Chapter SixChapter Six

American Educational HistoryAmerican Educational History

American Educational HistoryAmerican Educational History

The ReformationThe Reformation of the 1500s of the 1500s and 1600s linked European and and 1600s linked European and American education American education

This struggle within the Christian This struggle within the Christian Church led to the settlement of Church led to the settlement of the Puritan colony of the Puritan colony of Massachusetts Bay and the Massachusetts Bay and the American educational revolution American educational revolution that followed. that followed.

American Colonial EducationAmerican Colonial Education

The Puritans developed universal primary The Puritans developed universal primary education in the Massachusetts Bay education in the Massachusetts Bay Colony with the Old Deluder Law of 1647. Colony with the Old Deluder Law of 1647.

This model of public education spread This model of public education spread west as New Englanders migrated to New west as New Englanders migrated to New York and the upper Midwest in the 1700s.York and the upper Midwest in the 1700s.

Education in the Middle ColoniesEducation in the Middle Colonies

These schools reflected the rich ethnic These schools reflected the rich ethnic and religious diversity of this region. and religious diversity of this region.

Schools of the Dutch Reformed church, Schools of the Dutch Reformed church, German Lutherans, Quakers, Roman German Lutherans, Quakers, Roman Catholics, and the Mennonites, etc. each Catholics, and the Mennonites, etc. each centered on religious and moral education. centered on religious and moral education.

Education in the Colonial South Education in the Colonial South WestWest

Jesuit education flourished in areas Jesuit education flourished in areas extending from present day Santa Fe, extending from present day Santa Fe, New Mexico through San Diego and Los New Mexico through San Diego and Los Angeles, California.Angeles, California.

Jesuit priests established hundreds of Jesuit priests established hundreds of primary and secondary Catholic schools. primary and secondary Catholic schools.

This tradition continues to the present day. This tradition continues to the present day.

Education in the Southern Education in the Southern ColoniesColonies

In these communities, private schools and In these communities, private schools and in-home tutoring for wealthy planter in-home tutoring for wealthy planter children was the norm. children was the norm.

Beyond apprenticeship and minimal Beyond apprenticeship and minimal reading education in charity schools, there reading education in charity schools, there were few educational opportunities for were few educational opportunities for poor children. poor children.

For African Americans, free or enslaved, For African Americans, free or enslaved, formal education was extremely rare. formal education was extremely rare.

The Common School: OriginsThe Common School: Origins

Following the Revolution, Americans Following the Revolution, Americans understood that children needed a understood that children needed a common set of cultural and social common set of cultural and social experiences in order to appreciate the experiences in order to appreciate the concepts of nationhood and civic concepts of nationhood and civic responsibility. responsibility.

The common school movement took root The common school movement took root and began to grow in the first half of the and began to grow in the first half of the 1800s. 1800s.

Common School: CurriculumCommon School: Curriculum

When the McGuffey Reader became When the McGuffey Reader became available in the late 1830s, lessons on available in the late 1830s, lessons on patriotism and civic virtue became the patriotism and civic virtue became the mainstay of reading instruction. mainstay of reading instruction.

The common school also created a The common school also created a curriculum that prepared young Americans curriculum that prepared young Americans for the new market economy. for the new market economy.

Competition and examinations became Competition and examinations became commonplace during this period.commonplace during this period.

Common School: Religious and Common School: Religious and Cultural ConflictCultural Conflict

As new immigrants came to America during the As new immigrants came to America during the 1800s, the Protestant oriented common school 1800s, the Protestant oriented common school curriculum became a growing source of conflict. curriculum became a growing source of conflict.

Many Roman Catholics, opposed these Many Roman Catholics, opposed these Protestant prayers and values in the primary Protestant prayers and values in the primary school curriculum. school curriculum.

English-only instruction branded immigrant English-only instruction branded immigrant children as deficient and even ignorant because children as deficient and even ignorant because they had difficulty speaking English. they had difficulty speaking English.

