miles wide. It is flat and of low elevation and forms part of the Carnatic

plains.

Nellore district has been predominantly agriculture in character. With the

remodeling of the Netlore Anicut in 1862-63 Ad the construction of Sangam Anicut

in 1886, the taluks of Nellore and Kovur developed into prosperous areas. Efforts in

the past to diversify the economy of the district could not make much headway in

changing the position of agriculture as the principal occupation of the people. With

the passage of time, however, the introduction of railways and the other means of

transport and communications in the region gave an impetus not only to the

advancement of agriculture on scientific lines but also to the growth of industries

like mica mining, ceramic, textile and other manufacturing units. The

implementation of various other development programmes under the under the

successive Five Year plans led to the completion of good number of irrigational

works. Irrigational facilities were made available to many parts in the district. Thus

in the recent years both agriculture and industry received tremendous help from the

prosperity induced by irrigation, coupled with the easy transport and communication

facilities. Places like - Nellore,Gudur,Kovur, Sullurpeta and Tada have become

industrial centres.

REFERENCES

1. Nellore District Gazetteer -Page 1

2. Census Report 1961 -Nellore district. P ii

3. Survey of India-Map of Andhra ~rad&h- 1 96 1

4. Nellore District Gazetteer- Page 2

5. Ibid

6. Ibid

7. Ibid

8. Meteorology department records-maintained in the Offices of the District

Collectors Jellore and Prakasarn

9. Ibid

1 0. The Andhra Pradesh journal of Archaeology,Vol. 1 p 5 1 ff

11 . Journal of Andhra Historical Research Society, Vo.XXI1. parts I-V

12. Somasekhara Sarma,M.:"History of the Reddi kingdomw-Waltair, pp 18 ff

13. Ibid-p50

14. Venkataramanaiah, N. "Krirhnadevarayalu" (~el&u) pp 20 ff

15. Ra0,P.R. ist to& of ~ o d e r n Andhra, pl7

16. Ibid-p21

17. Ibid-p24

18. Haragopa1,C. 'Evolution of Modern Andhra: A Socio-Economic Perspective,

Presidential Address, Modern Andhra Session" Andhra Pradesh History

Congress IX Session held at Kumool, 1985, p10

f 9. Census Report f 98 1 -Nellqre District p v-vii

20. lbid- 196 1- pp xxiii-xxv

21, Ibid