chapter vi the environemental management system...
TRANSCRIPT
CHAPTER VI
THE ENVIRONEMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF INDIA
The policy and progra~nntes of the Goventment of lndia for the
protectiort and improvement of the country's environment is reviewed in this
chapter. The focus is on plan programmes. Actions taken outside the plarlning
Irmcess are a1.w covered. Eficacy of official policy is judged on the basis of well-
known norrns of sustainable environmental managentent. The first part
concentrates on the policies outlined in the Five Year Plarts. The major
enviro~tmer~tal problems faced by lndia are then discussed. This is followed, ~ J I
the firtal part, by aft analysis of the problents facing the environnter~tul
ntartagemertt system.
Norms of Sustainable Management of the Environment
1. Economic growth, by itself, will not put a break on environmental
deterioration. A proactive social intervention system is a sine qua non for
environmental stability and safety.
2. Vital components of environment have a synergic interrelation, and hence
the need for a comprehensive approach.
3. Only a long-term management of environmental problems, based on a
sound strategy can minimise deterioration.
4. There are limits to governmental action. Participation of the community is
an important component of a successful programme of environmental
management.
Plan Programmes for Environmental Protection and Management: 1951-1997
Right from the start, planners showed concern for the environment.
Serious coverage of the various issues of environmental protection, however,
starts only with the fourth plan.
[N.B. Reference to plan docuntents are given after each quotation,
in bracket -plan number followed by page number of the document.]
First Plan (1951-1956)
At this time, awareness on the 'development - environment -
interface' was limited. The reference to environment is limited to policy
statements on forests and land management. It was stated that "forests, help in the
conservation of soil fertility and play an important part in the maintenance of
water regime of the land ...( and) exert a beneficial influence on.. the climate"
[I:285]. There is reference to the Forest Policy Resolution of 1952 and to the
norm that a country should have at least one third of the area under forest. The
trade off between economic and ecological uses of forests was taken note of. "A
planned extension of regular forests will be subject to the availability of adequate
waste areas and demands made thereon for agricultural expansion to meet the
needs of ever increasing population" [I: 2851. The Central Board of Forestry was
advised to fix a 'target area for forests' in respect of each state. It was empowered
to permit deforesration for agriculture provided the available forest cover exceeds
the target so fixed [I: 2861. The plan made a suggestion for promoting village
plantations for fodder and fuel, on wastelands. It is also suggested that by
providing 'soft coke for cooking' some check can be put on destruction of forests
[I: 2871.
It was wrong on the part of the planners to direct those engaged in
construction sector, to use timber instead of steel [l: 2891. The grazing of cattle
on forestland was not seen as a menace but instead regarded as "a source of
income to the exchequer" [I: 2921.
Land degradation received some attention. Soil erosion is "one of
the most serious problems facing the country" [I: 2971. Estimate of the stock of
nine important minerals is provided. The planners advise caution in the use of
'wasting assets' (non-renewables) "once they are taken out of the ground and
utilized, they are lost for ever. They should, therefore, be treated on a different
footing from replenishable natural resources" [I: 3831 While discussing the ill-
effects of industrial concentration, the problem of pollution is indirectly
mentioned: "the excessive concentration of industries, brings in its train, certain
economic and social disadvantages and a wider diffusion of industries is
desirable" [I: 4421.
Second Plan ( 1956-61)
Ille plan mentioned the ecological relevance of forests; "they have
an important ameliorating influence on the factors of the climate. These protective
benefits are fully realised when forests extend over sizable tracts. Forests are the
home of our rich and varied wild life. Their destmction directly spells the
destruction of wildlife" [II: 2981. But significant parts of forest "are such only in
name and are subject to various forms of maltreatment" [II: 2981. But the
economic exploitation of forests is justified. "In the immediate future the
increased demand for timber for industries and development purpose, will have to
be met by cutting forests" [[I: 2981.
