THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION (1500s-1600s)

Thinking is based on observation, experimentation, and questioning of old ideaso Influenced by the spirit of the Renaissance

Nicolaus Copernicus (Polish scholar) challenges the geocentric (Earth centered) model of the universe held by ancient Greco-Roman scientists and the Roman Catholic Church during the Middle Ages

o Using mathematical formulas, Copernicus suggested a heliocentric (sun- centered) universe

In the 1600s, Galileo Galilei proved the heliocentric theory by using a telescope he had constructed

o Observed spots on the sun and the four moons revolving around Jupiter

o Findings angered the Church because it contradicted their teachings about the world

Galileo was put on trial by the Inquisition and forced to recant (take back his ideas)

English scholar Isaac Newton used math to prove the existence of a force that kept the planets in their orbits around the sun—gravity

o Came up with the theory that nature follows laws

Francis Bacon’s methods of experimentation led to the scientific method

Frenchman Rene Descartes emphasized the power of the human mind and believed that reason, rather than tradition, should be the way to discover truth

Impact: Led to advances in medicine and astrology and influenced the Enlightenment

THE ENLIGHTENMENT (1700s)

Closely followed the Scientific Revolution (ideas that develop in one activity will influence other aspects of life)

o Both encouraged the spread of new ideas People rejected traditional ideas and supported the belief that logical thought can lead to

the truth Enlightenment Ideas:

o All individuals have NATURAL RIGHTSo The use of REASON would lead to human progress

Philosophers of the Enlightenment period believed that society could best be improved by applying REASON and the LAWS OF NATURE

John Locke (wrote Two Treatises of Government)o all people are born with natural rights—life, liberty, & property o governments should be based on the consent of the peopleo the chief role of government was to protect natural rights; if govt. fails to do so,

people should overthrow it Rousseau (wrote The Social Contract)

o believed people are natural good, but are corrupted by the evils of society o people should create laws and obey them; what is good for everyone is more

important than what is good for one person Montesquieu (wrote The Spirit of the Laws)

o believed in the separation of powers—executive, legislative, judicial o separation of powers would create a system of checks & balances—this way no

person or group could gain too much power Voltaire

o believed in free speech o criticized the French government and the Catholic Church for failure to permit

religious toleration and intellectual freedom The writings of Jean Jacques ROUSSEAU, Baron de MONTESQUIEU, and John LOCKE

were similar in that each supported the principles of a DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC The ideas of Rousseau, Voltaire, and Montesquieu influenced movements for

POLITICAL REFORM IMPACT: affected leaders and the development of nations

o Enlightened despots were absolute rulers who accepted Enlightenment ideas and used their powers to reform society

Maria Theresa- Austrian ruler who forced nobles and clergy to pay taxes and made primary education available to children in her kingdom

Joseph II- Maria Theresa’s son, who modernized Austria’s government, implemented legal reforms, practiced religious toleration, ended censorship, and abolished serfdom

Frederick the Great- Prussian ruler who reduced the use of torture, allowed free press, reformed civil service system, and simplified laws

Catherine the Great- Russian ruler who asked for advice from nobles, free peasants, and townspeople; built schools, promoted women’s education, extended religious tolerance

In the end, most enlightened despots only wanted more power for themselves

o Inspired a sense of individualism, a belief in personal freedom, and a sense of equality

o GROWTH OF NATIONALISM THAT LEADS TO AGE OF REVOLUTIONS (American, French, Latin American)

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1800)

Causes of the Revolution: France was under the control of an

absolute monarchy which denied basic rights and any say in government

Since Middle Ages, everyone in France belonged to one of three social classes called estates:

o First Estate: Clergyo Second Estate: Rich nobles

Held most wealth, did not pay taxes, and enjoyed special rights/privileges

o Third Estate: included a bourgeoisie=middle class, poor city workers, and rural peasants

Owned most land, paid all taxes, earned poor wages, had no say in government

Louis XIV left France deeply in debt (built lavish Palace of Versailles and entered France into costly wars)

o Spent more money than it earned=deficit spending o Bad harvests caused food prices to rise

Peasant and city workers were often starving and began to riot, demanding bread

Enlightenment ideas led many French to question the traditional way of ordering society

England’s Glorious Revolution and America’s Revolutionary War served as examples

King Louis XVI calls Estates General, a body made up of representatives of all three estates, into session

National Assembly is formed by members of Third Estate

o After finding their meeting hall locked, they gathered at a nearby tennis court

Tennis Court Oath: pledged to meet until a constitution was created

July 14, 1789

Storming of Bastille:Parisians broke into prison to get weapons believed to be inside

