Chapter TenChapter TenLanguage and Language and the Computerthe Computer

1. CAI, CAL & CALL1. CAI, CAL & CALL

CAI:CAI: ccomputer-omputer-aassisted ssisted iinstructionnstruction CAL:CAL: ccomputer-omputer-aassisted ssisted llearningearning CALL:CALL: ccomputer-omputer-aassisted ssisted llanguage anguage llearear

ningning

Three phases of CALL: Three phases of CALL: Behavioristic CALLBehavioristic CALL Communicative CALLCommunicative CALL Integrative CALLIntegrative CALL

1.1 Behavioristic CALL1.1 Behavioristic CALL

Conceived in the 1950s and Conceived in the 1950s and implemented in the 1960s and ’70s.implemented in the 1960s and ’70s.

Based on the then dominant Based on the then dominant behaviorist theories of learning--behaviorist theories of learning--repetitive language drills (drill and repetitive language drills (drill and practice).practice).

The courseware is based on the model The courseware is based on the model of computer as tutor, a vehicle for of computer as tutor, a vehicle for delivering instructional materials to delivering instructional materials to the student.the student.

The rationaleThe rationale Repeated exposure to the same Repeated exposure to the same

material is beneficial or even essential material is beneficial or even essential to learning.to learning.

A computer is ideal for carrying out A computer is ideal for carrying out repeated drills, since the machine repeated drills, since the machine does not get bored with presenting the does not get bored with presenting the same material and since it can provide same material and since it can provide immediate non-judgmental feedback. immediate non-judgmental feedback.

A computer can present such material A computer can present such material on an individualized basis, allowing on an individualized basis, allowing students to proceed at their own pace students to proceed at their own pace and freeing up class time for other and freeing up class time for other activities.activities.

Based on these notions, a number of Based on these notions, a number of CALL tutoring systems were developed CALL tutoring systems were developed for the mainframe computers which for the mainframe computers which were used at that time. One of the most were used at that time. One of the most sophisticated of these was the PLATO sophisticated of these was the PLATO system, which ran on its own special system, which ran on its own special PLATO hardware, including central PLATO hardware, including central computers and terminals. The PLATO computers and terminals. The PLATO system included vocabulary drills, brief system included vocabulary drills, brief grammar explanations and drills, and grammar explanations and drills, and translations tests at various intervals.translations tests at various intervals.

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, In the late 1970s and early 1980s, behavioristic CALL was undermined behavioristic CALL was undermined by two important factors. First, by two important factors. First, behavioristic approaches to behavioristic approaches to language learning had been rejected language learning had been rejected at both the theoretical and the at both the theoretical and the pedagogical level. Secondly, the pedagogical level. Secondly, the introduction of the microcomputer introduction of the microcomputer allowed a whole new range of allowed a whole new range of possibilities. The stage was set for a possibilities. The stage was set for a new phase of CALL. new phase of CALL.

1.2 Communicative CALL1.2 Communicative CALL

Based on the communicative Based on the communicative approach to LT which became approach to LT which became prominent in the 1970s and 80s.prominent in the 1970s and 80s.

Proponents of this approach felt Proponents of this approach felt that the drill and practice that the drill and practice programs of the previous decade programs of the previous decade did not allow enough authentic did not allow enough authentic communication to be of much communication to be of much value.value.

Premises for Premises for Communicative CALLCommunicative CALL focuses more on using forms rather focuses more on using forms rather

than on the forms themselves; than on the forms themselves; teaches grammar implicitly rather teaches grammar implicitly rather

than explicitly; than explicitly; allows and encourages students to allows and encourages students to

generate original utterances rather generate original utterances rather than just manipulate prefabricated than just manipulate prefabricated language; language;

does not judge and evaluate does not judge and evaluate everything the students nor reward everything the students nor reward them with congratulatory messages, them with congratulatory messages, lights, or bells;lights, or bells;

avoids telling students they are avoids telling students they are wrong and is flexible to a variety of wrong and is flexible to a variety of student responses; student responses;

uses the target language uses the target language exclusively and creates an exclusively and creates an environment in which using the environment in which using the target language feels natural, both target language feels natural, both on and off the screen; and on and off the screen; and

will never try to do anything that a will never try to do anything that a book can do just as well.book can do just as well.

