CHAPTER IV

METHODOLOGY

CHAPTER lV

METHODOLOGY

PREAMBLE

This study uses a mixture of quantitative methodology and qualitative

approaches. But it is might be expedient to describe methods used - both

quantitative and qualitative - first in terms of the classification commonly

described in books on educational research methodology and then add the

distinct emphasis given to specific aspects in the light of the new insights

contributed by the most recent thinking on qualitative research.

Educational research methodologists (such as Mouly 1963, Good, 1966)

generally recognise three basic methods:

Historical

Descriptive (which includes survey, case study and analysis as

the main components)

Experimental

In addition,

Cornell, (In Gephart and lngle, 1969; cited also by Mouly,

1963) recognises construct formation as a research method in

itself.

It must be added that some authors effect some variation in terms of number

of subcomponents of descriptive method; some would even place survey as

the main method in this group.

A. THE METHODS USED: CLASSIFIED IN WELL-KNOWN

METHODOLOGY

Of the four major method groups listed above, the historical method is not

required as a research method in this study. The focus of the study is mainly

in the present with some future orientation too. But the perspectives of

historical research methodology do come in handy in some of the analysis

144

Methodology

and reconstructions of historical matter from community/environmental

resources. i.e., in helping pupils to observe historical evidence form the

environment, they may need to identify the historical sources (primary or

secondary), apply the necessary criticism (internal or external) and present

their case according to acceptable or defensible historiographic stances. To

repeat, historical method is not used directly in the present research process

for data collection. If it comes, it would be as an input for construct-making if

and when environmental material with historical importance get presented to

pupils, and the way of helping pupils handle them need to be explained. If

such occasion arises in the course of the research, the precise way of such

usage will be presented along w~th the statement of results/constructs. So

the effective research methods used in this study amount to:

1. Descriptive: analysis, case study, survey

2. Experimental or quasi-experimental

3. Construct-making

How each one of these is used will now be explained.

Much of the methodology attempted in this research can be put (in the

traditional analysis pattern) under the head of descriptive research. Within

descriptive methodology, analysis, case study and survey are used.

Analysis

Analysis as used in the study takes several forms. These include:

documentary analysis, situational analysis, curricularlpedagogic analysis.

(a) Documentaw Analysis

The documents analysed include:

Panchayat reports (twenty, of which ten were from the area

adjoining Alappuzha, and ten outside this zone)

District handbooks (only four were available -from Wayanad,

Kannur, Palakkad, and Alappuzha)

M e l h o d o l r ~ ~

Tourism Development Council publications (These range from

research type publications on particular themes attractions

which may appeal to tourists who come with an intellectual or

spiritual quest, to small pamphlets which display the tourist

attraction spof:s in terms of district or theme)

Scientific documents (e.g., Proceedings of the Fourteenth

Kerala Science Congress, documents from M.S. Swaminathan

Research Foundation, Biodiversity Centre, Wayanad etc.)

School textbooks, Teachers' handbooks, other materials for

school teachers and pupils, Committee Reports and Reviews

etc.

Previous researches, especially those relating to environment

and community studies

In addition to these miscellaneous documents and secondary

sources, newspapers and magazines, pamphlets etc got

incidentally or as a follow-up of the major designed group of

documents were also analysed.

The level of analysis varied from very systematic to incidental. In many

cases the purpose was to check whether a document would yield any

special insight from the point of view of identifying and using

environmentlcommunity resources for educational purpose. Of the several

sources used, the district handbooks and panchayat reports already have a

structure in terms of themes under which various aspects of social life and

physical data with reference to their area of jurisdiction will be collected and

presented: topography, climate, soil, minerals, fauna, flora, agriculture.

animal husbandry, fisheries, religion, folk arts, recreation, history and

architecture.

(b) Situational Analysis

Situational analysis amounts to analysis of contexts. There is some

nebulosity in this matter which cannot be totally overcome. The work done

Methodologv

by earlier investigators in the field such as Manuel, Exemmal, Mercykutty,

Krishnankutty and others may provide rough guidelines, but the final pattern

will have to be worked by the investigator. In this respect modern qualitative

approaches give some rough guidelines. Integrated approaches are implied

in the use of environment ar~d community.