*France went to war with European countries (England, Austria, Prussia, Russia) to spread the revolution**Reign of Terror is led by Robespierre—targeted those who resisted revolution (used guillotine); Reign of Terror crossed social and economic boundaries

Napoleon Bonaparte restores order & stability in France and puts himself in charge as Emperor (supported by French public)

o Napoleon held absolute power Achievements : balanced budget, equal taxes for all, set up national bank and schools

o Napoleonic Code: legal code that included Enlightenment ideas legal equality of citizens and religious toleration

o Napoleon expanded his empire and replaced monarchs of defeated nations with his friends & relatives

o Only Great Britain and Russia remained out of Napoleon’s reach

Napoleon’s empire began to crumble due to:o nationalism of conquered

peopleo Napoleon’s invades Russia

with limited supplies Russians retreated burning

crops and villages (scorched earth)

Defeated because of geographic size, location, harsh climate, and severe winters of Russia

European nations defeat Napoleon at Battle of Waterloo

*

**

Congress of Vienna (1815): European leaders met to devise a peace settlement and bring back order and stability to Europe

o Prince von Metternich of Austria was dominant figure at the conference (conservative: preserve traditional ways)

o Goals: establish balance of power, prevent France from going to war again, return Europe to the way it was in 1792, before Napoleon, create long lasting peace

o Actions: redraw map of Europe to strengthen countries around France, restored power to monarchs, established peace in Europe for a while

LA TIN AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS

HAITI: French planters owned large sugar plantations with 500,000 slaves working in terrible conditions

o French gave few rights to free mulattoes (persons of mixed ancestry)o 1791: Self-educated former slave named Toussaint L’Ouverture led a slave

revolt Gained control of much of the island Haitian slaves won freedom in 1798

o 1802: Napoleon sent an army to Haiti to regain control Toussaint led a guerrilla war to gain Haitian independence French captured Toussaint but yellow fever took a toll on French troops 1804: Haiti gains its independence when Napoleon abandons the

island MEXICO

o Father Miguel Hidalgo , a creole priest, calls for freedom from Spanish rule in his speech “el Grito de Dolores” (the cry of Dolores)—asks Mexicans to fight for independence

o Father Jose Morelos led rebel forces after Hidalgo’s death o Agustin de Iturbide (backed by creoles, mestizos, and Natives) overthrew

Spanish rulero Mexico gains independence in 1821

SOUTH AMERICAo Early 1800s: educated creole named Simon Bolivar led resistance

movements against Spain Called “the Liberator” Led a series of military campaigns that won independence for

Venezuela, New Granada (present-day Colombia), Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia

Joined forces with Jose de San Martin, who had defeated the Spanish in Argentina and Chile

FAILED IN ATTEMPT TO CREATE A LARGE, UNITED LATIN AMERICAN STATE (GRAN-COLOMBIA) BECAUSE OF REGIONS DIVERSE LANDFORMS (i.e. mountains, rainforests, etc.)

PRACTICE EXAM

1. Which statement about the Scientific Revolution in Europe is accurate?1. The existence of natural laws was rejected.2. Scientists questioned traditional beliefs about the universe.3. New ideas supported the geocentric theory of Ptolemy.4. The Bible was used to justify new scientific findings.

2. Which pair of ideas were central to the Scientific Revolution?1. social stability and economic self-sufficiency2. observation and experimentation3. technology and military expansion4. scarcity and interdependence

3. 4.

5. 6.

7.

8. Which statement expresses an idea of the Enlightenment?

(1) The king is sacred and answers only to God.(2) History is a continuous struggle between social classes.(3) Those who are the most fit will survive and succeed.(4) All individuals have natural rights.

9. One contribution that John Locke made to Enlightenment philosophy was the idea that(1) absolute monarchies should continue(2) the punishment should fit the crime(3) individual rights should be denied(4) governments should be based on the consent of the people

10. According to John Locke, the chief role of government was to(1) protect natural rights(2) fight territorial wars(3) ensure the wealth of citizens(4) redistribute land

Base your answer to the following question on the statements below and on your knowledge of social studies.. . . The Laws ought to be so framed, as to secure the Safety of every Citizen as much as possible.. . . The Equality of the Citizens consists in this; that they should all be subject to the same Laws. . . .— Documents of Catherine the Great, W.F.Reddaway, ed., Cambridge University Press (adapted)11. These ideas of Catherine the Great of Russia originated during the

(1) Age of Exploration(2) Age of Enlightenment(3) Protestant Reformation(4) French Revolution

