Chapter OneChapter One

Invitations to Invitations to LinguisticsLinguistics

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1. Why Study Language?1. Why Study Language?

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1.1 Some myths about 1.1 Some myths about languagelanguage Language is only a means of Language is only a means of

communication.communication. Language has a form-meaning Language has a form-meaning

correspondence.correspondence. The function of language is to The function of language is to

exchange information.exchange information. English is more difficult to learn English is more difficult to learn

than Chinese.than Chinese. Black English is not standard and Black English is not standard and

should be reformed.should be reformed.

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1.2 Some fundamental views 1.2 Some fundamental views about Labout L Children learn their native Children learn their native

language swiftly, efficiently and language swiftly, efficiently and without instruction.without instruction.

Language operates by rules.Language operates by rules. All languages have three major All languages have three major

components: a sound system, a components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a system of lexicogrammar and a system of semantics.system of semantics.

Everyone speaks a dialect.Everyone speaks a dialect.

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Language slowly changes.Language slowly changes. Speakers of all languages employ Speakers of all languages employ

a range of styles and a set of a range of styles and a set of jargons.jargons.

Languages are intimately related Languages are intimately related to the societies and individuals to the societies and individuals who use them.who use them.

Writing is derivative of speech.Writing is derivative of speech.

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2. What is Language?2. What is Language?Language “is not to be confused Language “is not to be confused with human speech, of which it is with human speech, of which it is only a definite part, though certainly only a definite part, though certainly an essential one. It is both a social an essential one. It is both a social product of the faculty of speech and product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit by a social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty”.individuals to exercise that faculty”.

--Ferdinand de Saussure (1857---Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): 1913): Course in General LinguisticsCourse in General Linguistics (1916)(1916)

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““Language is a purely human Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, communicating ideas, emotions and desires by emotions and desires by means of voluntarily means of voluntarily produced symbols.”produced symbols.”

--Edward Sapir (1884-1939):--Edward Sapir (1884-1939):

Language: An Introduction to Language: An Introduction to the the

Study of SpeechStudy of Speech (1921) (1921)

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““A language is a system of arbitrary A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates.”social group co-operates.”

--Bernard Bloch (1907-1965)--Bernard Bloch (1907-1965) & & George Trager (1906-1992): George Trager (1906-1992): Outline Outline of Linguistic Analysisof Linguistic Analysis (1942) (1942)

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““A language is a system of A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a of which the members of a society interact in terms of their society interact in terms of their total culture.”total culture.”

--George Trager: --George Trager: The Field of The Field of LinguisticsLinguistics (1949) (1949)

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““From now on I will consider From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite or language to be a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”finite set of elements.”

--Noam Chomsky (1928- ): --Noam Chomsky (1928- ): Syntactic StructuresSyntactic Structures (1957) (1957)

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Language is “the institution Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”arbitrary symbols.”

--Robert A. Hall (1911-1997): --Robert A. Hall (1911-1997): Introductory LinguisticsIntroductory Linguistics (1964) (1964)

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““Language is a system of arbitrary Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human vocal symbols used for human communication.”communication.”

--Ronald Wardhaugh: --Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction Introduction to Linguisticsto Linguistics (1977) (1977)

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““The question ‘What is language?’ is The question ‘What is language?’ is comparable with -- and, some would comparable with -- and, some would say, hardly less profound than -- ‘What say, hardly less profound than -- ‘What is life?’, the presuppositions of which is life?’, the presuppositions of which circumscribe and unify the biological circumscribe and unify the biological sciences... it is not so much the sciences... it is not so much the question itself as the particular question itself as the particular interpretation that the biologist puts interpretation that the biologist puts upon it and the unravelling of its more upon it and the unravelling of its more detailed implications within some detailed implications within some currently accepted theoretical currently accepted theoretical framework that nourish the biologist's framework that nourish the biologist's day-to-day speculations and research. day-to-day speculations and research. So it is for the linguist in relation to So it is for the linguist in relation to the question ‘What is language?’”the question ‘What is language?’”--John Lyons (1932- ): --John Lyons (1932- ): Language and Language and LinguisticsLinguistics (1981) (1981)

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““... in a sense all definitions [of ... in a sense all definitions [of language] are, by themselves, language] are, by themselves, inadequate, since, if they are to be inadequate, since, if they are to be more than trivial and more than trivial and uninformative, they must uninformative, they must presuppose ... some general theory presuppose ... some general theory of language and of linguistic of language and of linguistic analysis.”analysis.”

--R. H. Robins (1921-2000): --R. H. Robins (1921-2000): General LinguisticsGeneral Linguistics (1989) (1989)

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““Language is a form of human Language is a form of human communication by means of a communication by means of a system of symbols principally system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.”transmitted by vocal sounds.”