'The plan provides for the establishment of 18 National Parks and
Game Sanctuaries. The need for intensified research in areas related to forests and
bio-diversity is emphasized [II: 3041. The ecological menace from soil erosion is
aptly discussed. As per the statistics given, 20 per cent of area in hilly regions
was in a serious state of deterioration. A resolve was taken to undertake soil-
conservation in three million acres that were worst hit by erosion (11: 306-3071,
Foundation for typically highly polluting industries - cement,
newsprint, paper etc., was being set in this period. Ideally, some measures in
anticipation of the evil- effects of large-scale industralisation should have been
included. But nothing to this effect is available in the Second Plan document.
Third Plan ( 1 961 -66)
No significant improvement in the approach towards environment
can be seen in the Third plan. It speaks in terms of striking a balance between the
economic and ecological aspects: "Forests have important protective as well as
productive functions" [III: 771. There is a forecast of 'likely shortage of forest
produce when development proceeds'. The need for 'more economic and efficient
utilisation of available forest produce' is pointed out. An outlay of Rs. 51 crore
(0.59 per cent of public sector outlay) is suggested for forests - a major part of
which is to be spent on afforestation of a target area of 700000 acres; 15000 miles
of forest roads were to be newly developed. There is a proposal to create three
regional research centres. Protected area is to expand - 5 Zoological Parks, 5
National Parks and 10 Wildlife Sanctuaries are to be established during the plan
period [III: 78-80]. It is noted that "nature conservation is an important aspect of
forest development and includes the protection and proper management of
indigenous flora and fauna" [111: 791.
A resolve to expand the soil conservation programme is expressed.
The possibility that unscientific irrigation may damage land is mentioned. "A
potent cause of soil deterioration of irrigated lands is the rise in sub-soil water
levels and development of saline and alkaline soils" [III: 811. Adequate drainage
is to be provided in 200000 acres of land to prevent this. A novelty of the plan
programme is the declaration of some special programmes for the environmentally
sensitive areas like deserts and hilly zones. The third plan makes a proposal, to
accelerate the industralisation process. But there is no mention of the
environmental hazards following large-scale industrilisation.
Fourth Plan ( 1969-74)
The fourth plan is widely regarded as a watershed in environmental
planning. A rather co~nprehensive treatment of the issues related to the
environment appears for the first time. There is a separate section devoted to the
crucial issues affecting environment. It is remarkable that the framers of the fourth
plan anticipated most of what appeared, much later, in the celebrated report of the
WCED, 'Our Con~rnon Future'. It is stated that most countries face "a progressive
deterioration in the quality of environment. There is growing concern about the
matter in India also. A healthy environment is vital for good life. It is an
obligation of each generation to maintain the productive capacity of land, air,
water and wildlife in a manner which leaves its successors some choice in the
creation of a healthy environmenl" [IV: 251. Stating the need to "introduce the
environmental aspect into planning and development", it was declared that "long
term basic considerations (will) prevail over short-term commercial
considerations ... (and). Social costs and benefits (will) be used as yardstick rather
than private gains and losses [IV: 251.
A serious shortage identified in the government machinery related
to environmental aspects is the absence of a coordinating mechanism. "At present
there is no position in the structure of government where the environmental
aspects receives close attention in an integrated manner" [IV: 251. The shortage of
experts who are qualified to guide environmental programmes is seen as an
additional problem. To make good the gaps in our knowledge about the available
resources, more study needs to be organised. "Greater knowledge about natural
resources and the capacity to make economic use of them are essential elements in
the long term development strategy" [IV: 741
Fifth Plan (1974-79)
Indira Gandhi, the then prime minister and chairman of the
planning commission in the forward to the fifth plan document observed:
"Concentration on development should focus more pointed attention on its long
term effects. We must inculcate in our engineers and all our people a deep
reverence for nature. Forests must not be recklessly cut down; nor air and water
polluted. Technology should work in resonance with natural forces." [V: (vii)]
Emphasis is put on the conservation of the non-renewable natural
resources. A number of measures are suggested in this direction like a)
Preparation of a detailed inventory of natural resources. b) Utilisation of non-
renewable resources at optimum depletion rates c) Achievement of self-reliance in
the technology of conservation and d) Utilisation of recycling possibilities
A programme for extensive geological mapping is proposed so as
to fully realise the resource potential. It is noted that the elasticity of mineral
consumption to growth of GDP is more than one, which calls for some effort at
demand management [V: 12-14]. In order to minimise pollution and maximize
resource use, utmost priority will be given to recycling. In table 4, PP. 13-14, of the
plan document, estimate of balance life of the 'known resources' of important
minerals is recorded.
