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Chapter Menu
Chapter Introduction
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
Section 3: Social Learning
Chapter Preview 1
Chapter Objectives · Section 1Classical Conditioning
Describe classical conditioning, the learning procedure in which associations are made between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
Chapter Preview 2
Chapter Objectives · Section 2Operant Conditioning
Explain how operant conditioning occurs when the consequences that follow a behavior increase or decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.
Chapter Preview 3
Chapter Objectives · Section 3Social Learning
Discuss how social learning involves people making decisions and acting upon the information available to them.
Section 1-Main Idea
Main Idea
People acquire certain behaviors through classical conditioning, a learning procedure in which associations are made between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
Section 1-Key Terms
Vocabulary
• classical conditioning
• neutral stimulus
• unconditioned stimulus (US)
• unconditioned response (UR)
• conditioned stimulus (CS)
• conditioned response (CR)
• generalization
• discrimination
• extinction
Section 1-Objectives
Objectives
• Describe the principles of classical conditioning.
• Outline the techniques of classical conditioning.
A. A
B. B
C. C
Section 1-Polling Question
A B C
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Have you exhibited any behavior related to conditioning in the past hour?
A. Yes
B. No
C. Not sure
Section 1
Classical Conditioning
• Classical conditioning is a learning procedure in which associations are made between a neutral stimulus and an unconditional stimulus.
– Ivan Pavlov discovered this type of learning accidentally while using dogs to study the process of digestion.
– Learning is a relatively permanent change in a behavioral tendency that results from experience.
Classical Conditioning Experiment
Section 1
Classical Conditioning (cont.)
• Neutral stimulus
• Unconditioned stimulus (US)
• Unconditioned response (UR)
• Conditioned stimulus (CS)
• Conditioned response (CR)
Classical Conditioning Experiment
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 1
A B C D
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Leaving class when the bell rings is best described as what?
A. Neutral stimulus
B. Unconditioned response
C. Conditioned stimulus
D. Conditioned response
Section 1
General Principles of Classical Conditioning
• Acquisition of a classically conditioned response that occurs gradually and increases each time the CS and US are paired.
• The timing of the association between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus also influences learning.
Section 1
General Principles of Classical Conditioning (cont.)
• Pavlov also experimented with generalization and discrimination (using circles and ovals):
– Generalization
– Discrimination
– Extinction
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
Section 1
• If a rest period is given following extinction, the CR may reappear when the CS is presented again but not followed by the US.
• Such a spontaneous recovery does not bring the CR back to original strength, however.
General Principles of Classical Conditioning (cont.)
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 1
A B C D
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What explains a different response to foods that you like and foods that you dislike?
A. Acquisition
B. Generalization
C. Discrimination
D. Extinction
Section 1
Classical Conditioning and Human Behavior
• John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner used conditioning on a human infant in the case of Little Albert.
• O. Hobart and Mollie Mowrer discovered a solution to bed-wetting by using classical conditioning.
Examples of Common Conditioned Responses
Section 1
Classical Conditioning and Human Behavior (cont.)
• Classical conditioning is an example of a behaviorist theory.
• Behaviorism is the attempt to understand behavior in terms of relationships between observable stimuli and observable responses.
• Behaviorists are psychologists who study only those behaviors that they can observe and measure.
Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 1
A B C D
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If the sound of a tornado siren is the CS, what is the UR?
A. A spinning funnel
B. Freight train sound
C. Distress
D. Taking shelter
Section 2-Main Idea
Main Idea
Operant conditioning occurs when the consequences that follow a behavior increase or decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring again.
Section 2-Key Terms
Vocabulary• operant conditioning
• reinforcement
• primary reinforcer
• secondary reinforcer
• fixed-ratio schedule
• variable-ratio schedule
• fixed-interval schedule
• variable-interval schedule
• shaping
• response chain
• aversive control
• negative reinforcement
• escape conditioning
• avoidance conditioning
Section 2-Objectives
Objectives
• Outline the principles of operant conditioning.
• Describe applications of operant conditioning.
A. A
B. B
C. C
Section 2-Polling Question
A B C
0% 0%0%
Have you experienced operant conditioning?
A. Yes
B. No
C. Not sure
Section 2
Operant Conditioning
• Operant conditioning
– The term operant is used because the subject operates on or causes some change in the environment.
– The participant in operant conditioning must engage in a behavior in order for the programmed outcome to occur.
Operant Conditioning
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 2
A B C D
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What are some differences between classical and operant conditioning?
A. how the experimenter conducts the experiment
B. CS and US independentof the participant’s behavior
C. engage in a behavior in order for the programmed outcome to occur
D. UR is elicited
Section 2
Reinforcement
• Burrhus Frederic Skinner is the psychologist most closely associated with operant conditioning.
• He believed that most behavior is influenced by a person’s history of rewards and punishments.
Section 2
Reinforcement (cont.)