Communicative CALL: Communicative CALL: Model 1Model 1 ComputerComputer as “knower-of-the-right- as “knower-of-the-right-

answer”, an extension of the computer answer”, an extension of the computer as tutor model. But the process of as tutor model. But the process of finding the right answer involves a fair finding the right answer involves a fair amount of student choice, control, and amount of student choice, control, and interaction.interaction.

ProgramsPrograms to provide skill practice, but to provide skill practice, but in a non-drill format. in a non-drill format.

CoursewareCourseware for paced reading, text for paced reading, text reconstruction, and language games. reconstruction, and language games.

Communicative CALL: Communicative CALL: Model 2Model 2 ComputerComputer as stimulus. as stimulus. PurposePurpose is not so much to have is not so much to have

students discover the right answer, students discover the right answer, but rather to stimulate students’ but rather to stimulate students’ discussion, writing, or critical discussion, writing, or critical thinking. thinking.

SoftwareSoftware used for these purposes used for these purposes include a wide variety of programs include a wide variety of programs which may not have been which may not have been specifically designed for language specifically designed for language learners.learners.

Communicative CALL: Communicative CALL: Model 3Model 3 ComputerComputer as tool or, as as tool or, as workhorseworkhorse. . The The programsprograms do not necessarily provi do not necessarily provi

de any language material at all, but ratde any language material at all, but rather empower the learner to use or undher empower the learner to use or understand language. erstand language.

ExamplesExamples include word processors, sp include word processors, spelling and grammar checkers, desk-toelling and grammar checkers, desk-top publishing programs, and concordap publishing programs, and concordancers.ncers.

By the end of the 1980s, many By the end of the 1980s, many educators felt that CALL was still educators felt that CALL was still failing to live up to its potential. failing to live up to its potential. Critics pointed out that the Critics pointed out that the computer was being used in an computer was being used in an ad ad hochoc and disconnected fashion and and disconnected fashion and thus “finds itself making a thus “finds itself making a greater contribution to marginal greater contribution to marginal rather than to central elements” rather than to central elements” of the language teaching process.of the language teaching process.

1.3 Integrative CALL1.3 Integrative CALL

Multimedia:Multimedia: CD-ROM (text, CD-ROM (text, graphics, sound, animation, and graphics, sound, animation, and video) video) hypermediahypermedia

The Internet:The Internet: computer-mediated computer-mediated communication (CMC)communication (CMC)

Hypermedia: advantagesHypermedia: advantages a more authentic learning a more authentic learning

environment is created;environment is created; skills are easily integrated;skills are easily integrated; students have great control over students have great control over

their learning;their learning; it facilitates a principle focus on it facilitates a principle focus on

the content, without sacrificing a the content, without sacrificing a secondary focus on language form secondary focus on language form or learning strategies.or learning strategies.

Hypermedia: Hypermedia: disadvantagesdisadvantages

Quality of available programs.Quality of available programs. Today's computer programs are not Today's computer programs are not

yet intelligent enough to be truly yet intelligent enough to be truly interactive.interactive.

Multimedia technology as it Multimedia technology as it currently exists thus only partially currently exists thus only partially contributes to integrative CALL.contributes to integrative CALL.

The InternetThe Internet Language learners can communicate Language learners can communicate

directly, inexpensively, and conveniently directly, inexpensively, and conveniently with other learners or speakers of the with other learners or speakers of the target language 24 hours a day, from target language 24 hours a day, from school, work, or home. school, work, or home.

This communication can be This communication can be asynchronousasynchronous through tools such as through tools such as electronic mail (e-mail), or it can be electronic mail (e-mail), or it can be synchronoussynchronous, using programs which , using programs which allow people all around the world to allow people all around the world to have a simultaneous conversation by have a simultaneous conversation by typing at their keyboards. typing at their keyboards.