12. Which period of history had the greatest influence on the Enlightenment ideas of natural law and reason?

(1) Pax Romana

(2) Middle Ages(3) Age of Exploration(4) Scientific Revolution

13. The Enlightenment and the American Revolution were both major influences on 19th century uprisings in

(1) Latin America(2) the Middle East(3) Vietnam(4) Japan

14. Philosophers of the Enlightenment period believed that society could best be improved by(1) relying on faith and divine right(2) borrowing ideas from ancient Greece and Rome(3) applying reason and the laws of nature(4) studying the practices of successful leaders

15. Which idea became a central belief of the Enlightenment?(1) The use of reason would lead to human progress.(2) Mathematics could be used to solve all human problems.(3) The ancient Romans had the best form of government.(4) People should give up their natural rights to their rulers.

16. The ideas of Rousseau, Voltaire, and Montesquieu most influenced(1) the growing power of priests in the Roman Catholic Church(2) improvements in the working conditions of factory workers(3) the rise of industrial capitalism(4) movements for political reform

17. One way in which the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment were similar is that they(1) encouraged the spread of new ideas(2) strengthened traditional institutions(3) led to the Protestant Reformation(4) rejected Renaissance individualism

“. . . Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good. . . .”—Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, 178918. Which principle of the Enlightenment philosophers is expressed in this quotation from the French Revolution?

(1) natural law(2) nationalism(3) free trade(4) socialism

19. The writings of Jean Jacques Rousseau, Baron de Montesquieu, and John Locke were similar in that each supported the principles of

(1) a military dictatorship(2) an autocracy(3) a theocratic society(4) a democratic republic

20. The writings of the 18th-century French philosophers Diderot, Rousseau, and Voltaire influenced the

(1) policies of the enlightened despots(2) start of the Neolithic Revolution(3) success of the German unification movement(4) spread of imperialism to Africa and Asia

21. Which solution would Baron de Montesquieu offer to avoid the enactment of tyrannical laws?(1) granting freedom of speech(2) reinstating absolute monarchies(3) separating the branches of government(4) limiting natural laws

22. One similarity of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment is that both(1) had the support of the Roman Catholic Church(2) placed great value on traditional beliefs(3) emphasized the value of human reasoning(4) contributed to the end of feudalism

23. The Enlightenment philosophers believed that the power of government is derived from(1) divine right rulers(2) the middle class(3) a strong military(4) those who are governed

24. A major concept promoted by philosophers of the Enlightenment was the need for(1) a return to traditional medieval ideas(2) the use of reason for rational and logical thinking(3) overseas expansion by western European nations(4) strengthening the power of the organized religions

25. Which group made up the vast majority of French society in the 1780s?

1. the clergy2. the First Estate3. the nobles4. the Third Estate

26. Before the French Revolution, the people of France were divided into three estates based mainly on their

1. education level 2. geographic region 3. social class 4. religious beliefs

27. Which list of French leaders is in the correct chronological order?1. Louis XVI → Napoleon → Robespierre2. Robespierre → Napoleon →> Louis XVI3. Louis XVI → Robespierre →> Napoleon4. Napoleon → Louis XVI → Robespierre

28. What was a major cause of the French Revolution?1. inequalities in the tax structure2. economic success of mercantilism3. failure of the Congress of Vienna4. Continental System in Europe

29. Which of these events related to the French Revolution occurred first?

1. Napoleon became emperor of France.2. The Declaration of the Rights of Man was issued.3. Louis XVI called the Estates General into session.4. The Committee of Public Safety led the Reign of Terror.

30. What contributed to France's financial crisis in the 1780s?

1. A drop in the gold supply left the treasury almost empty2. France lost its colonies in South America3. War with Russia strained the treasury4. The government spent more money than it collected

31. Why were French kings hesitant to call on the Estates General?

1. The Estates General led the government to bankruptcy in the 1600s2. It was viewed as a sign of weakness by the populace3. The Estates General only represented the First Estate4. They feared nobles would use it to recover feudal powers

32. The Constitution of 1791 set up which form of government?

1. a limited monarchy2. an absolute monarchy3. a democracy4. a republic

33. European rulers opposed the French Revolution because

1. it promoted the French monarchy2. they were afraid that revolutionary ideas would spread to their own countries3. it granted more power to the French Catholic Church4. the disruptions in France threatened world trade

34. A comparison of the actions of the Jacobins during the French Revolution and the actions of the Bolsheviks during the Russian Revolution indicates that revolutions sometimes