(c) Curricular Analvsis

This is partially covered under textual analysis (which is in a sense included

under documentary analysis). But the curriculum is more than the syllabus

and the text. Apart from the content, its analysis and sequence, there are

several principles of curricuh~m transaction which also will have to be kept in

mind. The structures (which are more crucial than the contents) of the

disciplines, the rhythms, spirals, the foundations (philosophic, sociological,

psychological, linguistic) and several other issues will enter this phase.

It must be clarified that only the first dimension in analysis (documentary

analysis) will be clear and transparent. The other dimensions of analysis will

be background factors in the mind and their effect will be clearly seen only

when the constructs are also intersected.

A formally structured analytical schedule was not used in the analysis. But

there was progressively clarified mental structuration, especially with

reference to situational and curricular analyses.

The analysis is done in two phases. In the first phase when a wide span of

open situations and themes are offered (Vide Chapter V), the analysis may

not be very pointed. But out of this imperfect analysis it was found possible

to draw some useful constructs and inferences. In phase 2, the analysis is of

the new curriculum (Chapter VI A) which already attempts to use the

environment and curriculum and environmental resources. It was possible to

make the analysis at this stage more pointed. Even here two or three

different patterns of analysis were attempted. The question of which pattern

was superior was not raised or attempted to be answered. Along with

identifying different types of environment/community resources, different

ways of analysing them and using them in different ways were attempted.

Thus a wider pool of constructs is expected to emerge, which would be

significant for model making.

The results of the documentary analysis based on the panchayat reports,

district handbooks, tourism material etc. are reported in Chapter V A. Some

of the documentary analysis is woven with constructs and other modes and

are reported in Chapter V f; and C.

Case Study

The case studies attempted in this study are not of individual cases. They

are cases of innovations. Sometimes the innovating individual or institution

might also get projected. But what are expected to emerge for research are

some environmental components that are usable for education and the ways

i r ~ which the environment can be used for educational purposes. Since the

universe of operation is vast, the larger the number of cases, the wider may

be the resource potential and usage methods. At the beginning phases

there was plenty of openness about the research. Hence it was decided to

identify as many cases as possible in and around Alappuzha. One

expectation is that some of these cases may turn out to be case cum

(informal) experiment. Thus fourteen cases were identified:

1. Chakara (mud bank) : ethno science of the fishing community

2. Tapping the rich resources of the socially weaker sections (the

uDdans)

3. Kunchan Srnarakam at Ambalapuzha : nurturing the tudal art form

4. The itinerant pesticide promoter

5. Dayal's experimental plot

6. Kuriakose's ecosystem - a case cum experiment

7. Fisheries Vocational Higher Secondary School - participant

observation

8. Map reading from the panchayat report stimulus

9. Polio Home, Trivandrum

10. Mitraniketan, Trivandrum: an education-centred community

11. Farm Information Bureau

12. Centre for Science in Society, CUSAT, Cochin

13. Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishat

14. The Investigator's Home Garden : Towards a Habitat Centre,

Of the fourteen selected cases the first eight and the last one were centred

in the neighbourhood of Alappuzha. Two have state-wise coverage. Two

are located in or near Trivandrum and one in Cochin. No generalisations are

expected to be drawn from these cases, but it was expected that some

insights might emerge. It is expected that with a large number of cases,

some breadth too will be achieved. The findings obtained from these are

reported in Chapter V D.

Documentary Analysis cum Case Study

In the fourteen Case Studies, which were mostly general action projects of

the nature of individual or group social action, it was hoped to draw some

curricular implications. Some of them did have a curricular stance too, but

the major thrust was social action. From these the investigator hoped to

draw the curricular components. It did materialise to some extent, but the

range had a high scatter from the point of view of the school curriculum.