• Reinforcement
– Positive reinforcement occurs when something the animal wants is added after an action.
– Negative reinforcement occurs when something unpleasant is taken away if the animal performs an action.
Section 2
Reinforcement (cont.)
• A primary reinforcer is a stimulus that is naturally rewarding, such as food or water.
• A secondary reinforcer is a stimulus, such as money, that becomes rewarding through its link with a primary reinforcer.
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 2
A B C D
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Do you agree with the following statement “Extinction will occur if a dog does not receive his treat after shaking hands.”
A. Yes
B. No
C. Not sure
D. Sometimes
Section 2
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Behavior that is reinforced every time it occurs is said to be on a continuous schedule of reinforcement.
• When positive reinforcement occurs only intermittently, or on a partial schedule.
• Ratio schedules are based on numbers of responses, while interval schedules are based on time.
Section 2
Schedules of Reinforcement (cont.)
• Four basic methods, or schedules, of intermittent reinforcement have been studied:
– Fixed-ratio schedule
– Variable-ratio schedule
– Fixed-interval schedule
– Variable-interval schedule
Partial Schedules of Reinforcement
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 2
A B C D
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Which of the following is an example of a variable-interval schedule?
A. Pop-quiz
B. Bi-weekly paycheck
C. Three strikes in baseball
D. Sales commission
Section 2
Shaping and Chaining
• Shaping
• Response chain
– Chains of responses are organized into larger response patterns.
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 2
A B C D
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In order to teach a dog to shake which of the following would you use?
A. Shaping
B. Chaining
C. Response chains
D. Response patterns
Section 2
Aversive Control
• Aversive control
• Two ways in which unpleasant events can affect our behavior:
– Negative reinforcement
– Punishers—an unpleasant consequence occurs and decreases the frequency of the behavior that produced it.
Section 2
Aversive Control (cont.)
• Two uses of negative reinforcement:
– Escape conditioning
– Avoidance conditioning
Section 2
• Disadvantages:
– Aversive stimuli can produce unwanted side effects such as rage, aggression, and fear.
– People learn to avoid a person delivering the aversive consequences.
– Punishment is likely to suppress, but not eliminate, bad behavior.
– Punishment alone does not teach appropriate and acceptable behavior.
Aversive Control (cont.)
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 2
A B C D
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Do you feel that punishment has any advantages?
A. Very much so
B. Somewhat
C. Not very much
D. Not at all
Section 3-Main Idea
Main Idea
Social learning, consisting of cognitive learning and modeling, involves how people make decisions and act upon the information available to them.
Section 3-Key Terms
Vocabulary
• social learning
• cognitive learning
• cognitive map
• latent learning
• learned helplessness
• modeling
• behavior modification
• token economy
Section 3-Objectives
Objectives
• Cite the principles involved in cognitive learning and modeling.
• Identify the principles of learning used in behavior modification.
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 3-Polling Question
A B C D
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How often do you engage in modeled learning?
A. Very often
B. Somewhat often
C. Not very often
D. Rarely or never
Section 3
Social Learning
• Two types of social learning:
– Cognitive learning
– Modeling
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 3
A B C D
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If you study hard for a test and still do poorly, how do you feel?
A. Ready to study some more
B. Glad the test is over
C. Hopeless
D. Depressed
Section 3
Cognitive Learning
• Two examples of cognitive learning:
– Latent learning
– Cognitive maps
Section 3
Cognitive Learning (cont.)
• Psychologists have shown that general learning strategies can affect a person’s relationship to the environment.
• If a person has numerous experiences in which his or her actions have no effect, he or she may be taught a general strategy of learned helplessness.
• Martin Seligman believes learned helplessness is a major cause of depression.
Learned Helplessness
Section 3
Cognitive Learning (cont.)
• When people are unable to control events in their lives, they respond in one of the following ways:
– They may be less motivated to act and thus stop trying.
– They may experience a lowered sense of self-esteem and think negatively about themselves.
– They may feel depressed.
Section 3
Cognitive Learning (cont.)
• Three important elements of learned helplessness:
– Stability—a person’s belief that the state of helplessness results from permanent characteristics.
– Globality—generalization—a student believing he or she fails tests because he or she is “dumb.”
– Internality—attributing undesirable outcomes to one’s own inadequacies instead of blaming them on external circumstance.
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 3
A B C D
0% 0%0%0%
How does learned helplessness develop?
A. parents punish childrenconstantly for any and all offenses
B. you are overly critical of all your friend’s actions
C. a student is placed in anadvanced math course without proper preparation
D. All of the above
Section 3
Modeling
• Three different types of effects of modeling:
– Observational learning
– Disinhibition
A. A
B. B
C. C
D. D
Section 3
A B C D
0% 0%0%0%
How strongly do you feel that children model the violence they witness on television?
A. Very strongly
B. Somewhat strongly
C. Not very strongly
D. Not strongly at all
Section 3
Behavior Modification
• Three types of behavior modification:
– Computer-Aided Instruction
– Token economy
– Self-control
How Social Learning Works
Section 3
Behavior Modification (cont.)
