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CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

SUMMARY

The detail structural exploration in the North Almora Shear Zone (NASZ)

reveals that the zone is characterized by progressive deformation within the

range ductile to brittle regime and suggests a variation in strain localization in the

zone. The strain variation can be seen easily by reduction in grain size from

porphyritic to fine mylonitic granite gneiss toward thrust plane within shear zone.

Various structures are developed in the rocks of the NASZ, where the rock units

of the Rautgara Formation show shearing impacts only upto less distance then

the Saryu Formation and show absence of recrystallization of grains.

The complications arise due to the presence of the major Transverse

Faults in the NW (Dwarahat-Gairsen sector) and Central part (Seri-Seraghat

sector) of the NASZ i.e. Chaukhutiya and Rantoli faults. These portions of the

NASZ reflect consequential changes in the structural pattern due to the later

strike slip movement. Steeply dipping foliations and axial planes, rotation and

merging of hinge lines, horizontal to sub-horizontal stretching lineations in the

central part of the faults, explain the strike slip movement of the transverse faults

and related subsidiary faults. Besides of this geomorphic features are the

supportive evidences of the presence of the transverse faults (Valdiya, 1980;

Pant et al., 2007; Kothyari and Pant, 2008; Pant et al., 2011).

Pancheshwar- Seri sector is characterized by the NNE-SSW and ENE-

WSW (near the Pancheshwar), NNE-SSW and NE-SW (near the Rameshwar-

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Ghat), strike slip faults. The rotation in the hinge line and steeply dipping

foliations and sub-horizontal stretching lineation and parallel fractured planes are

some structural features with some geomorphic evidences, which support their

presence in the area.

Seri-Seraghat and Dwarahat-Gairsen areas are exemplified by the

transverse strike slip faults i.e. Chaukhutiya and Rantoli faults. These sectors are

very significant for the purpose of the deep study of the transverse faults of the

Himalayan region as they are the seismically active zone (Valdiya, 1975).

Horizontal to sub-horizontal stretching lineation highly fractured zone parallel to

the transverse fault, steeply dipping lithounits and regional folds with the rotation

in the hinge towards the fault trace are some similar structural features, which are

observed in the both sectors near the fault planes.

Seraghat-Dwarahat sector is similar to Pancheshwar-Seri sector, and

characterized by NNE-SSW oriented strike slip faults, those dissect the NAT

plane and oriented across the NAT in the region. The structural data strongly

proves their presence and also supported by geomorphic features. Their NNE-

SSW orientation which is sub-parallel to the major transverse faults and some

deformation pattern in the study area imply the same mechanism and timing

behind the origin of transverse faults as well as these relatively small scale faults.

In the Seraghat-Dwarahat the lithounits are sub-vertical to gently dipping and

demonstrate regional folds with the ESE-WNW and NW-SE striking axial planes.

The study evinces remarkable deformation pattern of different stages (D1,

D2, D3 and D4) with ductile to brittle stage within the NASZ presence of well

developed kinematic structures. The first phase of folding (F1) represents the D1

phase of deformation (Powell and Conaghan 1973; Saklani, 1973; Schwan, 1980;

Gairola, 1982; 1992, Gairola and Singh, 1995 and others) when isoclinal folds

(F1) developed on bedding (So) with the axial planar cleavage or schistosity (S1).

The second phase of folding (F2) over the S1, explains to D2 deformation (Powell

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and Conaghan 1973; Schwan, 1980; Gairola, 1982; 1992; Gairola and Singh,

1995) and suggest the development of S2 axial planar schistosity. The

mylonitization and development of c-surfaces may be related to D3 phase of

Himalayan orogeny when thrusting occurred (Krishnan, 1960; Powell and

Conaghan, 1973; Schwan, 1980; Srivastava and Gairola, 1990; Kumar and

Singh, 1992; Gairola, 1992 and Gairola and Singh, 1995). Crenulation in the

mylonite bands under the ductile regime and stretching lineation and fractures/

joints in the mylonites under brittle regime, represent later phase of deformation

or D4 phase of deformation.

Within the ductile regime the presence of symmetric and

asymmetric structures explain the pure shear component with the simple

shearing.

The presence of the mesoscopic kinematic structures of mylonites along

the tectonic planes, associated with the NASZ, reveal that the asymmetric fabric,

viz. the mylonitic foliation, S-C fabric, shear bands, asymmetric folds, faults,

sigmoidal quartz veins, delta and sigma structures have formed in ductile to brittle

conditions within the zone and explain the S to SW sense of movement.