But it so chanced that the new curricular reforms at primary level, originally

initiated by the District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) was going

on parallel lines (with the investigator's personal research) as a State-

sponsored innovation in primary education. The scheme attempted to put

into practice child-centred, activity-oriented, environment-exploring,

community-tapping approaches on a large scale. In addition to new

textbooks, carefully designed hand books for teachers and intense training

procedures were devised. During the middle phase of the present

research, the primary curriculum reform began to be debated heatedly. In

any case a state-wide experiment of transacting the primary curriculum in

terms of making educat~on active, and learning through using the

resources of the environment and the community had been set in motion.

Hence a study of this State-sponsored innovation itself would have greater

coverage and coherence than the individual case studies which the

investigator herself had studied through participant observation and

analysed. So this primary curricular approach (which implied activity and

pedagogic use of the environment) is subjected to an intense case study.

On the conceptual side an intense analysis of textual and other related

matter associated with this programme was also needed as an input in this

massive case study. But: then it also involved analysis going beyond

documents. Situational and curricular transaction analysis also formed

part of this case study. The results of this combined methodological

approach are presented in Chapter VI A.

The Survey

This study involved one major quantitative survey - the survey of attitudes

and opinions to the use of environment/community resources for pedagogic

purposes. The original intention of the investigator was to develop her own

constructs for pedagogic use of environmental resources and elicit the

judgements of purposive sample on it. Later it was felt that it would be much

more feasible and productive to get the opinions and judgements of a

purposive sample on it.

For this purpose a Likert-type attitude scale and a judgement schedule were

used.

(a) The attitude scale

The investigator collected a number of statements eliciting attitudes (overtly

by inviting their opinions) on the new curricular approaches using the

environment/community resources. These were collected by analysing

statements made by teachers and the public in speeches, the press,

individual discussions with the investigator. Some of the statements were

favourable to the new approaches, and some unfavourable. In this way,

more than fifty items were originally collected. After rejecting those that were

double barrelled, factual or otherwise defective, 38 statements were chosen

for inclusion in the tryout version of the attitude scale. These were printed in

a schedule with five columns set against each statement. These columns

were given judgemental column heads: Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided,

Disagree and Strongly Disagree.

This attitude scale was administered to a purposive sample of 700

respondents which comprised of 300 members of the public, 200 teachers

and 200 graduate teacher trainees. In terms of sex, the sample consisted of

299 men and 401 women.

Many researchers do a separate item analysis first, reprint the tool omitting

the rejected items and then administer the final tool to the final sample. In

this procedure, the original tool itself was administered to the final sample,

item analysis was conducted with a limited number out of this pool, the

unsatisfactory items were rejected for purposes arriving at the summative

score. Only the items which satisfied the criteria for item analysis were

counted for summation to get the total attitude score of the respondents.

The item analysis was done as follows:

185 scripts out of the 700 filled in attitude scale forms were selected at

random and scored. The scoring was done as follows:

For favourable items a weightage of 5 for Strongly Agree, 4 for Agree, 3 for

Undecided, 2 for Disagree and 1 for Strongly Disagree were given.

For unfavourable items a weightage of 1 for Strongly Agree, 2 for Agree, 3

for Undecided, 4 for Disagree and 5 for Strongly Disagree were given. [The

me rho do lo^

rationale is that Strong Disagreement with a favourable item amounts to

Strong Agreement with an i~nfavourable item and so on].

The scores of the 38 individual items thus scored were surnmated and total

scores were obtained for the 185 scripts. On the basis of these total scores

the scripts were arranged in order (In fact all these were done with scores

entered on the on the computer, not with physical scripts) from the highest to

the lowest. From these total scores, the highest-scoring 50 (top 27%) and

the lowest-scoring 50 (bottom 27%) were identified.

Then the means, variances and standard error of means of each item were

calculated for the High group of 50 and Low group of 50. Hence the Mean

Difference and standard error of difference of mean, and thence the critical

ratio (t) were calculated for each of the 38 items. The t - table presenting 5%

and 1% level of significance of difference for different degrees of freedom

given in statistics books were referred to decide the significance of mean

difference for each item. Or~ly those items in which the high group means

were significantly higher than the low group mean were selected for the final

attitude scale. The results of the item analysis are shown in Table 1.

Table-l Item Analysis Statistics of Attitude Scale

(N=185, High Group=50, Low Group=50)

**Significant at 1 % level, " Significant at 5% level, NS= Not significant)

SI. No

1.