The Sixth Plan (1980-85)
The sixth plan maintained the emphasis on long term planning:
"The basic task of planning in India is to bring about a structural transformation of
the economy so as to achieve a high and sustained rate of growth" [VI: 171.
Emphasis is placed on a careful use of energy resources. The need of an energy
audit and pricing of electricity at a reasonable rate is mentioned. 'The possibility
for co-generation in industries like sugar, fertiliser and paper needs to be
investigated' [VI: 2311. It is noted that energy subsidies lead to many problems.
Wherever possible prices should reflect "the true costs" in order that fuel
efficiency is promoted and the search for cheaper alternative sources of energy is
developed [VI: 2311. There is a detailed account on alternate, renewable energy
sources such as solar energy, wind energy, biomass conversion, energy-fanning
etc. For development of such sources, basic research will be promoted. Liberal
subsidy is offered to those who come forward to adopt these sources.
Chapter XX of the plan document contains focussed treatment of
the environmental issues and remedial measures. It is noted that "the environment
should not be considered as just another sector of national development. It should
form a crucial guiding dimension for plans and programmes in each sector"
[VI: 3431. The problems related to environment are grouped into two: I ) those
arising from poverty and under development 2) those arising as negative effects of
the very process of development. Careful use of the natural resources, especially
land is advocated. It is noted that "very little attention was paid to the proper
management of our land and soil resources, with the result that, they have suffered
very serious degradation" [VI: 3431. Classification of degraded land into different
groups, based on causes, is available (Chapter XX, Table 20). As per the data
provided, 175 million hectares out of a total of 304 million hectares (on which
information was available) was degraded.
Regarding the forest resources, it is noted that out of the 75 million
hectares that are classified as forest less than half is actually under adequate tree
cover. As per the estimate of the planning commission 'only 12 per cent of the
land area is covered by forests as against the norm of 33 per cent' [Vl: 3441. The
importance of conserving biodiversity was stated as follows: "Preservation of
genetic diversity arid conservation of species and ecosystems for sustainable
utilisation is of crucial importance for future survival and development of our
people" [VI: 3441. Recommendation for an expansion in the list of species to be
protected is made. Pointing to a basic deficiency of the protection schemes, it is
stated, "wildlife conservation so far was in terms of one or two spectacular
animals at the total neglect of many other ecosystems which lack such spectacular
animals but are rich in floristic reserves" [VI: 3451.
A plan to set up a few more biosphere reserves is unveiled. The
condition of the 19 National Parks, and 202 Wildlife Sanctities (area: 75736 km2,
covering 2.3 per cent of total geographical area) was described as "bad. For,
"most of them inadequately cover the ecological diversity of threatened habitats or
even the endangered species of the country and most of them suffer from lack of
scientific or any other kind of effective management" [VI: 3461. As a first step to
correct the deficiencies, a detailed survey of the species and ecosystems of the
country is proposed.
An account of the various types of pollution facing the country is
available in the plan document. Water pollution is identified as the 'most serious'
pollution problem. It is stated that the reports on the pollution levels of the
country's 14 major rivers are "uniformly gloomy" [Vl: 3461. Even the perennial
rivers are heavily polluted - the major source of pollution being 'discharge of
community waste from human settlements'. It is recommended that the 'Water
Pollution Boards' be given more resources and authority. While discussing air
pollution (AP), almost equal coverage is given to industrial and residential
sources. It is noted that frequent burning of coal, fuel wood, cow dung and thrash
in ill-ventilated houses for cooking purpose, involves considerable pollution.
Statistics generated by NEERI on major pollutants in the metropolises are quoted,
which reveal that the WHO standards applicable at that time were exceeded in
rnost cases. While advocating a serious programme aimed at curbing pollution, the
impact of pollution on crop productivity, health, and safety of structures is noted.
According to the Planning Commission, the basic cure for the widespread problem
is the creation of awareness among people through proper education [VI: 3471.