It also allows not only one-to-one It also allows not only one-to-one communication, but also one-to-many.communication, but also one-to-many.

CMC allows users to share not only brief CMC allows users to share not only brief messages, but also lengthy documents--messages, but also lengthy documents--thus facilitating collaborative writing--thus facilitating collaborative writing--and also graphics, sounds, and video. and also graphics, sounds, and video.

Using the World Wide Web (WWW), Using the World Wide Web (WWW), students can search through millions of students can search through millions of files around the world within minutes to files around the world within minutes to locate and access authentic materials locate and access authentic materials exactly tailored to their own personal exactly tailored to their own personal interests. interests.

They can also use the Web to publish They can also use the Web to publish their texts or multimedia materials to their texts or multimedia materials to share with partner classes or with the share with partner classes or with the general public.general public.

1.4 Conclusion1.4 Conclusion The history of CALL suggests that The history of CALL suggests that the the

computer can serve a variety of uses for computer can serve a variety of uses for language teachinglanguage teaching. It can be . It can be

a a tutortutor which offers language drills or which offers language drills or skill practice; skill practice;

a a stimulusstimulus for discussion and for discussion and interaction; or interaction; or

a a tooltool for writing and research. for writing and research. With the advent of the Internet, it can With the advent of the Internet, it can

also be a also be a mediummedium of global of global communication and a source of limitless communication and a source of limitless authentic materials.authentic materials.

As pointed out by Garrett (1991), As pointed out by Garrett (1991), “the use of the computer does not “the use of the computer does not constitute a method”. Rather, it is constitute a method”. Rather, it is a “medium in which a variety of a “medium in which a variety of methods, approaches, and methods, approaches, and pedagogical philosophies may be pedagogical philosophies may be implemented”. The effectiveness of implemented”. The effectiveness of CALL cannot reside in the medium CALL cannot reside in the medium itself but only in how it is put to itself but only in how it is put to use.use.

As with the audio language lab As with the audio language lab “revolution” of 40 years ago, those “revolution” of 40 years ago, those who expect to get magnificent results who expect to get magnificent results simply from the purchase of simply from the purchase of expensive and elaborate systems will expensive and elaborate systems will likely be disappointed. But those who likely be disappointed. But those who put computer technology to use in put computer technology to use in the service of good pedagogy will the service of good pedagogy will undoubtedly find ways to enrich their undoubtedly find ways to enrich their educational program and the learning educational program and the learning opportunities of their students.opportunities of their students.

2. Machine Translation 2. Machine Translation (MT)(MT)

a form of translation where a a form of translation where a computer program analyses the computer program analyses the text in one language — the “source text in one language — the “source text” — and then attempts to text” — and then attempts to produce another, equivalent text in produce another, equivalent text in another language — the target text another language — the target text — without human intervention.— without human intervention.

Currently the state of machine Currently the state of machine translation is such that it involves translation is such that it involves some human intervention, as it some human intervention, as it requires a pre-editing and a post-requires a pre-editing and a post-editing phase. Note that in editing phase. Note that in machine translation, the translator machine translation, the translator supports the machine and not the supports the machine and not the other way around.other way around.

Nowadays most machine translation sNowadays most machine translation systems produce what is called a “ystems produce what is called a “gistigisting translationng translation” — a rough translation ” — a rough translation that gives the “gist” of the source texthat gives the “gist” of the source text, but is not otherwise usable.t, but is not otherwise usable.

However, in fields with highly limited However, in fields with highly limited ranges of vocabulary and simple senteranges of vocabulary and simple sentence structure, for example weather rence structure, for example weather reports, machine translation can deliver ports, machine translation can deliver useful results.useful results.