2'

3.

Statements

Integrated presentation of the subjects can be done naturally even in the higher classes (eg: agricultural themes combining the science of plants, insect, soil and commerce). Subjects must be taught as separate disciplines even from the lowest classes. Organizing learning In the context of the local environment can help in developing meaning.

High Group mean

4.64

4.16

4 92

Low group mean

4.22

3.20

4.24

Mean diff.

0.42

0.96

0.68

st' value

3.24

3.63

4.36

signifi -cance

"

"

"

I

me rho do lo,^

rting with clearly defined

any problerr~s that they

the school is not to dole out a limited stock of facts in classroom transaction

culturally disadvantaged pupils in the

ed steps without imparting

154

Melhodoi~gi~

It would be seen from an inspection of Table 1 that six items failed to meet

the criterion for discrimination set in item analysis, viz., the high group mean

for the item must be significantly higher than the low group mean.

Resource persons from the fields like medicine and health, nutrition, agriculture

invited to the school to interact with children The local artisans, craftmeti and folk

education Some panchayat reports and publications regarding developmental issues can be used as carricular and co-curricular materials in education Local reports, district hand books and

35

36

37

38

Four items (Numbers 5.8,12 and 31) revealed no significant difference

between the item mean of the high group and that of the low group even at 5

% level.

Two items (Numbers 11 and 26) revealed an interesting phenomenon. The

low group mean was significantly higher than the mean of the high group.

This may seem strange, but if one sees the difference of opinion even

among experts on these issues the surprise will vanish. In other words,

these Items are negatively discriminating. Some top-level psychometricians

would find some use to such items, by using them in reverse ways. But that

requires great skill to work ou: and make people understand.

4.98

4.94

4.66

other community information can help to give local rooting in order to make any subject (from geography an'3 history to science and statistics) mearlingful If diversity is encouraged in school even as a starting in the same way at the same rate in order to ensure national unity and solidarity - All pupils in the public systeln must learn the same thing, in the same way at the same rate in order to ensure national unity and solidarity A rich multilingual and multic:ultural nation like India should develop a standard. but flexible curriculum which reflects the spirit of 'unity' in diversity

4.5

4.08

3.56

4.56

4.02

4,62

4.64

0.48

0.86

1.10

3.74

3.64

3.22

4.32

6.54

8.35

6.60

0.82

0.98

0.80

0.32

"

**

"

6.17

5.02

3.46

2.21

"

**

**

-

So all the six items (Nos. :1,8,11,12,26, 31) were rejected for purposes of

calculating the total attitude scores of respondents. The sum of the 32

satisfactory items was calculated afresh on the computer for all the 700

respondents and on this basis the total attitude score analysis was done.

[It must be added that the rejected items too were used for diagnostic

analysis of individual values. They had value as individual items. Only when

used for summation would they vitiate the tool. This use is explained later.]

On the basis of the total scores for the 'final attitude scale' of 32 items, the

frequency distribution tables and graphs were prepared. The relevant

measures of central tendency and variabilities were calculated in presented

in Chapter VI B. Separate distributions of the male and female subsamples

were prepared and compared.

Because in Likert technique of attitude measurement the respondents have

to answer every item, the reaction to each item can be measured and

compared. For this purpose all the 38 items (including those rejected in item

analysis) were grouped into eight categories and the 'agreement scores' (not

favourableness scores) wore calculated and set into eight tables and

discussed. Here the reaction of the respondent is treated as judgement of

each item rather than revealing his personal feelings to it. Hence even

unfavourable items are not reverse- scored. The rationale of this procedure

is explained in the discussion of Tables 5 (a) to 5 (h) (Chapter VI B).

(b) Judgement Schedule

In the academic year 2001-:2002, the pupils who had learnt through the new

curriculum up to the upper primary schools came to Class 8. But the text

which was prepared as a continuation of what they had done up to Class 7

was withheld and the old books for Class 8 reprinted and taught. This year

the 'revised' books are introduced with some minor revisions. So the year

2001-2002 was a crucial one to test the reaction of the environmentally

trained pupils reaching Cla:ss 8. This investigator's students in the B.Ed.