--Stuart C. Poole: --Stuart C. Poole: An Introduction An Introduction to Linguisticsto Linguistics (1999) (1999)

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““Language is a means of verbal Language is a means of verbal communication.”communication.” It is instrumental in that communicating It is instrumental in that communicating

by speaking or writing is a purposeful by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. act.

It is social and conventional in that It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.cultural roles.

-- Our textbook (2006)-- Our textbook (2006)

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3. Design Features of 3. Design Features of LanguageLanguage

Language distinguishes human Language distinguishes human beings from animals in that it is beings from animals in that it is far more sophisticated than any far more sophisticated than any animal communication system. animal communication system.

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Human language is ‘unique’Human language is ‘unique’

Arbitrariness Arbitrariness

Duality Duality

Creativity Creativity

DisplacementDisplacement

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3.1 Arbitrarines3.1 Arbitrarines Saussure: the forms of linguistic Saussure: the forms of linguistic

signs bear no natural signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning relationship to their meaning

Arbitrary relationship between Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with meaning, even with onomatopoeic words :onomatopoeic words :

The dog barks The dog barks wow wowwow wow in in English but “English but “ 汪汪汪汪汪汪” ” in Chinese.in Chinese.

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Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.syntactic level.

(a) He came in and sat down.(a) He came in and sat down. (b) He sat down and came in.(b) He sat down and came in. (c) He sat down after he came in.(c) He sat down after he came in.

The link between a linguistic sign The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of and its meaning is a matter of convention.convention.

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3.2 Duality3.2 Duality

The property of having two levels The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.own principles of organization.

Primary units ‘words’ Primary units ‘words’ (meaningful) consist of secondary (meaningful) consist of secondary units ‘sounds’ (meaningless).units ‘sounds’ (meaningless).

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Hierarchy of language: Hierarchy of language: stratification as ‘the infinite use stratification as ‘the infinite use of finite means’.of finite means’.

Sounds > syllables > morphemes Sounds > syllables > morphemes > words > phrases > clauses > > words > phrases > clauses > sentences/utterances > sentences/utterances > texts/discoursestexts/discourses

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3.3 Creativity3.3 Creativity

Language is resourceful because Language is resourceful because of its duality and its of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.create new meanings.

Words can be used in new ways Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people instantly understood by people who have never come across that who have never come across that usage before.usage before.

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Birds, bees, crabs, spiders, and Birds, bees, crabs, spiders, and most other creatures communicate most other creatures communicate in some way, but the information in some way, but the information imparted is severely limited and imparted is severely limited and confined to a small set of messages. confined to a small set of messages.

Because of duality the human Because of duality the human speaker is able to combine the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or which are never before produced or heard.heard.

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The recursive nature of language The recursive nature of language provides a potential to create an provides a potential to create an infinite number of sentences. For infinite number of sentences. For instance:instance:

He bought a book He bought a book whichwhich was was written by a teacher written by a teacher whowho taught taught in a school in a school whichwhich was known for was known for its graduates its graduates whowho ... ...

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3.4 Displacement3.4 Displacement Human languages enable Human languages enable

their users to symbolize their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of and space) at the moment of communication. communication.

Thus, we can refer to Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole, Confucius, or the North Pole, even though the first has been even though the first has been dead for over 2550 years and dead for over 2550 years and the second is situated far the second is situated far away from us. away from us.

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Animal communication is Animal communication is normally under “immediate normally under “immediate stimulus control”. For stimulus control”. For instance, a warning cry of a instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces bird instantly announces danger. danger.

Human language isHuman language is stimulus-free. What we are stimulus-free. What we are talking about need not be talking about need not be triggered by any external triggered by any external stimulus in the world or stimulus in the world or any internal state. any internal state.

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The honeybee's dance exhibits The honeybee's dance exhibits displacement a little bit: he can displacement a little bit: he can refer to a source of food, which is refer to a source of food, which is remote in time and space when he remote in time and space when he reports on it. reports on it.

A dog cannot tell people that its A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days. master will be home in a few days.

Our language enables us to Our language enables us to communicate about things that do communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.not exist or do not yet exist.

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Displacement benefits Displacement benefits human beings by giving human beings by giving us the power to handle us the power to handle generalizations and generalizations and abstractions. Once we abstractions. Once we can talk about physically can talk about physically distant thing, we distant thing, we acquire the ability to acquire the ability to understand concepts understand concepts which denote “non-which denote “non-things”, such as truth things”, such as truth and beauty. and beauty.

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4. Origin of language4. Origin of language The ‘Divine’ origin:The ‘Divine’ origin: ““ In the beginning was the In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.” God, and the Word was God.” (Gospel, John 1:1)(Gospel, John 1:1) ““And the Lord said, Behold, the And the Lord said, Behold, the

people is one, and they have all one people is one, and they have all one language; and this they begin to do; language; and this they begin to do; and now nothing will be restrained and now nothing will be restrained from them, which they have from them, which they have imagined to do.” (Genesis, 11:6)imagined to do.” (Genesis, 11:6)

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4.1 The “bow-wow” theory4.1 The “bow-wow” theory In primitive times people imitated In primitive times people imitated

the sounds of the animal calls in the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that. and speech developed from that.