No other plan till the period was as detailed as the Sixth Plan, in
the coverage of environmental aspects. For the first time, a systematic treatment
of the domestic sources of pollution is available. The comprehensive view on
conservation may be specially mentioned. The failures of the governmental
machinery in this respect are discussed in a candid way.
Seventh Plan
The plan document anticipated some of the basic tenets of the
sustainable development model. It is stated that "if the gains in productivity are to
be sustained, resources must also continue to be available over time. This requires
that, while providing for current needs, the resource base be managed so as to
enable sustainable development in harmony with the environment. Towards this
end, it would have to be ensured that all development programmes, in all sectors,
will take environmental considerations fully into account" [VII: 3741
The two important causes for environmental problems identified
are: (1) Poverty, and (2) 'badly planned and badly implemented development
programmes'. 1n an attempt to ensure eradication of poverty, "many (people)
concerned with development activity lose sight of environmental and ecological
imperatives" [VI: 3741 An elaborate management system for environmental
aspects is proposed. Environmental management was defined as an activity
"encompassing environmental planning, protection, monitoring, assessment,
research, education, conservation and sustainable use of resources". It is
remarked that, since in the Indian case a significant part of environmental
degradation is accounted by poverty, "many of the development programmes ...
could indeed be termed as environmental management programmes" [Ibid.]. The
urgent tasks for environmental managers are identified as:
a. Finding right solutions to the problem of mismanagement of nation's
resources, particularly forests
b. Acting against unscientific and unauthorised discharge of residues and
wastes.
c. Preventing the indiscriminate construction and expansion in urban
settlements.
d. Devising safe and scientific methods for handling toxic chemicals.
In order to have effective action against pollution, "a country-wide
rapid inventory on pollution from large and medium industries has been prepared
[VII: 3751. Monitoring of pollution, setting standards for discharges, developing
suitable systems of environmental impact assessment etc. are steps suggested to
curb the dangers of pollution. In spite of the setting up of 120 monitoring stations,
the state of pollution control is seen as 'far from satisfactory'. It is noted that only
about 30 per cent of large and medium plants in industry had, up to the period,
installed pollution control equipment. A resolve is taken to 'vigorously
implement' the 12 point programme for wildlife protection (1983). New
programmes envisaged in the seventh plan for ecological improvement are:
1. Preparation of a national vegetation map through a survey, employing
remote-sensing satellite technology.
2. Instituting a few more biosphere reserves.
3. Creating major environmental monitoring centres at Calcutta and Madras
'to study the impact of development activities on living beings.'
4. Constituting an eco-development task force of ex-service men.
5. Using media to educate the masses on environmentally sensitive matters.
6. Financing 400 research projects, which are someway related to
environmental issues.
On the broad policy front, it is suggested that long
term solution to environmental pollution requires the stabilisation of human and
animal population. It is remarked that only 'a highly coordinated' and 'highly
decentralised' approach can bring real success. A notable project declared for
the plan period is the Ganga Action Plan - which was an elaborate scheme to
clean up river Ganga. It is suggested that a new institution for overall
monitoring of environment - the National Environment Monitoring
Organisation -be created. A decision to make environmental impact
assessment mandatory for all major projects undertaken by ministries dealing with
socio-economic matters is announced.
Eighth Plan (1992-97)
While exposing the philosophy of development implied in the new
plan, the Planning Commission stated: "From the point of view of long range
sustainability, the need for greater efficiency in the management of natural
resources... has become urgent ... A package of incentives to promote efficiency in
the use of nature based resources needs to be devised as a matter of priority ..."
[VIII-1: 71
An estimate of the available resources is presented. On the forest
resources, it is noted that though gross forest area comes to 19.45 per cent of total
land, only 11 per cent of the country's geographical area can be truly called
forests. Showing great concern about the declining trend in the availability of
water, it is advised that 'saving water by achieving increased efficiency in use'
should become a national priority. In the case of non-renewable resources,
'planned demand management, substitution by renewables and intensified
exploration for new deposits'. are suggested [VIII: 341 The amount of degraded
land is put at 174 million hectares (out of a total arable area of 329 mill. ha.) and
with population growth, the availability of land per head is steadily falling.
Promotion of efficiency is suggested as the remedy.