Class reported on the basis of their observations in teaching practice that the

pupils of Class 8, having been trained in environmental investigations at the

primary level were more inquisitive, more lively, more active in class. At the

same time some teachers and even educationists who expect passive, quiet

discipline in the class were not happy with the behaviour of these pupils.

To follow up the research pc'tential arising out of this situation, a judgement

schedule was prepared to be answered by teacher trainees doing B.Ed. in

2001-2002. It was administered to 442 B.Ed. students drawn from various

training colleges and training centres. The schedule consisted of two sets of

judgement items. The first set presented nine pupil behaviours ranging from

activity-orientation and sensitiveness to surroundings to submissiveness and

quiet behaviour in class. They were asked to judge the behaviour of pupils

who were in Class 8 that year (who had passed through activity and

exploration-centred primary education) against those in Classes 9 and 10

(who had only traditional education throughout) and judge whether the pupils

of Class 8 exhibited 'More', 'Less' or the 'Same' level of behaviour as

compared to those in Classes 9 and 10. The responses were compared on

the basis of 'More' minus 'L.ess' (ignoring the Same). In a sense this

comparison has the appearance of an experiment of the ex post facto

design. (I

The second item in the Judgement schedule invited the B.Ed. students to

compare several teacherlpupil behaviours as they existed when they were

high school pupils with what was observed in the pupils who had learnt

through the new approaches (In high school, Class 8 only). The items

ranged from 'Teacher tells what is in the text' and 'Teacher punishes' to

'Children are more active'. 'Children use the environmental resources' etc.

The respondents are expected to judge each item on a four-point scale -

Always, Often, Rarely and Never (weighted in scoring as 3, 2, 1 and 0). On

Melhodolo,qv

the basis of these weighted scores mean differences between the 'Earlier'

and 'Now' scores could be found. But no satisfactory measure of calculating

the significance of difference with these weighted scores could be arrived at.

Hence the raw frequencies of entries 'Always' and 'Often' were combined as

'Frequent occurrence', and 'Rarely' and 'Never' combined as 'Rare

occurrence'. Significance was tested through chi square test.

Experimental approaches

This study involved some interventions, usually combined with case studies.

But the experimental interventions are often imperceptible. They cannot be

classified on any of the designs set in 'Scientific research'. But they do serve

a useful purpose as in clinical or nursing situations. They can be treated as

naturalistic experiments or as case cum experiments. They can also be

treated as 'action research', but of much higher level of breadth and depth

than what is often recommended for thee teacher practitioner. For this

enlarge model of action research qualitative methods give us some

guidance. This is discussed in Section B of this chapter.

Constructive approaches

It was mentioned earlier that c:onstruction itself is recognised as a method of

research. It is very difficult to spell it out analytically. Its effect can be seen

in the development of models and also in some applications in Chapter V B

and C.

6. THE QUALITATIVE COMPONENTS ADDED

The need for adding qualitative approaches

There was plenty of scope for qualitative dimensions to enter in the research

except in the quantitative treatment of the survey data. The participant

observations and interviews and case study allowed plenty of such

observations.

Even when quantitative methods are followed (as in the survey) a qualitative

flavour can be added in discussing the individual items. In the analysis

dimensions too the qualitative component comes in subtle ways. Besides, in

treating experiments of the type included in enhanced forms action research,

qualitative methodologists have made immense contributions.

Qualitative research methods came to be focused because of the

dissatisfaction with the clissatisfaction with the so-called 'scientific

paradigm' governing the methods in education and other social sciences.

Paradigm is "the constellation of beliefs, values, techniques shared by

members of a given scientific community" (Kuhn). It is a framework that

functions as a map or guide for scientific communities. When a paradigm

becomes settled and dominant within a scientific community, research so

carried out is considered 'normal science'. This approach is governed by

precise rules leading to generalisations. Then research work is largely

routine problem-solving activity. But from time to time there are paradigm

shifts - breaks and discontinuities in the paradigms. The climate for such a

shift is ripe in the field of education, especially in areas like the curriculum

and its transaction.