• Classical and operant conditioning and social learning work together to determine what and how we learn.
Improving Study Habits
A. A
B. B
C. C
Section 3
A B C
0% 0%0%
Would earning money for good grades encourage you to work harder in school?
A. Yes
B. No
C. I don’t know
Figure 1
Classical Conditioning ExperimentPavlov’s students used this apparatus. The tube leading from the dog’s mouth allowed saliva to be measured and recorded on the kymograph.
Figure 2
Examples of Common Conditioned ResponsesIf you have pets and feed them canned food, what happens when you use the can opener? The animals may come running even when you are opening a can of peas.
Figure 3
Classical Conditioning vs. Operant ConditioningClassical conditioning and operant conditioning both involve the establishment of relationships between two events. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning, though, use very different procedures to reach their goals.
Figure 4
Operant ConditioningWe do not just react to our environment, we behave in ways that seem designed to produce certain environmental changes. For example, I flip the light switch to illuminate a room. I say, “Please, pass the salt,” to get the salt shaker.
Figure 5
Partial Schedules of ReinforcementB.F. Skinner pointed out many examples of how schedules of reinforcement maintain and control different behaviors. The different schedules produce different response rates.
Figure 6
Learned HelplessnessWhat happens when it is impossible for a learner to have an effect on the environment? What happens when a learner is punished and cannot escape the punishment? The learner may give up trying to learn.
Figure 7
How Social Learning WorksSocial learning theorists argue that much learning results from observing the behavior of others and from imagining the consequences of our own behavior.
Figure 8
Improving Study HabitsStudying effectively is an active process. By using successive approximations (reading one more page each time you sit down to study) and positive reinforcements (rewarding yourself for productive studying), you can improve your study habits. The SQ4R and PQ4R methods are active methods of studying.
Profiles 1
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov1849–1936
“While you are experimenting, do not
remain content with the surface of things. Don’t
become a mere recorder of facts, but try to penetrate the mystery
of their origin.”
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Using Classical Conditioning to Conquer Fears
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Vocab1
classical conditioning: a learning procedure in which associations are made between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus
Vocab2
neutral stimulus: a stimulus that does not initially elicit any part of an unconditioned response
Vocab3
unconditioned stimulus (US): an event that elicits a certain predictable response typically without previous training
Vocab4
unconditioned response (UR): an organism’s automatic (or natural) reaction to a stimulus
Vocab5
conditioned stimulus (CS): a once-neutral event that elicits a given response after a period of training in which it has been paired with (occurred just before) an unconditioned stimulus
Vocab6
conditioned response (CR): the learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus
Vocab7
generalization: responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli
Vocab8
discrimination: the ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli
Vocab9
extinction: a gradual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus
Vocab10
operant conditioning: learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence
Vocab11
reinforcement: stimulus or event that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated
Vocab12
primary reinforcer: stimulus that is naturally rewarding, such as food or water
Vocab13
secondary reinforcer: stimulus such as money that becomes rewarding through its link with a primary reinforcer
Vocab14
fixed-ratio schedule: a pattern of reinforcement in which a specific number of correct responses is required before reinforcement can be obtained
Vocab15
variable-ratio schedule: a pattern of reinforcement in which an unpredictable number of responses are required before reinforcement can be obtained
Vocab16
fixed-interval schedule: a pattern of reinforcement in which a specific amount of time must elapse before a response will elicit reinforcement
Vocab17
variable-interval schedule: a pattern of reinforcement in which changing amounts of time must elapse before a response will obtain reinforcement
Vocab18
shaping: technique in which the desired behavior is “molded” by first rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then requiring ever-closer approximations to the desired behavior before giving the reward
Vocab19
response chain: learned reactions that follow one another in sequences, each reaction producing the signal for the next
Vocab20
aversive control: process of influencing behavior by means of unpleasant stimuli
Vocab21
negative reinforcement: increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs
Vocab22
escape conditioning: training of an organism to remove or terminate an unpleasant stimulus
Vocab23
avoidance conditioning: training of an organism to respond so as to prevent the occurrence of an unpleasant stimulus
Vocab24
social learning: process of altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others
Vocab25
cognitive learning: forms of altering behavior that involves mental processes and may result from observation or imitation
Vocab26
cognitive map: a mental picture of spatial relationships or relationships between events
Vocab27
latent learning: alteration of a behavioral tendency that is not demonstrated by an immediate, observable change in behavior
Vocab28
learned helplessness: condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation fail, resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable
Vocab29
modeling: learning by imitating other; copying behavior
Vocab30
behavior modification: systematic application of learning, principles to change people’s actions and feelings
Vocab31
token economy: conditioning in which desirable behavior is reinforced with valueless objects, which can be accumulated and exchanged for valued rewards
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