(1) occur in a peaceful manner(2) gain the support of wealthy landowners(3) ignore urban workers(4) bring radicals to power

35. One similarity between the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution and the Cultural Revolution in China was that both

(1) limited the power of absolute leaders(2) illustrated the power of public opinion in forming national policy(3) established social stability and economic growth(4) used violent methods to eliminate their opponents

36. Which action taken by both Hitler and Napoleon is considered by historians to be a strategic military error?

(1) invading Russia with limited supply lines(2) introducing combined ground and naval assaults(3) invading Great Britain by land(4) using conquered peoples as slave laborers

37. Which factors protected Russia from control by Napoleon’s army?(1) religious and cultural similarities(2) industrialization and modernization(3) geographic size and location(4) political and economic instability

38. Which geographic factor in Russia played a role in Napoleon’s defeat in 1812 and Hitler’s defeat at Stalingrad in 1943?

(1) Siberian tundra(2) Caspian Sea(3) arid land(4) harsh climate

39. Which statement describes a similarity between the French Revolution and the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia?

(1) The leaders in power before the revolutions favored changing the political system in their country.

(2) Both revolutions were the result of government denial of basic human rights and stressful economic conditions.

(3) Most of the revolutionary support was provided by radicals from other countries.(4) The new democracies created by the revolutions gave people greater representation in

their governments.

40. The French people supported Napoleon Bonaparte because they hoped he would(1) adopt the ideas of the Protestant Reformation(2) restore Louis XVI to power(3) provide stability for the nation(4) end British control of France

41. At the Congress of Vienna (1815), the governments of Europe reacted to the French Revolution and the rule of Napoleon by attempting to

(1) restore old regimes to power(2) spread the idea of democracy(3) encourage nationalist movements(4) promote the European free-trade zone

42. One of the main purposes of the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) was to(1) promote the unification of Italy(2) preserve the German territories gained by Otto von Bismarck(3) restore the power of the Holy Roman Empire(4) establish a balance of power in Europe after the defeat of Napoleon

43. A major goal of the Congress of Vienna was to(1) establish democratic governments in all European nations(2) maintain a balance of power in Europe(3) return Napoleon Bonaparte to power(4) create independent governments for Austria and Hungary

44. Why did the Congress of Vienna redraw the boundaries of some European countries?1. to prevent French expansion2. to reduce the number of countries3. to distribute land more fairly4. to prevent the growth of nationalism

Base your answer to the question on the graphic organizer below and on your knowledge of social studies.

45. Which title best completes this graphic organizer?1. Reasons for Latin American Independence Movements2. Impact of the Scientific Revolution3. Causes of the Industrial Revolution4. Results of Nationalism in Europe

46. A study of the revolutions in Latin America in the 19th century would show that(1) religion was a major cause of the conflicts(2) Spanish-born peninsulares led most of the Latin American uprisings(3) nationalism had little influence on the outcome(4) events in North America and Europe influenced Latin Americans

47. Which social class controlled most of the political, economic, and social power in colonial Latin America?

1. creoles2. mestizos 3. peninsulares4. native people

48. Which of these situations was the direct result of the other three?1. Creoles and mestizos became discontented with Spanish rule.2. Revolutions occurred in North America and France. 3. The Napoleonic wars weakened Spain’s power. 4. Nations of Latin America won independence.

49. Which diagram shows the correct social hierarchy of Spain’s colonial empire in the Western Hemisphere?

1.

3.

50. The social class system in Latin America during the 16th and 17th centuries reflects the1. dominance of Spanish-born nobility2. emerging equality between classes3. influence of mestizo economic power4. increasing social mobility of Native American Indians

51. Simón Bolívar, José de San Martin, and Toussaint L’Ouverture are best known as 1. scientists who supported the heliocentric theory2. leaders of Latin American independence movements3. early Spanish explorers of the New World4. communist leaders of the 19th century

52. Which was a major political change in Latin America in the 19th century?1. The political power of the Roman Catholic Church was eliminated. 2. The right to vote was extended to all people. 3. Political power continued to be held by people of European ancestry. 4. Strong nationalistic feelings led to many new nations.

53. “The Andes Mountains isolated the Incas and also defeated the dream of Gran Columbia.” This statement indicates that1. fighting over natural resources undermines nationalism 2. a common language and religion are important in modern nations 3. cultural diversity is aided by subsistence agriculture 4. the natural environment helps to shape political development

54. Which geographic feature made it difficult to unify South America?(1) Andes Mountains

(2) Straits of Magellan(3) Gulf of Mexico(4) Argentinian pampas