The important aspects o f qualitative research

The characteristics and aims of qualitative research (Holloway 1997,

Patton 1990, Denzin and Lincoln, 1988) include:

+ Focusing on the everyday life of people in natural setting;

+ Naturalistic inquiry - studying real world situations as they unfold naturally,

non-manipulatively, unobtrusively, without predetermined constraints on

outcomes; openness to whatever emerges;

+ Primacy of data: Theoretical framework is not predetermined. The data

themselves generate new theoretical ideas, or they help modify already

existing theories.

+ Contextualization: Researchers have to be sensitive to the context of the

research and of peopls's lives, locate the actions and perceptions of

individuals and grasp the meanings that they communicate.

Immersion in the setting in the real world of participants and target culture

using the strategies oi observing, questioning and listening. They thus

make the strange familiar. But since over-familiarity may lead to missing

important issues, they also 'question their own assumptions and act like

strangers to the setting.'

The 'emic' perspective - a metaphor drawn from linguistics where

phonemics refers to th'e study of a particular language and p h o n e , the

study of sounds across different languages. The 'emic' perspective

explores 'the insider's view' and tries to 'uncover' the meaning people give

to their experiences. The researcher examines the situations, events and

actions from the participants' point of view and refrains from imposing his

own perspective. (In the 'etic' point of view the researcher as an 'outsider'

in order to make an 'objective' study.)

Thick description - the detailed and vivid portrayal of the participants'

experiences, going beyond surface phenomena to their interpretations,

uncovering feelings and the meanings of their actions. It is a "deep,

dense, detailed acco~~nt of problematic experiences .... It presents detail.

context, emotion and the webs of social relationship that join persons to

one another.' It includes factual as well as theoretical and analytical

description.

Equality in research relationship a close and reversible relationship

between the researcher and the researched. During interview the

researcher as listener often becomes the learner, while the informant is

also encouraged to be reflective.

The close interaction of data collection and analysis: In qualitative

research data collection and data analysis generally proceed together and

interact. Many hypotheses arise in the course of the research; the data

help to generate the theory, which in turn helps in interpreting data.

Inductive analysis - lrnmersion in the details and specifics of the data to

discover important dirnensions, by exploring open questions;

Holistic perspective - focus on complex interdependencies not

meaningfully reduced to a few discrete variables;

Qualitative data - detailed descript~on; inquiry in-depth;

Personal contact and insight;

Dynamic Systems - attention to process;

160

+ Unique case orientation - assuming that each case is special and unique;

respecting and capturing the details of the individual cases;

+ Context sensit~vity - placing findings in a social, historical and temporal

context.

+ Empathic neutrality - understanding the world in all its complexity,

including personal experience and empathic insight as part of the relevant

data.

+ Design flexibility - open to adapting inquiry as understanding deepens

and/or as situations change, avoid~ng getting locked into rigid designs,

pursuing new paths of discovery as they emerge.

Qualitative methodologies have the following preferences as compared to

quantitative methodologies:

hypotheses that emerge as study develops;

definitions in context or as study progresses;

narrative1 literary description of procedures and results;

assuming that reliability of inferences is adequate;

cross-checking the sources of information for assessing validity;

expert informant (purposive) samples;

logical analysis in controlling or accounting for extraneous variables;

primary reliance on researcher to deal with procedural bias;

narrative summary of results;

holistic description of ccsmplex phenomena; and

unwillingness to tamper with the naturally occurring phenomena.

Peer debriefing is a process in which an outsider (another researcher or

colleague) reviews the data and the analysis. The peer can examine the

situation more dispassionately and offer suggestion.

Context sensitivity is an important concept in qualitative research.

Silverrnan (1993) points out that context sensitivity enables the researcher

to recognise that institution:j and concepts have meanings which differ

according to the context. He also stresses the active production of context

by human agencies.