This problem continues with many immigrant This problem continues with many immigrant children today. children today.

African Americans and Education: African Americans and Education: Before the Civil War Before the Civil War

Prior to the Civil War, race had a lasting Prior to the Civil War, race had a lasting impact on public education.impact on public education.

In the South, slave children had few In the South, slave children had few educational opportunities other than educational opportunities other than Charity or Sunday schools. Charity or Sunday schools.

In the North, schools for black children In the North, schools for black children existed but were limited. existed but were limited.

African Americans played the greatest role African Americans played the greatest role in the primary education of their children. in the primary education of their children.

African Americans and Education: African Americans and Education: Freedmen’s Bureau schools Freedmen’s Bureau schools

When slavery officially ended in 1865, a new era When slavery officially ended in 1865, a new era of educational reform swept the South with the of educational reform swept the South with the establishment of the Freedmen’s Bureau establishment of the Freedmen’s Bureau Schools. Schools.

These schools fostered what Booker T. These schools fostered what Booker T. Washington called “a veritable fever” for Washington called “a veritable fever” for education. education.

Thousands of idealistic, young men and women Thousands of idealistic, young men and women from the north came south to teach in from the north came south to teach in Freedmen’s Bureau schools – their impact was Freedmen’s Bureau schools – their impact was dramatic. dramatic.

African Americans and African Americans and Education:Education: Plessy v FergusonPlessy v Ferguson

The Freedmen’s Bureau Schools were opposed and The Freedmen’s Bureau Schools were opposed and resented by many white southerners. resented by many white southerners.

Southern states typically adopted a system of Southern states typically adopted a system of segregated schools with limited opportunities for African segregated schools with limited opportunities for African Americans. Americans.

The infamous Supreme Court decision The infamous Supreme Court decision Plessy v Plessy v FergusonFerguson (1896) gave segregated educational facilities (1896) gave segregated educational facilities the false legitimacy of the federal government. the false legitimacy of the federal government.

As a result, African Americans created their own schools As a result, African Americans created their own schools and promoted both primary and secondary education. and promoted both primary and secondary education.

This tradition of self-help was essential for the survival of This tradition of self-help was essential for the survival of African American education.African American education.

European Educational Reformers European Educational Reformers

Meanwhile, an educational reform movement spread Meanwhile, an educational reform movement spread throughout Europe. throughout Europe.

The most important European educational reformers The most important European educational reformers were John Locke, Jean Jacque Rousseau and Johann were John Locke, Jean Jacque Rousseau and Johann Pestalozzi. Pestalozzi.

LockeLocke felt the most effective method of instruction was to felt the most effective method of instruction was to provide praise for good behavior and achievement. He provide praise for good behavior and achievement. He also rejected corporal punishment. also rejected corporal punishment.

RousseauRousseau argued that children had innate intelligence, argued that children had innate intelligence, and therefore education should be based on the child’s and therefore education should be based on the child’s experiences and their need to know and understand. experiences and their need to know and understand.

PestalozziPestalozzi maintained that education should focus on the maintained that education should focus on the “objects” and activities of the real world presented to “objects” and activities of the real world presented to children with love and nurture. children with love and nurture.

American Educational ReformersAmerican Educational Reformers

American educators transformed the schools of American educators transformed the schools of late 1800s and the early 1900s. late 1800s and the early 1900s.

Among the most important of these reformers:Among the most important of these reformers: Johann HerbartJohann Herbart William Heard KilpatrickWilliam Heard Kilpatrick Edward ThorndikeEdward Thorndike B.F. Skinner B.F. Skinner John Dewey.John Dewey.

Each of these powerful figures contributed to this Each of these powerful figures contributed to this revolution in teaching.revolution in teaching.