Onomatopoeic words seem to be a Onomatopoeic words seem to be a convenient evidence for this convenient evidence for this theory. But they are very different theory. But they are very different in the degree of resemblance they in the degree of resemblance they express with the natural sounds. express with the natural sounds.

This theory lacks supportive This theory lacks supportive evidence. evidence.

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4.2 The “pooh-pooh” theory4.2 The “pooh-pooh” theory In the hard life of our primitive In the hard life of our primitive

ancestors, they utter instinctive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy. As for sounds of pain, anger and joy. As for evidence, we can only cite the evidence, we can only cite the universal use of sounds as universal use of sounds as interjections. interjections.

What makes the theory problematic is What makes the theory problematic is that there is only a limited number of that there is only a limited number of interjections in almost all languages. interjections in almost all languages.

Besides, interjections such asBesides, interjections such as Oh, Ah, Oh, Ah, Oops Oops bear little relationship with the bear little relationship with the sound system of a language and sound system of a language and therefore are not good evidence.therefore are not good evidence.

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4.3 The “yo-he-ho” theory4.3 The “yo-he-ho” theory As primitive people As primitive people

worked together, they worked together, they produced some rhythmic produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually grunts which gradually developed into chants and developed into chants and then into language. then into language.

We do have prosodic use We do have prosodic use of rhythms in languages, of rhythms in languages, but rhythmic grunts are but rhythmic grunts are far different from far different from language in its present language in its present sense. The theory is again sense. The theory is again at most a speculation.at most a speculation.

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The by-now fruitless search for The by-now fruitless search for the origin of languages reflects the origin of languages reflects people's concern with the origin people's concern with the origin of humanity and may come up of humanity and may come up with enlightening findings in with enlightening findings in future. future.

One thing we can say for certain One thing we can say for certain is that language evolves within is that language evolves within specific historical, social and specific historical, social and cultural contexts. cultural contexts.

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5. Functions of language5. Functions of language

Linguists talk about the functions of Linguists talk about the functions of language in an abstract sense, that language in an abstract sense, that is, not in terms of using language to is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet, praise and read and write, to greet, praise and condemn people, etc. condemn people, etc.

They summarize these practical They summarize these practical functions and attempt some broad functions and attempt some broad classifications of the basic functions classifications of the basic functions of language.of language.

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For Jakobson, language is above For Jakobson, language is above all for communication. all for communication.

While for many people, the While for many people, the purpose of communication is purpose of communication is referential, for him (and the referential, for him (and the Prague school structuralists), Prague school structuralists), reference is not the only, not reference is not the only, not even the primary goal of even the primary goal of communication. communication.

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In his famous article, In his famous article, Linguistics Linguistics and Poeticsand Poetics, he defined six primary , he defined six primary factors of any speech event, factors of any speech event, namely:namely:

speaker, addressee, context, speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contactmessage, code, contact..

In conjunction with these, In conjunction with these, Jakobson established a well-known Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions framework of language functions based on the six key elements of based on the six key elements of communication, namely: communication, namely:

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referentialreferential (to convey message and (to convey message and information),information),

poeticpoetic (to indulge in language for (to indulge in language for its own sake),its own sake),

emotiveemotive (to express attitudes, (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),feelings and emotions),

conativeconative (to persuade and (to persuade and influence others through influence others through commands and requests), commands and requests),

phaticphatic (to establish communion (to establish communion with others)with others)

metalingualmetalingual (to clear up (to clear up intentions and meanings).intentions and meanings).

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They correspond to such They correspond to such communication elements as communication elements as context, message, addresser, context, message, addresser, addressee, contactaddressee, contact and and codecode respectively. respectively.

Jakobson's views of the functions Jakobson's views of the functions of language are still of great of language are still of great importance.importance.

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ContextREFERENTIAL

AddresserEMOTIVE

(e.g. intonation showing anger)

MessagePOETIC

(e.g. poetry)

AddresseeCONATIVE

(e.g. imperatives

and vocatives)

ContactPHATIC

(e.g. Good morning!)

CodeMETALINGUAL

(e.g. Hello, do you hear me?)

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Halliday proposes a theory of Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that metafunctions of language, that is, language has is, language has ideationalideational, , interpersonalinterpersonal and and textualtextual functions. functions.

Ideational function constructs a Ideational function constructs a model of experience as well as model of experience as well as logical relations, interpersonal logical relations, interpersonal function enacts social function enacts social relationships and textual function relationships and textual function creates relevance to context.creates relevance to context.