2.1 Development of MT2.1 Development of MT

1950s:1950s: independent work by MT independent work by MT researchers, dictionary-based, researchers, dictionary-based, word-for-word translation, low-word-for-word translation, low-quality resultsquality results

1960s:1960s: hope for good quality, due hope for good quality, due to (i) computer development and to (i) computer development and (ii) syntactic analysis(ii) syntactic analysis

Since 1970s:Since 1970s: computer-based tools for computer-based tools for translators, operational MT systems translators, operational MT systems involving human assistance, and ‘pure’ involving human assistance, and ‘pure’ theoretical research towards the theoretical research towards the improvement of MT methods. improvement of MT methods.

The recent ‘memory’ facility:The recent ‘memory’ facility: the the storage of and access to existing storage of and access to existing translations for later reuse or revision translations for later reuse or revision or as sources of example translations.or as sources of example translations.

All current commercial and All current commercial and operational systems produce operational systems produce output which must be edited or output which must be edited or revised if it is to be of revised if it is to be of published quality. published quality.

MT works best in domain-MT works best in domain-specific and controlled specific and controlled environments.environments.

2.2 MT research 2.2 MT research methodsmethods

Linguistic approaches:Linguistic approaches: categorial grammarcategorial grammar transformational-generative grammar (TG)transformational-generative grammar (TG) dependency grammardependency grammar stratificational grammarstratificational grammar lexical-functional grammar (LFG)lexical-functional grammar (LFG) generalized phrase structure grammar (GPSgeneralized phrase structure grammar (GPS

G)G) head-driven phrase structure grammar (HPhead-driven phrase structure grammar (HP

SG)SG) Montague semantics, etc.Montague semantics, etc.

Non-linguistic theories used:Non-linguistic theories used: information theoryinformation theory neural networksneural networks connectionismconnectionism parallel processingparallel processing statistical methodsstatistical methods etc.etc.

Practical approaches:Practical approaches: the transfer approachthe transfer approach the interlingual approachthe interlingual approach the knowledge-based approachthe knowledge-based approach

2.3 Areas of MT2.3 Areas of MT

MT qualityMT quality MT and the internetMT and the internet Spoken language translationSpoken language translation MT and human translationMT and human translation

3. Corpus Linguistics3. Corpus Linguistics

CorpusCorpus (plural (plural corporacorpora): a ): a collection of linguistic data, either collection of linguistic data, either compiled as written texts or as a compiled as written texts or as a transcription of recorded speech. transcription of recorded speech. The main purpose of a corpus is to The main purpose of a corpus is to verify a hypothesis about verify a hypothesis about language--for example, to language--for example, to determine how the usage of a determine how the usage of a particular sound, word, or syntactic particular sound, word, or syntactic construction varies.construction varies.

3.1 Corpus Linguistics3.1 Corpus Linguistics

Corpus linguisticsCorpus linguistics deals with the deals with the principles and practice of using principles and practice of using corpora in language study. corpora in language study.

A A computer corpuscomputer corpus is a large body is a large body of machine-readable texts.of machine-readable texts.

3.2 Concordance3.2 Concordancepoorpoor in in Tale of Two CitiesTale of Two Cities, , Book 1Book 1

3.4 Dictionary making: 3.4 Dictionary making: Collins COBUILDCollins COBUILD

3.5 The roles of corpus 3.5 The roles of corpus datadata Speech researchSpeech research Lexical studiesLexical studies SemanticsSemantics SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics

4. Information retrieval4. Information retrieval

Three main areas of research: Three main areas of research: content analysiscontent analysis information structureinformation structure evaluationevaluation

5. Language and the 5. Language and the InternetInternet

A linguist can’t help but be impressed by A linguist can’t help but be impressed by the Internet. It is an extraordinarily diverse the Internet. It is an extraordinarily diverse medium, holding a mirror up to many sides medium, holding a mirror up to many sides of our linguistic nature. The World Wide of our linguistic nature. The World Wide Web, in particular, offers a home to Web, in particular, offers a home to virtually all the styles which have so far virtually all the styles which have so far developed in the written language – developed in the written language – newspapers, scientific reports, bulletins, newspapers, scientific reports, bulletins, novels, poems, prayers – you name it, you’ll novels, poems, prayers – you name it, you’ll find a page on it. Indeed, it is introducing find a page on it. Indeed, it is introducing us to styles of written expression which us to styles of written expression which none of us have ever seen before. It has none of us have ever seen before. It has often been said, the Internet is a revolution often been said, the Internet is a revolution – yes, indeed, but it is also a linguistic – yes, indeed, but it is also a linguistic revolution.revolution.