Herbart and the Lesson PlanHerbart and the Lesson Plan

Johann HerbartJohann Herbart (1776-1841) was a (1776-1841) was a psychologist who introduced the idea of psychologist who introduced the idea of the structured lesson plan – a template the structured lesson plan – a template that outlined the five steps of instruction: that outlined the five steps of instruction: 1) preparation1) preparation2) presentation2) presentation3) association3) association4) generalization4) generalization5) application5) application

Kilpatrick’s Project MethodKilpatrick’s Project Method

William Heard KilpatrickWilliam Heard Kilpatrick was a progressive was a progressive educator who wrote during the late 1910s and educator who wrote during the late 1910s and early 1920s.early 1920s.

His project method involved student learning by His project method involved student learning by means of a “socially purposeful act.” means of a “socially purposeful act.”

By involving students in projects like putting out By involving students in projects like putting out a newspaper from start to finish, teachers could a newspaper from start to finish, teachers could direct student learning to socially useful ends direct student learning to socially useful ends and strengthen their connection to the larger and strengthen their connection to the larger society. society.

Thorndike: Father of EvaluationThorndike: Father of Evaluation

Edward ThorndikeEdward Thorndike (1874-1949) (1874-1949) recommended that all instruction be based recommended that all instruction be based on the scientific method and evaluated by on the scientific method and evaluated by scientific instruments. scientific instruments.

Rigorous educational testing would help Rigorous educational testing would help teachers choose the most effective teachers choose the most effective instructional methods and direct students instructional methods and direct students to their “most useful role” in society. to their “most useful role” in society.

Skinner and Behaviorism Skinner and Behaviorism

B.F. SkinnerB.F. Skinner (1904-1990) popularized (1904-1990) popularized educational psychology by broadening its educational psychology by broadening its appeal. appeal.

He focused on the effect of rewards in the He focused on the effect of rewards in the learning process, which became the basis learning process, which became the basis of “programmed learning.” of “programmed learning.”

Dewey: Father of Progressive Dewey: Father of Progressive EducationEducation

John DeweyJohn Dewey (1859-1952) made enormous contributions (1859-1952) made enormous contributions to education with his “laboratory school” and concepts of to education with his “laboratory school” and concepts of “learning by doing”.“learning by doing”.

His emphasis on innovative, socially responsible group His emphasis on innovative, socially responsible group instruction, linked to rigorous scientific evaluation, was instruction, linked to rigorous scientific evaluation, was the basis of the progressive education. the basis of the progressive education.

Many of these progressive forms of instruction provided Many of these progressive forms of instruction provided the basis of curricular innovations such as:the basis of curricular innovations such as:

inquiry based instructioninquiry based instruction individual contractingindividual contracting preschool educationpreschool education multi-age groupingmulti-age grouping differential staffingdifferential staffing flexible schedulingflexible scheduling team teachingteam teaching

Various Progressive Education Various Progressive Education PlansPlans

University of Chicago Laboratory SchoolUniversity of Chicago Laboratory School (1896-1904) was (1896-1904) was managed by Alice Dewey, wife of John Dewey. Students were managed by Alice Dewey, wife of John Dewey. Students were actively engaged in projects and worked in groups. The Lab actively engaged in projects and worked in groups. The Lab School of Chicago is still in existence today and continues to be School of Chicago is still in existence today and continues to be innovative.innovative.

The Gary PlanThe Gary Plan (1908-1915, Gary, Indiana) This plan attempted (1908-1915, Gary, Indiana) This plan attempted to reorganize the school building more efficiently. The school to reorganize the school building more efficiently. The school building was divided into spaces allocated for specific use – such building was divided into spaces allocated for specific use – such as classrooms, playground, shops, laboratories, etc. as classrooms, playground, shops, laboratories, etc.

The Dalton PlanThe Dalton Plan (1919, Dalton, Massachusetts) divided the (1919, Dalton, Massachusetts) divided the curriculum into units that were contracted by students for a curriculum into units that were contracted by students for a specified period of time.specified period of time.

The WinnetkaThe Winnetka Plan Plan (1919, Winnetka, Illinois) separated the (1919, Winnetka, Illinois) separated the curriculum into subjects and used the Dalton technique. It also curriculum into subjects and used the Dalton technique. It also employed the use of cooperative social activities as advocated employed the use of cooperative social activities as advocated by John Dewey. by John Dewey.