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In his earlier works, Halliday In his earlier works, Halliday proposed seven categories of proposed seven categories of language functions by observing language functions by observing child language development: child language development:

InstrumentalInstrumental RegulatoryRegulatory RepresentationalRepresentational InteractionalInteractional PersonalPersonal HeuristicHeuristic ImaginativeImaginative

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Still other classifications employ Still other classifications employ different categories and use different categories and use different terms, but all share a different terms, but all share a lot in common about the basic lot in common about the basic functions of language. functions of language.

Our list below is a summary for Our list below is a summary for the convenience of presentation. the convenience of presentation. The categories can still be The categories can still be somewhat overlapping. somewhat overlapping.

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5.1 Informative5.1 Informative functionfunction

Language is the instrument of Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud. The to speak their thoughts aloud. The use of language to record the facts is use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development. a prerequisite of social development. This is indeed a crucial function of This is indeed a crucial function of language.language.

It is also called ideational function in It is also called ideational function in the framework of functional the framework of functional grammar. grammar.

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Halliday notes that “Language Halliday notes that “Language serves for the expression of serves for the expression of ‘content’: that is, of the speaker's ‘content’: that is, of the speaker's experience of the real world, experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own including the inner world of his own consciousness. ... In serving this consciousness. ... In serving this function, language also gives function, language also gives structure to experience, and helps structure to experience, and helps to determine our way of looking at to determine our way of looking at things, so that it requires some things, so that it requires some intellectual effort to see them in any intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which our other way than that which our language suggests to us”.language suggests to us”.

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5.2 Interpersonal function5.2 Interpersonal function

By far the most important sociological By far the most important sociological use of language, and by which people use of language, and by which people establish and maintain their status in establish and maintain their status in a society.a society.

In the framework of functional In the framework of functional grammar, it is concerned with grammar, it is concerned with interaction between the addresser and interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation addressee in the discourse situation and the addresser's attitude toward and the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.what he speaks or writes about.

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For example, the ways in which For example, the ways in which people address others and refer people address others and refer to themselves (e.g. to themselves (e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servantyour obedient servant) indicate ) indicate the various grades of the various grades of interpersonal relations. interpersonal relations.

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Attached to the interpersonal Attached to the interpersonal function is its function of function is its function of expressing identity. For example, expressing identity. For example, the chanting of a crowd at a the chanting of a crowd at a football match, the shouting of football match, the shouting of names or slogans at public names or slogans at public meetings, the stage-managed meetings, the stage-managed audience reactions to TV game audience reactions to TV game shows all signal who we are and shows all signal who we are and where we belong. where we belong.

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Language marks our identity, Language marks our identity, physically in terms of age, sex, physically in terms of age, sex, and voiceprints; psychologically and voiceprints; psychologically in terms of language, personality in terms of language, personality and intelligence; geographically and intelligence; geographically in terms of accents and dialects; in terms of accents and dialects; ethnically and socially in terms ethnically and socially in terms of social stratification, class, of social stratification, class, status, role, solidarity and status, role, solidarity and distance.distance.

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The interpersonal function is The interpersonal function is such a broad category that it is such a broad category that it is often discussed under various often discussed under various other terms as in the following other terms as in the following performative, emotive, expressive performative, emotive, expressive and phatic function of language. and phatic function of language. They seem to emphasize different They seem to emphasize different aspects of the interpersonal aspects of the interpersonal function.function.

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5.3 Performative function5.3 Performative function

This concept originates from the This concept originates from the philosophical study of language philosophical study of language represented by Austin and represented by Austin and Searle, whose theory now forms Searle, whose theory now forms the back-bone of pragmatics. the back-bone of pragmatics. (Chapter 8)(Chapter 8)

For example, For example, I now declare the I now declare the meeting open, I bet you two meeting open, I bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrowpounds it will rain tomorrow. .

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The performative function of The performative function of language is primarily to change language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. and the cursing of enemies.

The kind of language employed in The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.quite formal and even ritualized.

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The performative function can The performative function can extend to the control of reality as extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious on some magical or religious occasions. occasions.

For example, in Chinese when For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present the host or the people present are likely to say are likely to say 岁岁平安 岁岁平安 as a as a means of controlling the invisible means of controlling the invisible forces which the believers feel forces which the believers feel might affect their lives adversely. might affect their lives adversely.

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5.4 Emotive function5.4 Emotive function The emotive function of language is The emotive function of language is

one of the most powerful uses of one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or audience for or against someone or something. something.

It is a means of getting rid of our It is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under nervous energy when we are under stress, e.g. swear words, obscenities, stress, e.g. swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to a involuntary verbal reactions to a piece of art or scenery; conventional piece of art or scenery; conventional words/phrases, e.g. words/phrases, e.g.

God, My, Damn it, What a sight, God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, OhWow, Ugh, Oh. .