David Crystal (2001): David Crystal (2001): Language and the Language and the InternetInternet

5.1 Internet terminology (Nets5.1 Internet terminology (Netspeak)peak) bouncebounce What your e-mail does What your e-mail does

when it cannot get to its when it cannot get to its recipient--it bounces back to you recipient--it bounces back to you (unless it goes off into the ether, (unless it goes off into the ether, never to be found again).never to be found again).

BTWBTW Used in an e-mail message Used in an e-mail message to stand for "by the way."to stand for "by the way."

cobweb pagecobweb page A Web page that A Web page that hasn't been updated in a long hasn't been updated in a long time.time.

compunicationscompunications Any form of compute Any form of computer-based communication, including e-mr-based communication, including e-mail, fax, and voice mail. ail, fax, and voice mail.

cybercafecybercafe Establishment with both cof Establishment with both coffee and internet access. Trendy in some fee and internet access. Trendy in some places, unknown in others.places, unknown in others.

CyberstyleCyberstyle The writing style used in The writing style used in most on-line communications. This smost on-line communications. This style is characterized by one or more tyle is characterized by one or more of the following traits: frequent use oof the following traits: frequent use of abbreviations, acronyms, and jargof abbreviations, acronyms, and jargon; "street" slang (e.g., using "cuz" instn; "street" slang (e.g., using "cuz" instead of "because"); typos, misspelled ead of "because"); typos, misspelled words, and a general inattention to gwords, and a general inattention to grammar and sentence structure; a rarammar and sentence structure; a rambling, stream-of-consciousness stylmbling, stream-of-consciousness style.e.

egosurfingegosurfing Searching databases, the Searching databases, the Internet, newspapers, magazines, wiInternet, newspapers, magazines, wire services, research papers and new re services, research papers and new books for your own name. Egosurfinbooks for your own name. Egosurfing is the crack cocaine of the cognoscg is the crack cocaine of the cognoscenti, each "hit" producing yelps of plenti, each "hit" producing yelps of pleasure and mounting delirium.easure and mounting delirium.

F2FF2F Stands for "face to face," and refers Stands for "face to face," and refers to when you actually meet face to face pto when you actually meet face to face people you have been corresponding witeople you have been corresponding with through e-mail or other parts of the Inh through e-mail or other parts of the Internetternet

IMHO (In My Humble Opinion)IMHO (In My Humble Opinion) A short A shorthand appended to a comment written in hand appended to a comment written in an on-line forum, IMHO indicates that tan on-line forum, IMHO indicates that the writer is aware that they are expressihe writer is aware that they are expressing a debatable view, probably on a subjng a debatable view, probably on a subject already under discussion. One of maect already under discussion. One of many such shorthands in common use on-lny such shorthands in common use on-line, especially in discussion forums.ine, especially in discussion forums.

mouse potatomouse potato The on-line The on-line generation's answer to the couch generation's answer to the couch potato. A computer addict, pale of potato. A computer addict, pale of complexion and intense of mien, a complexion and intense of mien, a species replicating ever faster in the species replicating ever faster in the techno-loam of modern society. A techno-loam of modern society. A mouse potato clings to a computer as mouse potato clings to a computer as persistently as a couch potato roots persistently as a couch potato roots before a television set. Only one before a television set. Only one means is known for freeing a mouse means is known for freeing a mouse from a mouse potato's hand--from a mouse potato's hand--replacing it with a trackball.replacing it with a trackball.