The Basal ReaderThe Basal Reader The The basal readersbasal readers represented a revolution in represented a revolution in

reading instruction. reading instruction. Incorporated Pestalozzi’s and Herbart’s ideas of Incorporated Pestalozzi’s and Herbart’s ideas of

distinctive developmental levels through the use of a distinctive developmental levels through the use of a controlled vocabulary.controlled vocabulary.

Used Pestalozzi’s concept of “objects” in the form of Used Pestalozzi’s concept of “objects” in the form of vivid illustrations.vivid illustrations.

Incorporated Kilpatrick’s idea of drawing on the Incorporated Kilpatrick’s idea of drawing on the interests and experiences of students.interests and experiences of students.

Borrowed Herbart’s idea of the lesson plan and his Borrowed Herbart’s idea of the lesson plan and his concept of sequencing reading materials. concept of sequencing reading materials.

Utilized Thorndike’s concept of measuring the Utilized Thorndike’s concept of measuring the progress of student comprehension. progress of student comprehension.

Innovations in the 1960s and Innovations in the 1960s and BeyondBeyond

The Humanistic CurriculumThe Humanistic Curriculum stresses personal student stresses personal student growth, self-discovery, as well as moral and esthetic growth, self-discovery, as well as moral and esthetic development.development.

The Open ClassroomThe Open Classroom promotes individualized instruction promotes individualized instruction where students determine the nature and sequence of where students determine the nature and sequence of the curriculum.the curriculum.

Whole LanguageWhole Language integrates language arts skills with a integrates language arts skills with a special emphasis on literature and rejects the use of special emphasis on literature and rejects the use of phonics as the primary method of reading instruction. phonics as the primary method of reading instruction.

Magnet SchoolsMagnet Schools are specialized public schools open to are specialized public schools open to students on a competitive or lottery basis and generally, students on a competitive or lottery basis and generally, have a specific educational focus, such as the Arts or have a specific educational focus, such as the Arts or Science. Science.

Educational Backlash Educational Backlash

During the 1980s, conservatives rejected many During the 1980s, conservatives rejected many innovative, progressive-based educational programs. innovative, progressive-based educational programs.

Some claimed that these programs lacked rigor and Some claimed that these programs lacked rigor and academic credibility.academic credibility.

Others argued that the solution to our “educational crisis” Others argued that the solution to our “educational crisis” was greater student accountability through “competency was greater student accountability through “competency based” instructional programs.based” instructional programs.

Still others rejected the basal reader and instructional Still others rejected the basal reader and instructional methods - such as whole language - and demanded, and methods - such as whole language - and demanded, and in some cases legislated, phonics as the primary method in some cases legislated, phonics as the primary method of reading instruction. of reading instruction.

A Nation at Risk?A Nation at Risk?

The educational backlash reached a crescendo The educational backlash reached a crescendo with the publication of with the publication of A Nation at RiskA Nation at Risk (1983). (1983).

The language of this report alarmed many The language of this report alarmed many Americans.Americans.

Many conservative political leaders called for Many conservative political leaders called for “privatization” of public education, vouchers, and “privatization” of public education, vouchers, and high stakes testing. high stakes testing.

The NCLB (No Child Left Behind) reflected many The NCLB (No Child Left Behind) reflected many of these concerns and later became national of these concerns and later became national law. law.

The New Progressivism The New Progressivism

In recent years, many of these conservative In recent years, many of these conservative plans have been challenged by progressive plans have been challenged by progressive educational researchers. educational researchers.

They argue that vouchers and school choice are They argue that vouchers and school choice are ineffective.ineffective.

They note that End of Grade (EOG) Tests have They note that End of Grade (EOG) Tests have misdirected the curriculum.misdirected the curriculum.

They call for a reassessment of education based They call for a reassessment of education based on educational research and not politics. on educational research and not politics.