The 'remaining stock estimates' of important minerals is provided.
Those identified to be in immediate danger of exhaustion, are rock phosphate (8
years) lead (14 years) and crude oil (15.3 years). In view of the declining stock of
non- renewables, there is a call for shifting energy production from non-
renewable sources to renewable~. It is hoped that the 'present high cost' situation,
in case of renewables like solar and wind power will change with indigenisation
of technology. An 'Integrated Rural Energy Programme', to ensure sustainability
of energy supply to rural areas is outlined as a measure against the 'depletion of
biomass cover' [VIII-I: 461.
Chapter IV, Vol I., starts with a realistic assessment of the
environmental situation: 'the scenario of environment and forests continues to
cause concern'. It is noted that the pollution problem is getting more complex with
the increased presence of non-traditional items (as pollutants) like chemicals,
heavy metals and toxic substances in the water bodies. [VIII-I: 921.
Taking a broad view of basic remedial steps, it is suggested that
removal of poverty, raising the levels of education and increasing the awareness
of people should receive more attention. Several steps to meet the environmental
challenge are enumerated, such as:
1. Decentralisation of control over nature.
2. Making individuals and institutions more accountable for their actions
impinging on the environment.
3. A reclassification of land areas based on the level of degradtion,
4. Preventive and regulatory action to counter the 'stress on environment' in
the form of 'pollution, overuse and destruction'. [VIII-I: 92-94]
It is emphasised that the system of statutory assessment of
environmental impact should be widened. On the projects already in operation,
effective regulation via close monitoring is necessary. There is a valid case for
including commercial agriculture in the list of activities to be monitored, as
farmers apply substantial quantities of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
Strengthening of the legal and institutional system related to management of
environment has to be accorded great importance. While the penalty system is
strictly applied to offenders, it is essential that the officials behave in a customer-
friendly manner. Monetary rewards should be given to members of the public
who help book offenders. [VIII-I: 931. People's participation in all operations
should be ensured. They have to he provided minimum training in technical
aspects of environmental protection.
Some constructive suggestions towards restoration and
regeneration of damaged ecosystems are offered, which include:-
1. Making it mandatory that those who degrade the environment undertake
the regeneration work, and -
2. Clubbing environmental regeneration and employment generation. This is
considered easy since most of such works requires very little capital and
expertise.
The National Wastelands Development Board, one of the three
organs of the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MEF), is designated as the
agency to coordinate environmental regeneration works. In order to
systematically organise community participation, various organs of the local
governments should be given an important role. Such an action is especially
crucial in matters related to common property resources.
On environmental planning, the need to evolve a comprehensive
national policy on nature and natural resources evolved in consultation with the
people is underlined. Tribals and weaker sections are to be guaranteed adequate
access to common property resources [VIII -I: 941. Sustainable development, it is
noted, demands that inter related activities like irrigation, energy, agricultural
operations and rural development are well coordinated. A significant suggestion
in the plan is the internalisation of environmental costs in the national accounts.
Since the designing and implementation of policy rest with governments at
different levels, the planners suggested that a clear demarcation of the
responsibilities be made. At the same time scope for participation of people had
to be ensured.
The eighth plan was finalised at a time when preparation on the
Earth Summit was in full swing. So it was expected that environmental aspects of
development would get wide coverage in the new plan. This was indeed the case
and the environmental plan, as such, is flawless. The spirit of the participatory
model of development is fully ingrained in the various policies. The attempts to
strengthen the grass roots level monitoring system and the resolve to integrate
environmental aspects with the system of national accounts are praiseworthy
moves. But a serious issue remains - the failure to balance the physical plan with
a suitable financial plan.
Survey of Major Environmental Problems of India
Time series data on environmental aspects, extending to the early
years of planning, are not available. Data of reasonable quality exist for the
period after 1972, the year in which actual legislative measures on environmental
protection were initiated'. The official data on environmental problems are
available in the publications of the MEF, but there are serious gaps in these. A
dependable alternate source is the series captioned, 'The Citizens Report'
published by the Centre For Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi. The
first report of the CSE appeared in 1982 and the latest available one in the series is
'The Citizens Fifth Report' (1999). Reports of numerous Non-Governmental
Organisations (NGOs) and international agencies were referred to obtain an overall
view of major environmental problems faced by India.