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It is also discussed under the term It is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive expressive function. The expressive function can often be entirely function can often be entirely personal and totally without any personal and totally without any implication of communication to implication of communication to others. others.

For example, a man may say For example, a man may say Ouch!Ouch! after striking a fingernail with a after striking a fingernail with a hammer, or he may mutter hammer, or he may mutter DamnDamn when realizing that he has forgotten when realizing that he has forgotten an appointment. an appointment.

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Exclamations such as Exclamations such as Man! Oh boy!Man! Oh boy! and and Hurrah! Hurrah! are usually uttered are usually uttered without any purpose of without any purpose of communicating to others, but as communicating to others, but as essentially a verbal response to a essentially a verbal response to a person's own feelings. person's own feelings.

Such expressive utterances can also Such expressive utterances can also be a communal response of a group be a communal response of a group of people who reinforce one of people who reinforce one another's expressive use of language another's expressive use of language to show their solidarity.to show their solidarity.

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5.5 Phatic communion5.5 Phatic communion It refers to the social interaction It refers to the social interaction

of language, originating from of language, originating from Malinowski's study of the Malinowski's study of the functions of language performed functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. For by Trobriand Islanders. For example,example,

Mrs. P sneezes violently.Mrs. P sneezes violently. Mrs. Q: Bless you.Mrs. Q: Bless you. Mrs. P: Thank you.Mrs. P: Thank you.

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We all use such small, seemingly We all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving between people without involving any factual content. any factual content.

Ritual exchanges about health or Ritual exchanges about health or weather such as weather such as Good morning, God Good morning, God bless you, Nice daybless you, Nice day often state the often state the obvious. Yet they indicate that a obvious. Yet they indicate that a channel of communication is open channel of communication is open if it should be needed. if it should be needed.

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Different cultures have different Different cultures have different topics of phatic communion. topics of phatic communion.

According to Crystal, the weather According to Crystal, the weather is not a universal conversation is not a universal conversation filler as the English might like to filler as the English might like to think. think.

Rundi women (in Burundi, Rundi women (in Burundi, Central Africa), upon taking Central Africa), upon taking leave, routinely and politely say “I leave, routinely and politely say “I must go home nowmust go home now ，， or my or my husband will beat me.” husband will beat me.”

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Broadly speaking, this function Broadly speaking, this function refers to expressions that help refers to expressions that help define and maintain define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as interpersonal relations, such as slang, jokes, jargons, ritualistic slang, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects. regional dialects.

We have to learn a large We have to learn a large repertoire of such usages if we repertoire of such usages if we are to interact comfortably with are to interact comfortably with different people. different people.

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5.6 Recreational function5.6 Recreational function The recreational function of a The recreational function of a

language is often overlooked language is often overlooked because it seems so restrictive in because it seems so restrictive in purpose and supposedly so purpose and supposedly so limited in usefulness. limited in usefulness.

However, no one will deny the However, no one will deny the use of language for the sheer joy use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby's of using it, such as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting. babbling or a chanter's chanting.

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In the Latin and Islamic worlds as In the Latin and Islamic worlds as well as in some areas of China, well as in some areas of China, there is widespread use of verbal there is widespread use of verbal dueling, in which one singer dueling, in which one singer begins a song of usually few lines begins a song of usually few lines and challenges his opponent to and challenges his opponent to continue the content or provide a continue the content or provide a rejoinder in a similar rhythm and rejoinder in a similar rhythm and rhyme scheme. Such verbal duels rhyme scheme. Such verbal duels may last for a few hours and is may last for a few hours and is performed for the sheer joy of performed for the sheer joy of playing on language. playing on language.

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To take one To take one example, the well-example, the well-known movieknown movie 《《刘三刘三姐姐》》 features a features a scene of “scene of “ 对歌” 对歌” (song dueling) (song dueling) mostly for the sheer mostly for the sheer joy of playing on joy of playing on language.language.

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If you observe a children’s play, you If you observe a children’s play, you will find the power of sound. will find the power of sound. Sometimes even nonsensical lyrics Sometimes even nonsensical lyrics perform a recreational function in perform a recreational function in the game: the repetitive rhythms the game: the repetitive rhythms help to control the game, and the help to control the game, and the children plainly take great delight in children plainly take great delight in it. Adults also have their way to it. Adults also have their way to appreciate language for its own appreciate language for its own sake. sake.

For instance, poetry writing gives For instance, poetry writing gives them the pleasure of using language them the pleasure of using language for its sheer beauty. for its sheer beauty.

We are getting very close here to We are getting very close here to Jakobson's poetic function.Jakobson's poetic function.

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5.7 Metalingual function5.7 Metalingual function

Our language can be used to talk Our language can be used to talk about itself. about itself.

To organize any written text into To organize any written text into a coherent whole, writers employ a coherent whole, writers employ certain expressions to keep their certain expressions to keep their readers informed about where readers informed about where they are and where they are they are and where they are going. going.