Subjectivity is seen by qualitative researchers in a slightly different way

from that of 'scientific' methodologists in social sciences. Here subjectivity

is seen as a potential resource. Objectivity is difficult to obtain due to the

closeness of the relationship and the immersion in the setting. Subjectivity

sensitizes researchers to the events and people under investigation. But

qualitative researches should become aware of their own assumptions and

be always conscious of their own 'cultural baggage'. Open recognition of

their own subjectivity helps qualitative researchers to disregard their own

wishes to achieve a particular objective. They reflect about one's own

values, cultural background and beliefs that might affect the results. Good

research must be carried out without distorting what is heard or seen. In

this sense qualitative research aims at objectivity.

Qualitative approaches help to enrich the Case study approach.

Qualitative approaches are especially sensitive to specific individual focus,

context and interactive aspects. Case data can be used for generating

theory. Life histories of individuals can provide interesting examples of

cases. Since the generalisability level of case study is low, typical or

multiple cases are often studied.

In content analysis also qualitative analysts have added some refinements

and categorisations: Manifest content analysis involves the search of the

content of an interview or document for particular concepts and categories

apparent in the data, the criteria and coding system being established prior

to the analysis. Latent content analysis searches for meanings which are

not immediately obvious from listening and reading. The analysis goes

beyond surface themes and appearances to underlying phenomena and

their interpretation. In Inductive content analysis the researchers derive

themes and constructs frorn the data without imposing a prior framework

and without counting. (Holloway).

Interview methodology has been developed very intricately in qualitative

research. In-depth interview is a favoured strategy for data collection. It

produces 'rich' data. Informal interviews are conversations where an

observer might ask about the observed activities. Formal interviews are

usually set up in advance a,nd tape-recorded. The unstructured interview

begins with a broad, open-ended question within the topic area. The

researcher uses an aide nremoire covering the key points. Prompts or

short questions can be used to develop ideas. The semi-structured

interview has a more specific research agenda and is more focused. The

questions are contained in the interview guide. Researchers have to be

aware of interview bias and guard against it.

Observation is another area developed in depth by qualitative

methodologists. Participant observation had its origins in anthropology. It

comes very handy in q~alitative researches in many disciplines.

Immersion in a setting is the first step in observation. It permits prolonged

engagement, which genera& more in-depth knowledge of a culture or a

sub-culture. The settings for participant observation can vary in a

continuum from open settings (public, visible settings like the street), to

closed settings (management meetings or clinics). Gold (1 958) identified

four types of observer involvement in the field.

+ The complete participant, who is part of the setting, and takes an insider

role that oflen involves c:overt observation.

+ The participant as observer, who has negotiated his way into the setting

as part of the working group under study.

+ The observer as participant, only marginally involved in the situation.

+ The complete observer who does not take part in the setting and uses a

'fly on the wall' approack~.

Mini-tour observation leads to detailed description of smaller settings,

while grand-tour obse~at ion is more appropriate for larger settings.

163

Focused observations are the outcome of specific questions. Researchers

proceed from broad observations to observing small units for investigation.

Progressive focusing is a feature of both observation and interviewing. In

covert observation, researchers do not disclose the real reason for their

presence in the setting.

It was said in Section A that the experimental approaches adopted in this

research often the form of Action Research of a scope much broader

than what is recommended to teacher- practitioners. A broad view of

action research given by Carr and Kemmis (1993) is recognised by

qualitative researchers. They view action research as critical social

science. It is 'a self-reflecting spiral of cycles of planning, acting, observing

and reflecting'. It is an 'approach' rather than a method.

The manifold forms of action research now available are conveniently

grouped into four types (McKernan, 1996):

Type 1: Scientific action research draws its inspiration from the

scientific method of problem-solving applied in teaching and learning and in

other social situations (Dewey, 1910, Lewin, 1947b, Corey, 1953). Of these

Lewin's model is explained briefly. Action research process is here

conceived as a series of spiralling decisions, taken on the basis of repeated

cycles of analysis, reconr~aissance, problem reconceptualisation, planning,

implementation and evaluation. The series of action advocated by Lewin

forms a linear progression: planning, fact-finding, execution and analysis.

Type 2: Practical-deliberative action research aims at understanding

practice and solving imrnediate problems. This model takes off from

measurement and control for human interpretation, interactive

communication, deliberation, negotiation and detailed description. It is tied

up closely with human deliberation in matters relating to the curriculum.