However some mesoscopic structures i.e. C-C′ bands, kinking, small scale

shear zone in the area illustrate top to NE sense of movement in NASZ and late

stage of shearing toward NE direction along the NAT. It represents later

adjustment after placement of Almora thrust sheet over the Lesser Himalaya due

to continuous compressional stress in the area.

Normal faulting and boudinized veins show extensional regime whereas

reverse faulting and numbers of folds introduce the compressional regime within

the NASZ along with it area is also undergone superimposed folding.

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Thin section studies reveal that the mylonitic foliation becomes

progressively stronger and more penetrative towards the NASZ centre and which

may also caused of a stronger lattice preferred orientation of quartz grains.

Microstructures and c-axis pattern reveal both non-coaxial and coaxial

deformations. Non-coaxial deformation fabric and asymmetric microstructures

(i.e. S-C bands, rotation of porphyroblasts/ porphyroclasts, σ- and δ structures)

developed in ductile deformation indicate top-to-S and top-to-SW sense of shear

directions in the NASZ. Folded mica laths, snowball garnets and over growth of

the porphyroblasts revealed at least two phase of deformation.

The quartz c-axis single girdles geometry in the intensely sheared rocks

near the NAT trace, and asymmetric cross girdles and symmetric cross girdles/

orthogonal symmetry in less sheared rock units away from the NAT trace are

observed. Here former explains to simple shear at the NAT and later to pure

shear away from the NAT, in the NASZ. Few specimens at the vicinity of the

NAT also show symmetric cross girdles and pure shear at the NAT (near

Pancheshwar, SW sector). It may be due to later impact of pure shear over the

simple shear in the rock units within the NASZ and represent to the non-steady

strain path (Gosh and Ramberg, 1976; Platt and Behermann, 1986; Passchier,

1987; Simpson and De Paor 1993; Jiang and White, 1995; Passchier, 1998).

Since CPO in quartz aggregates indicates the deformation temperature

through active slip systems Schmid and Casey (1986), Ralser et al. (1991). The

c-axis projection which display type I single cross girdle, and asymmetric type II

cross girdles with point maxima near Y or close to Z or occasionally at an

intermediate orientation between Y and Z axes, have been shown to form by the

dominant activity of basal <a> and prism <a> at intermediate temperature

conditions (400-600º C), respectively (Takeshita, 1996; Passchier and Trouw,

1996). It also represents the deformation and metamorphism under amphibolite

facies condition (Bunge and Wenk, 1977; Schmid and Casey 1986).

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AMS properties of the rock units can represent the effects of shearing,

folding and faulting (Tarling and Hrouda, 1993; Hallwood et al., 1992; Nakamura

and Nagahama, 2001; Mamtani and Sengupta, 2010). Petrography and magnetic

mineralogy reveals that the anisotropy is controlled mostly by paramagnetic

minerals and negligible contribution of ferromagnetic minerals.

Vertical to subvertical magnetic foliation planes with variable orientations

represent latterly developed fabrics due to continuous horizontal compressional

forces. Their parallel alignment with the transverse faults along with horizontal to

gently plunging magnetic lineations, represent the strike slip movement of NNW-

SSE oriented transverse faults and other subsidiary faults. In the central part of

transverse faults magnetic and field foliation show contrast orientations, and

manifest superimposed deformation due to the development of transverse faults

and subsidiary faults. However in the terminal parts of the faults the magnetic and

field foliation show similar orientation and less variation between them, which

reflects negligible impacts of faulting in those portions of the faults.

Near the NAT contact magnetic foliation planes follow the orientation of

the contact and remain parallel to it until faults are encountered and the magnetic

foliations become parallel to these faults in the area.

The clusters of magnetic axes (K1, K2 and K3) are well defined in the rocks

of the Saryu Formation as well as in the highly sheared micaceous quartzarenites

of the Rautgara Formation, as shown by stereoplots. However less deformed

quartzarenite rock samples away from the NAT have almost randomly oriented

axes e.g. mixed maximum, intermediate and minimum axes and shows no

significant results in fabric study.

Schists are showing positive as well as negative relation between Pj and

Km. Positive relation is due to the growth of very fine grain iron oxides and

negative relation is due to alteration of paramagnetic minerals as strain

increases, which is verified with the petrography study. Granitic gneiss and

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proto-mylonite to mylonite in the study area, are consistently showing negative

relation between Pj and Km due to the decreasing the size of the paramagnetic

minerals on increasing the strain near the thrust plane. High Km value of

ultramylonitised granite is a consequence of the presence of ferromagnetic

minerals (pyrrhotite, size < 0.1mm). High Pj value at the NAT plane is due to the

localization of high strain in the rocks of the contact.

Rf /φ plots is giving high strain (Rs) values near the NAT and low from the

distant area of the NAT, which represent increasing value of strain towards the

central part of the NASZ.