The general impression that emerges is that the state of
environment, presently, is far from satisfactory. The genesis of some of the
environmental issues can be traced back to the colonial policyz. However, the fact
that in the last 50 odd years they remained unresolved speaks volumes on the
attitude of the government to these problems. In fact, upto mid 1970% the
colonial regulatory systems and laws were still in force. Since then, numerous
legislations aimed at improving the condition of environment were enacted '. But
factors like inefficient administration, irresponsible behaviour and indifferent
attitude of the public contributed to a continued deterioration of environment.
While the point to point increase in India's GDP from 1975 to 1995 was 163 per
cent the respective value for total pollution load was much higher at 478 per cent4.
What follows is a category-wise description of the crucial environmental problems
of India. [ NB: Since the major resource problems have serious environmental
implications, the discussion includes some of them.]
Land Degradation
India has a low rank among world nations in per capita land
availability. Arable land per head declined by 25 per cent between 1980 and 1995
and was just 0.18 ha. on the latter point '. The subdivision of land that follows
population growth, itself is detrimental to eMicient land use and maintenance of
flora and fauna. Worse still, a significant portion of land suffers from different
sort of qualitative deterioration. The Draft Ninth Plan noted that nearly 45 per
cent of the total geographical area was degraded due to soil erosion. If the area
suffering from water logging, salinity and deseitification are added to the above,
the figure may exceed 50 per cent 6. The annual average loss of plant nutrients
with eroded soil, was estimated (1989), to be in the range of 5.37 to 8.4 million
tonnes7. Various types of land degradation - which have obvious negative
implications to food security and biodiversity-accelerated with the growth of
output. Water logging is traced to unscientific irrigation practices. The sharp
growth in the use of chemicals in the farming process led to serious chemical
pollution of land. Table 6.1 provides data for the increase in the use of chemical
fertilisers and pesticides in Indian farms, during 195 1 - 97 period.
Table 6.1
Use of Chemicals in agricultural sector (1951-1997)
i. Nitrogen I 0.06 1 10.30 .- ................................................................................................................................................. I
....................
Potash
Pesticides 0.16** 56.00
1996 - 97 (mill. tonne)
Item
A. Fertilisers
* data for 1960-61 ** data for 1948-49
Source: CSE(1999) Tab. 1.5.1, P.12 & Tab. 1.5.5., P16.
1951 - 52 (mill. tonne)
The official green revolution strategy promoted the use of both
fertilizers and pesticides through liberal subsidy. Majority of farmers who were
illiterate could not apply these in the right dosess. The failure to take care of the
ecological and environmental spillover of chemical intensive farming contributed
to serious deterioration of land. Of the non-agricultural land, the problem of
degradation of forestland has attracted considerable attention. Severely degraded
forests constituted nearly 28 per cent of the 'reported area under forest' in early
1980s 9. Unregulated and unscientific mining fills thousands of hectares of fertile
land with overburden every year lo. Rearing of an enormous number of livestock
(over 470 million in 1992) takes a heavy toll of the quality of land.
Deforestation
As per 1995 official statistics, India's forest area, net of the
degraded tracts, constituted barely 13 per cent of its total geographical area":
Substantial conversion of forests took place in the early phase of India's economic
development; (See table 6.2, for motives); the annual rate of deforestation in the
1980's (0.6 per cent), was double the world average 12.
Table 6.2
1 Transmission lines & roads 1 0.061 I
Motive for conversion of forests (1951 - 1980)
Purpose
Agriculture
River valley projects
Industries & townships
Source: CSE (1999) Tab 3.2.1, P. 77
Area Converted (mill. ha.)