NetiquetteNetiquette A pun on ‘etiquette’ refe A pun on ‘etiquette’ referring to proper behavior on a network.rring to proper behavior on a network.

nomepagenomepage A homepage with little or n A homepage with little or no content -- perhaps an image of the po content -- perhaps an image of the person's pet and a few links to their faverson's pet and a few links to their favorite tv show, but nothing original and orite tv show, but nothing original and not much of anything else.not much of anything else.

read-only userread-only user A person who uses the A person who uses the Internet exclusively for reading Web pInternet exclusively for reading Web pages, e-mail, and newsgroups instead ages, e-mail, and newsgroups instead of creating their own content.of creating their own content.

ROM brainROM brain A person who refuses to A person who refuses to accept input and ideas from other peaccept input and ideas from other people. ople.

smileyssmileys Collections of character me Collections of character meant to totally replace body language, ant to totally replace body language, intonation and complete physical printonation and complete physical presence. for example happy faces ;-) , esence. for example happy faces ;-) , or smiley faces :-) and sad faces :-( wor smiley faces :-) and sad faces :-( when viewed from sideways.hen viewed from sideways.

5.2 Abbreviations 5.2 Abbreviations commonly used in online commonly used in online communicationcommunication afkafk away from keyboard away from keyboard bblbbl be back later be back later bbiabbbiab be back in a bit be back in a bit brbbrb be right backbe right back btwbtw by the wayby the way cyacya see ya see ya gmtagmta great minds think alikegreat minds think alike

j/kj/k just kidding just kidding irlirl in real life in real life lollol laughing out loud laughing out loud nicknick internet nickname internet nickname rotflrotfl rolling on the floor laugrolling on the floor laug

hing hing ttfnttfn ta ta for now ta ta for now ttylttyl talk to you later talk to you later wbwb welcome backwelcome back

5.3 Emoticons/smileys5.3 Emoticons/smileys

:-):-) ha ha ha ha |-)|-) hee hee hee hee |-D|-D ho ho ho ho :->:-> hey hey hey hey :-(:-( boo boo boo boo :-|:-| hmmm hmmm :-O:-O oopsoops

:-*:-* oooops oooops :-o:-o uh oh! uh oh! {}{} 'no comment' 'no comment' :-o:-o oh, no! oh, no! #:-o#:-o oh, no! oh, no! :-0:-0 ohhhhhh! ohhhhhh! |:-O|:-O big ohhhhhh! big ohhhhhh! :-))):-))) reeeaaaaaallllly happy reeeaaaaaallllly happy >;-('>;-(' I am spitting mad I am spitting mad :'-( :'-( I am cryingI am crying

<3<3 I love you I love you :'-):'-) I am so happy, I am cryiI am so happy, I am cryi

ng ng :-@:-@ I am screaming I am screaming ((H)))((H))) a big hug a big hug :-X:-X a big wet kiss a big wet kiss :-D:-D I am laughing (at you!) I am laughing (at you!) |-O|-O I am bored/yawning/snoring I am bored/yawning/snoring :-o zz z z Z Z:-o zz z z Z Z I am bored I am bored :-S:-S I am confused I am confused :-e:-e I am disappointedI am disappointed

(:-... (:-... I am heart-broken I am heart-broken |-| |-| I am going to sleep I am going to sleep ( @ @ )( @ @ ) You're kidding! You're kidding! @*&$!% @*&$!% you know what that means.... you know what that means.... **-( **-( I am very, very shocked I am very, very shocked :^D:^D great! I like it! great! I like it! M:-)M:-) I salute you (respect) I salute you (respect) :+(:+( I am hurt by that remark I am hurt by that remark =-o=-o I am suprised I am suprised <=-O<=-O I am frightenedI am frightened

=-<> =-<> I am awe struck I am awe struck $->$-> I am happily excited I am happily excited :-~(~~~:-~(~~~ I am moved to tears I am moved to tears =^)=^) I am open minded I am open minded >w>w oh really! (ironic)oh really! (ironic)