Highly fractured and sheared rocks in the fault zones show distinct

magnetic foliations, are oriented parallel or sub-parallel to the fault plane. Their

parallel orientations are due to the growth of fine grain iron oxides along fractures

developed parallel to the fault zone. These results of fractured rocks are

significant in finding out the effects of the main transverse faults as well as of the

small scale subsidiary faults (Nakamura and Nagahama, 2001).

The magnetic parameter (T vs. Pj) and Flinn plots show dominating oblate

magnetic ellipsoids in the central part of the transverse faults, and prolate to

oblate magnetic ellipsoids in terminals of the transverse faults and along the

NAT. Therefore it is inferred that deformation was mostly of flattening in the

central part and constrictional in terminal parts of the transverse faults and other

parts of the NASZ. Here magnetic ellipsoids along the transverse faults show

flattening strain and strike slip faulting, whereas along the NAT trace represents

constrictional to flattening strain and thrusting effects.

CONCLUSION

Structural observations in the field and laboratory explain that the area has

been under gone two major deformation regimes i.e. ductile to brittle-

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ductile deformation, and lithounits are intensely deformed and mylonitized

in the NASZ.

The study verifies remarkable deformation pattern of D1, D2, D3 and 4

stages within the NASZ. D1 deformation explains the development of the

S1 schistosity over the So and D2 deformation suggest the development of

S2 due to the folding in the S1 schistosity. The mylonitization during

shearing show the development of c-surface and represents D3 phase of

deformation in the Himalayan orogeny. Crenulation in the mylonite bands

and highly fractured lithounits of the hanging wall as well as foot wall

define the strong brittle deformation of later stage and D4 phase of

deformation in the NASZ.

Microstructures study revealed at least two phase of deformation in rock

units of the NASZ.

Superimposed folding within the NASZ concluded the different phase of

deformation under the ductile conditions. Open to tight isoclinal folds in the

hanging wall represents progressive deformation towards the NAT plane.

Petrofabric study revealed the strong mylonitic foliation with grain size

reduction and completely recrystallized grains (shows oblique secondary

foliation) in the Suryu Formation (hanging wall) near the NAT and

incremental strain in the shear zone towards the center of the NASZ.

However the rock units of the foot wall that belongs to Rautgara Formation

show absence of recrystallization of grains and less deformation.

Sericitization or increased amount of muscovite at the centre of the NASZ

is revealing retrograde metamorphism at the time of thrusting within the

shear zone.

Precise field and laboratory (meso- microstructures and CPO of the quartz

c-axis) studies explain that the structures and fabric of the rocks have

been undergone simple shear and some where pure shear deformations.

Specifically the development of symmetry in the fabrics at the NAT plane

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is giving clue of the impact pure shear over the simples shear active in the

centre of the NASZ.

The asymmetry of the fabric (either CPO or meso-microstructures)

revealed the top to SW or S sense of shearing in the Southerly and South

Westerly dipping NASZ.

The structures that are developed under the brittle or brittle-ductile regime

as a response of later tectonic adjustments indicate top to NE shear in the

NASZ.

Few small scale wedge shaped shear zone with top to NE shearing are

observed in the NASZ, which represent the post-shear zone structures.

These formed as a consequence of tectonic movements in response to

still continuing compression.

AMS, and petrofabric study proved the incremental strain towards the NAT

contact in the NASZ.

Indepth study (field, AMS data) represents the strong evidences of the

presence of the subsequently developed transverse faults along the NAT

in the NW and central part of the NASZ. Study explains that the transverse

faults are more active in the central part then the terminal parts and they

reflect the high strain accumulation at that portion of the NASZ.

Magnetic and micro-fabric ellipsoids indicate constrictional to flattening

strain along the NAT contact and dominantly flattening strain where

transverse faults encountered, and reflect early thrusting and subsequent

faulting effects, respectively.

Steep foliation planes at the vicinity of the NAT contact where transverse

faults encountered and gentle foliation in other parts of the contact explain

the differential strain accumulation within the NASZ and relatively high

stain along the transverse faults.

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Some new faults i.e. NNE-SSW trending fault near Pancheshwar and NW-

SE trending near Ghat are discovered in the study area.

The steep magnetic foliations are interpreted to be on account of regional

compression.

KINEMATIC MODEL:

Through present indepth structural study a model is proposed which

explains the incremental stages of deformation in the NASZ: (I) The stage

explain the low angle thrust fault with the S and SW shear sense and (II) second

stage explain the change in the low angle thrust plane (NAT) to steep plane due

to continuous accumulation of and subsequently development of the transverse

fault along the NAT in the brittle-ductile regime (Fig.6).

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