2.623
0.502
0.134
Others
The available forest in exploited too much, mainly for obtaining
1.008
fuel wood for cooking. In 1991.61.5 per cent of Indian households used wood as
I
cooking medium (rural: 71.69 per cent)13. The forest survey of India has
estimated that current collection of fuel-wood from government forests, for
cooking purpose alone, is 102 million tonnes whereas the sustainable annual
regeneration is only 17 million tonnes 14. Most of the country's mines are located
in areas that were once thick forests. Cattle grazing is yet another activity that
accelerates deforestation". In addition to all the above. an unnoticed factor is the
impact of air pollution. According to an estimate made in 1993, the Asia Pacefic
region emitted 51000 kilotons of sulfur dioxide and 21000 kilotons of nitrogen
oxide leading to serious air pollution and acid rain. This has adversely affected
the tropical forests of southwest India and the mixed forests of the Himalayan
16 region .
The effects of progressive deforestation have appeared in different
ways. The weather pattern is no more predictable as in the past, thus, adding one
more dimension to the risk scenario of the average farmer. In the Aravallis, there
was a marked reduction in the monsoon period, from 120 days in the past, to
17 30-40 days in the 1990s, which is principally attributed to deforestation .
Moreover, habitat loss due to deforestation has led to the extinction of a number
of wild plant and animal species in the recent period.
Fall in Biodiversity
India, considered to be one of the world's leading mega- diversity
states, is home to over 200000 species 18. The total number of endemic plant
species, is 5150 and that of endemic animal species, 1837 19 . North-East India
arid the Western Ghats are internationally recognised, biodiversity hot-spots. The
rich diversity in species is related partly to the geographical and climatic variation
obtaining and partly to the age-old tradition of caring for nature ". However in
the last three decades, a good number of the species originally present has either
become extinct or moved into the category of endangered species. The annual
report of the MEF 1992-93 placed as many as 1143 animals in the list of rare and
endangered species"'. The spread of modem agricultural practices (monoculture,
chemical intensive farming etc), over-grazing by cattle, poaching and illegal
trapping of animals and birds etc, account for the loss of species. The number of
protected zones went up from 224 in 1980 to 521 in 1997 (area covered 7.6 -
14.88 mill.ha) 22. But due to poor maintenance, the measure failed to produce the
intended effect. The massive loss of biodiversity does not augur well for the
country's future. Dire consequences predicted include increased threat to food
security and the decline of the Indian System of Medicine (Ayurveda). Around
the year 1900, Indian farmers planted nearly 50000 varieties of rice, many of
which are no more in use2'. Most of them now depend on a limited number of the
so called high-yielding variety seeds. These farmers, are likely to become easy
target for exploitation by the agribusiness MNCs, in future. Availability of
medicinal plants has declined with deforestation. I t affected the indigenous health
care system.
Perils of Pollution
Pollution, particularly of water and air, has assumed a very serious
proportion in India. An estimate on premature death and sickness from pollution
due to suspended particulate matter (SPM),made in 1990s, showed that there was
28 per cent increase in premature deaths and 34 per cent increase in cases of
sickness, between 1991-92 and 1995. A recent study on the monetary cost of
these, reported an amount of Rs. 4659.4 crores 24. It may be noted that the study
covered only 31 select Indian cities and just one of the many air pollutants. In
India's case growth of pollution was at a faster rate than the growth of GDP.
Between 1975 and 1995 the total pollution load (vehicular +industrial) rose from
1346691 metric tonnes to 7785266 m.t while the GDP at 80-81 prices in the same
period grew from Rs. 104968 crore to Rs. 276132 croreZ5. A disaggregated
treatment of the major types of pollution in the country is made below.
a. Air pollution: Various types of air pollution (AP) have risen steeply with
industrialisation and the development of transport sector. Vehicular source
accounted for 57 per cent of the combined air pollution load in 1975; it's
share rose markedly to 74 per cent in 1995'~. The change occurred due to the
phenomenal increase in the number of vehicles and some deceleration in
industrial growth in the relevant period. Table 6.3 presents the growth of
automobile population in India from 1950 -5 1 to 1995-96.
Table. 6.3.
Vehicle Population in India (million) with Rate of Increase from 80-81
Source: CSE (1999): Table.5.7.1, p.127, adapted.
The period after 1980-81 saw a very sharp growth in automobile
population (534.7 per cent). Largest increase was recorded in the number of two-
wheelers (803.9 per cent), the most polluting type of all vehicles. Bus is the chief
mode of public transport in the countryside. Relatively slow increase in the
number of buses resulted in a rise in the number of personal vehicles. As a result,
air pollution increased considerably. Road development has been very slow.