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For instance, instead of sayingFor instance, instead of saying The lion chased the unicorn all The lion chased the unicorn all

round the townround the town, , they say they say All around the town the lion All around the town the lion

chased the unicorn. chased the unicorn.

A unicorn

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This is the metalingual function This is the metalingual function of language and meshes with the of language and meshes with the thematic function of language in thematic function of language in functional grammar.functional grammar.

It makes the language infinitely It makes the language infinitely self-reflexive: We human beings self-reflexive: We human beings can talk about talk and think can talk about talk and think about thinking, and thus only about thinking, and thus only humans can ask what it means to humans can ask what it means to communicate, to think, to be communicate, to think, to be human.human.

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6. What is Linguistics?6. What is Linguistics? The scientific study of human languageThe scientific study of human language Aims of linguistic theory:Aims of linguistic theory:

1. What is knowledge of language? 1. What is knowledge of language?

(Competence)(Competence)

2. How is knowledge of language 2. How is knowledge of language acquired? acquired?

(Acquisition)(Acquisition)

3. How is knowledge of language put to 3. How is knowledge of language put to use? use?

(Performance/language processing)(Performance/language processing)

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A grammar includes everything one A grammar includes everything one knows about the structure of one’s knows about the structure of one’s language:language:

LexiconLexicon (the words or vocabulary in (the words or vocabulary in the mental dictionary)the mental dictionary)

MorphologyMorphology (the structure of words)(the structure of words) SyntaxSyntax (the structure of phrases and (the structure of phrases and

sentences and the constraints on sentences and the constraints on well-formedness of sentences)well-formedness of sentences)

SemanticsSemantics (the meaning of words and (the meaning of words and sentences)sentences)

Phonetics and PhonologyPhonetics and Phonology (the sounds (the sounds and the sound system or patterns)and the sound system or patterns)

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7. Main branches of 7. Main branches of linguisticslinguistics PhoneticsPhonetics PhonologyPhonology MorphologyMorphology SyntaxSyntax SemanticsSemantics PragmaticsPragmatics

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7.1 Phonetics7.1 Phonetics

Phonetics studies speech sounds, Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of including the production of speech, that is how speech speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the transmitted and received, the description and classification of description and classification of speech sounds, words and speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.connected speech, etc.

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We can approach it on various levels. We can approach it on various levels. At one level, speech is a matter of At one level, speech is a matter of

anatomy and physiology. We can anatomy and physiology. We can study organs such as tongue and study organs such as tongue and larynx and their functions in the larynx and their functions in the production of speech. production of speech.

At another level, we can focus on the At another level, we can focus on the speech sounds produced by these speech sounds produced by these organs by identifying and classifying organs by identifying and classifying the individual sounds. This is the the individual sounds. This is the domain of articulatory phonetics. domain of articulatory phonetics.

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We can also investigate the We can also investigate the properties of the sound waves—properties of the sound waves—acoustic phonetics. acoustic phonetics.

As speech is intended to be heard As speech is intended to be heard or perceived, it is therefore or perceived, it is therefore possible to focus on the way in possible to focus on the way in which a listener analyses or which a listener analyses or processes a sound wave—processes a sound wave—auditory phonetics. auditory phonetics.

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7.2 Phonology7.2 Phonology

Phonology studies the rules Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. phoneme as the point of departure.

A phoneme is the smallest A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. signal a difference in meaning.

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7.3 Morphology7.3 Morphology

Morphology is concerned with the Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaningstudies the minimal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation —morphemes and word-formation processes. processes.

Although many people think of words Although many people think of words as the basic meaningful elements of as the basic meaningful elements of a languagea language ，， many words can be many words can be broken down into still smaller units, broken down into still smaller units, called morphemes. called morphemes.

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Morphemes serve different Morphemes serve different purposes. Some derive new words by purposes. Some derive new words by changing the meaning or the part of changing the meaning or the part of speech, others only refine and give speech, others only refine and give extra grammatical information extra grammatical information about the already existing meaning about the already existing meaning of a word. of a word.

As morphemes are pairings of As morphemes are pairings of sounds with meanings, there are sounds with meanings, there are many complexities involved, forming many complexities involved, forming a new field by the name a new field by the name morphophonology. morphophonology.

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7.4 Syntax7.4 Syntax

Syntax is about principles of Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct forming and understanding correct sentences. sentences.

The form or structure of a sentence The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax, is governed by the rules of syntax, which specify word order, sentence which specify word order, sentence organization, and the relationships organization, and the relationships between words, word classes and between words, word classes and other sentence elements. other sentence elements.

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We know that words are We know that words are organized into structures more organized into structures more than just word order. than just word order.

a. a. The children watchedThe children watched [ [the the firework from the hill firework from the hill ].].

b. b. The children watchedThe children watched [ [the the firework firework ] [] [from the hill from the hill ].].