Type 3: Critical-emancipatory action research. Carr and Kemmis

(1986) have made significant contributions to this model. They summarize

the objectives of action research in the pithy phrase: 'to improve and

involve'. It is an 'approach' rather than a method. The collaboration

between researchers and practitioners is emphasised. Practitioners are also

Methodology

involved in the design, data collection and data analysis and evaluation.

Critical inquiry enables practitioners not only to search out the interpretative

meanings that educational actions have for them, but also to organize action

to overcome con~trair~ts. Thus their theory is critical, linked with

reconstructive action. The process of action research is conceived as a

series of reflective spirals in which a general plan, action, observation of

action and reflection on action is developed.

Type 4: Rational-interac.tive action research, a practical, dynamic model

developed by Hopkins (1985), further elaborated by McKernan (1996)

Action research conceived on a plane of equality between researcher and

participant is called participatory action research (Reason, 1994). Its

characteristics as: democratic, equitable, liberating and life-enhancing.

It is true that qualitative research, especially the type focussing on action,

does not insist on prior theory, but it lends itself to generating good and

even deep theory resulting in worthwhile and transferable findings. Action

research in this context involves collaboration between researchers and

practitioners. They attempt to understand and improve practice and its

context.

Validation Procedures in Qualitative Research:

Erlandson et al. (1993) clarify that in the naturalistic process of inquiry

much attention is given to ths? problem of constructing and communicating

reality. The formal jargon about validity and reliability are underplayed.

Everyday language like builcling trustworthiness, credibility, transferability,

dependability, confirmability, and authenticity are used.

The techniques that provide trustworthiness include: prolonged

engagement, persistent observation, triangulation, referential adequacy

materials, peer debriefing, member checking, the reflexive journal, thick

description, purposive sampling and the audit trail. The authenticity and

ethical considerations are also discussed.

Triangulation is a process which is expected to improve the validity of the

study through investiga-tion from different perspectives. Holloway

recognizes five main types of triangulation

t between-methods (inter-method/cross-method) triangulation. Here the findings obtained by olie method are confirmed by another. + within-method (in!ra-method) triangulation, where the researcher adopts different strategies but stays within a single paradigm. This is also related to data triangrulation, where researchers gain their data from different groups, locations and times. t theory triangulation is the use of different theoretical perspectives in the study of one problem

investigator triangtrlation means that more than one researcher is involved in t the research. t interdisciplinav triangulation: -The use of multiple subjects, discipl~nes or ideologies in a single problem.

The components of authenticity according to Holloway are:

t Fairness t Ontological authenticity (helping participants to gain an understanding of

their human condition through the research) 6 Educative authenticity (the understanding that individuals gain should

enhance the way in which they understand other people.) t Catalytic authenticity (decisions made by the participants should be

enhanced by the method of inquiry.) Tactical authenticity (the research should empower the participants. The action of the participants should have an impact on their lives.).

Silverman (2000) has even shown that a qualitative researcher may be

able to convert even a 'defect' or 'inadequacy' into a 'finding'. In a study

conceived in great breadth to be covered in a short period as the present

one, along with several new and significant findings, some defects were

also inevitable. Silverman's approach helps to penetrate even into the

defects, salvaging some worthwhile findings, not originally contemplated.

The synthesis of qualitative and quantitative approaches

The scientific research methods were taken as the base because they are

understood well in educational circles. In aspects such as the survey they fit

in perfectly. But in participai~t observation and interview and in several

aspects where detached objectivity will not yield really educational or

authentic data, the spirit of the qualitative approaches presented above

helped. In many of these transactions a relation of equality between the

researcher and researched, and mutuality of interaction were necessary for

getting authentic data.

As stated in the beginning, the experiment in this studies were naturalistic,

sometimes taking the form of action research on a higher plane than the pin-

pointed immediate problenl research very often popularised. Here the

qualitative insights were of great help. This study does not speak in terms of

statistical coefficients of validity and reliability. But trustworthiness,

authenticity, transferability and triangular checks for relevance were adopted.