The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken is too hot to eat.

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7.5 Semantics7.5 Semantics

Semantics examines how Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a meaning is encoded in a language. language.

It is not only concerned with It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of items, but also with levels of language below the word and language below the word and above it, e.g. meaning of above it, e.g. meaning of morphemes and sentences. morphemes and sentences.

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The following are what the key The following are what the key concepts look like: semantic concepts look like: semantic components, denotation of components, denotation of words, sense relations between words, sense relations between words such as antonymy and words such as antonymy and synonymy, sense relations synonymy, sense relations between sentences such as between sentences such as entailment and presupposition entailment and presupposition and more.and more.

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7.6 Pragmatics7.6 Pragmatics Pragmatics is the study of meaning in Pragmatics is the study of meaning in

context. It deals with particular context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance contexts of language performance can influence interpretation. can influence interpretation.

In other words, pragmatics is In other words, pragmatics is concerned with the way language is concerned with the way language is used to communicate rather than used to communicate rather than with the way language is internally with the way language is internally structured.structured.

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It regards speech performance as It regards speech performance as primarily a social act ruled by primarily a social act ruled by various social conventions. Some various social conventions. Some key concepts such as reference, key concepts such as reference, force, effect, and cooperative force, effect, and cooperative principles may appear principles may appear commonsensical, yet pragmatics commonsensical, yet pragmatics is just about one of the most is just about one of the most promising fields of linguistic promising fields of linguistic studies. studies.

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Take conversation for example. Take conversation for example. Since language is transmitted Since language is transmitted

primarily via the speech mode, primarily via the speech mode, pragmatic rules govern a number of pragmatic rules govern a number of conversational interactions, such as conversational interactions, such as sequential organization, repair of sequential organization, repair of errors, role and speech acts. errors, role and speech acts.

Organization of conversations Organization of conversations includes taking turns, opening, includes taking turns, opening, maintaining and closing a maintaining and closing a conversation, establishing and conversation, establishing and maintaining a topic etc. maintaining a topic etc.

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8. Macrolinguistics8. Macrolinguistics

Linguistics is not the only field Linguistics is not the only field concerned with language. concerned with language.

Other disciplines such as Other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, psychology, sociology, ethnography, the science of law ethnography, the science of law and artificial intelligence etc. are and artificial intelligence etc. are also preoccupied with language. also preoccupied with language.

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Although “Saussure's goal was to Although “Saussure's goal was to establish the autonomy of establish the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well-defined linguistics, giving it a well-defined subject of study and freeing it from subject of study and freeing it from reliance on other disciplines, with its reliance on other disciplines, with its coming of age linguistics is coming of age linguistics is developing interactive links with developing interactive links with other sciences. other sciences.

The central goal of describing the The central goal of describing the underlying system remains; this is underlying system remains; this is the province of general, descriptive the province of general, descriptive linguistics. linguistics.

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But since language has both But since language has both individual and social aspects, it individual and social aspects, it is naturally of interest to is naturally of interest to psychologists and sociologists psychologists and sociologists among others”. among others”.

It is not surprising therefore we It is not surprising therefore we have some branches of have some branches of microlinguistics that show an microlinguistics that show an interdisciplinary nature from interdisciplinary nature from their very names: their very names:

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8.1 Psycholinguistics8.1 Psycholinguistics It investigates the interrelation of It investigates the interrelation of

language and mind, for example, in language and mind, for example, in processing and producing utterances processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. and in language acquisition.

It also studies language development It also studies language development in the child, such as the theories of in the child, such as the theories of language acquisition, biological language acquisition, biological foundations of language, and a foundations of language, and a profound aspect—the relationship profound aspect—the relationship between language and cognition.between language and cognition.

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8.2 Sociolinguistics8.2 Sociolinguistics An umbrella term which covers a An umbrella term which covers a

variety of different interests in variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and society, including the social functions of language and the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users. social characteristics of its users.

Sociolinguistics is the study of the Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three their speakers as these three constantly interact and change constantly interact and change within a speech community. within a speech community.

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8.3 Anthropological 8.3 Anthropological linguisticslinguistics The two disciplines became closely The two disciplines became closely

associated in the early days of associated in the early days of anthropological fieldwork when anthropological fieldwork when anthropologists enlisted the help of anthropologists enlisted the help of linguists to study unwritten linguists to study unwritten languages. languages.

In contrast with other linguists, then, In contrast with other linguists, then, anthropological linguists are anthropological linguists are interested primarily in the history and interested primarily in the history and structure of formerly unwritten structure of formerly unwritten languages. languages.

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Because an unwritten language must Because an unwritten language must be heard in order to be studied, it be heard in order to be studied, it does not leave any traces once its does not leave any traces once its speakers died off. speakers died off.

Anthropological linguists must begin Anthropological linguists must begin in the present, with comparisons of in the present, with comparisons of contemporary languages. Then they contemporary languages. Then they may draw inferences about the kinds may draw inferences about the kinds of change in language that may have of change in language that may have occurred in the past and that may occurred in the past and that may account for similarities and account for similarities and differences observed in the present. differences observed in the present.

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8.4 Computational 8.4 Computational linguisticslinguistics An interdisciplinary field which centers An interdisciplinary field which centers

around the use of computers to around the use of computers to process or produce human language process or produce human language (also known as “natural language”, to (also known as “natural language”, to distinguish it from computer distinguish it from computer languages). languages).

To this field, linguistics contributes an To this field, linguistics contributes an understanding of the special understanding of the special properties of language data, and properties of language data, and provides theories and descriptions of provides theories and descriptions of language structure and use. language structure and use.

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Some current application areas Some current application areas include translating from one include translating from one language to another (Machine language to another (Machine Translation), storing and finding Translation), storing and finding relevant documents in large relevant documents in large collections of text (Corpus collections of text (Corpus Linguistics and Information Linguistics and Information Retrieval), and carrying out Retrieval), and carrying out various forms of computer various forms of computer mediated communication. mediated communication.

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9. Important distinctions in 9. Important distinctions in linguisticslinguistics

Descriptive vs. prescriptive Descriptive vs. prescriptive Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic vs. diachronic LangueLangue & & paroleparole Competence and performanceCompetence and performance

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9.1 Descriptive vs. 9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveprescriptive Don't say X.Don't say X. People don't say X.People don't say X.

The first is a prescriptive The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a command, while the second is a descriptive statement. descriptive statement.

The distinction lies in prescribing The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and how things ought to be and describing how things are.describing how things are.

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The reason why present-day The reason why present-day linguists are so insistent about linguists are so insistent about the distinction between the two the distinction between the two types of rules is simply that types of rules is simply that traditional grammar was very traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character, strongly normative in character, e.g. e.g. You should never use a You should never use a double-negativedouble-negative; ; You should not You should not split the infinitivesplit the infinitive; etc. ; etc.

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In the 18th century, all the main In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied European languages were studied prescriptively. prescriptively.

The grammarians then tried to lay The grammarians then tried to lay down rules for the correct use of down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all. usage once and for all.

Some usages were prescribed to be Some usages were prescribed to be learned by heart, followed accurately learned by heart, followed accurately or avoided altogether. It was a or avoided altogether. It was a matter of black or white, right or matter of black or white, right or wrong.wrong.

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These attitudes are still with us, These attitudes are still with us, though people realize nowadays though people realize nowadays the facts of usage count more the facts of usage count more than the authority-made than the authority-made “standards”. “standards”.

The nature of linguistics as a The nature of linguistics as a science determines its science determines its preoccupation with description preoccupation with description instead of prescription.instead of prescription.

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9.2 Synchronic vs. 9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicdiachronic A synchronic description takes a A synchronic description takes a

fixed instant (usually, but not fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. grammars are of this kind.

Diachronic linguistics is the Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the study of a language through the course of its history.course of its history.

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9.3 9.3 LangueLangue & & paroleparole

Saussure Saussure distinguished the distinguished the linguistic linguistic competence of the competence of the speaker and the speaker and the actual phenomena or actual phenomena or data of linguistics data of linguistics (utterances) as (utterances) as languelangue and and paroleparole. .

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While While paroleparole constitutes the constitutes the immediately accessible data, the immediately accessible data, the linguist's proper object is the linguist's proper object is the languelangue of each community, the of each community, the lexicon, grammar, and phonology lexicon, grammar, and phonology implanted in each individual by implanted in each individual by his upbringing in society and on his upbringing in society and on the basis of which he speaks the basis of which he speaks and understands his language.and understands his language.

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9.4 Competence and 9.4 Competence and performanceperformance This fundamental This fundamental

distinction is discussed by distinction is discussed by Chomsky in his Chomsky in his Aspects of Aspects of the Theory of Syntax the Theory of Syntax (1965). (1965).

A language user's A language user's underlying knowledge about underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. his linguistic competence.

Performance refers to the Performance refers to the actual use of language in actual use of language in concrete situations.concrete situations.

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Chomsky points out that this Chomsky points out that this distinction is related to the langue-distinction is related to the langue-parole distinction of Saussure; but parole distinction of Saussure; but he does not accept the view of he does not accept the view of seeing seeing languelangue as a mere systematic as a mere systematic inventory of items. inventory of items.

For him, competence is closer to the For him, competence is closer to the famous German linguist Humboldt's famous German linguist Humboldt's conception, that is, it should refer conception, that is, it should refer to the underlying competence as a to the underlying competence as a system of generative processes.system of generative processes.