Total road length, in the 1980-1996 period, increased by 61.82 per cent only2'. As
a result, congestion on the Indian roads has increased tremendously, pushing up
the emission from running vehicles. Use of very old vehicles, poor maintenance
of vehicles and low quality of fuel sold are some of the commonly cited causes for
excessive pollution. The government had a lax attitude to this problem. The
standards officially set for automobile exhaust were low. A comparative view of
the Indian standards and those followed elsewhere is available in table 6.4.
Table 6.4
Auto Emission Standards: India Vs Others
Source: Anantltaraman, Ambujam, ( 1 996)
Country
India (1996)
USA (1995)
In spite of the norms being very liberal, the automobile
manufacturers are pressing the government for relaxation in the standards that are
Emission standard (g/km)+
proposed for the year-2000 28. Another reason for high level emission from
Japan (1996) 0.48
vehicles is the fact that Indian roads carry a mixed traffic, which necessitates
Nox CO
EEC (1995)
frequent speed adjustments while driving 29.
HC
The second most widespread, but inadequately addressed, sort of
8.68 - 12.4
2.12
Note: + For the USA given values apply to passenger cars; for others, general standards. * HC and Nox combined
2.72
AP is caused by cooking in homes (indoor AP). Firewood, dung cake and coal are
0.97*
the widely used fuels for cooking, which generally generate a lot of smoke and
3.0 - 4.36*
SPM. Majority of houses are ill ventilated and unplanned so that the pollutants are
0.16 0.25
directly inhaled by the inhabitants. A survey in Delhi, revealed that pollution by
SPM was 100 per cent above safe levels in most housing units ".
Pollution from industrial sources remains high in India when
compared internationally. Carbon emission is the most conspicuous of industrial
air pollutant. In mid 1990s, India's share in world production was just one
percent, but her share in Global C 0 2 emission was four percent. By contrast,
Japan which produced 17 per cent of global output had a share of only 5 per cent
in C02 emission". This indicates that stringent measures are to be taken to curb
AP from the industrial sector. The small and tiny sector units, their number
running into millions, are largely left off the hook of pollution control system, a
reason why the problem remains very serious.
It is feared that the AP problem is running out of hands. A recent
study on pollution levels in 50 major residential areas spanning the entire country,
revealed a grim picture. As per the methodology adopted, a situation was
charecterised 'critical', if pollution level prevailing in a location was above 150
per cent of the officially set limits. It was considered 'high' if excess pollution
ranged between 100 and 150 per cent. The result of the study is available in table
6.5.
Table 6.5.
50 Residential Locations, Classified Based on Level of Pollution (Mid 1990s)
I Critical I 3 I I 3 I 2 I Category
I High
1 LOW to nil I 7 I 44 I 43 I
Presence in the air, of
Sortrce: Sainy R.S. and P.J.S. Dadwa1(1998), adapted.
SPM
As may be noted, air pollution by SPM has become critical in the
majority (62 per cent) of cases. When the four metros were studied for their
So2
pollution profile (SO,, NO, and SPM), it was found that the national capital Delhi
NOz
had critical AP related to NO, and SPM. Calcutta (Howrah region) proved to be
the pollution capital of India, with critical levels reported for all the three
pollutants
Various attempts have been made to quantify the human cost of AP
and results indicate high costs to society. AP adversely affects plant growth and is
cited as one of the major causes for deforestation. Besides, it leads to enormous
loss in terms of reduced life of buildings and metallic structures. The damage
caused to historical monuments is beyond monetary calculations. The case of
gradual disintegration of the Taj Mahal has attracted considerable international
attention. Data relating to a recent study of pollution in the adjoining area of the
Taj is quoted below in table 6.6.
Table 6.6
Concentration of Pollutants Near Taj Mahal
Standard Actual value in Pollutant Value*
* Maximunt permissible value for ambient air.
Source: Sai~zy and Dadwal(I998), adapted
b. Water Pollution: While AP is limited mostly to the urban and industrial areas,
water pollution (WP) is found throughout the country. Major sources of WP are
chemical run off from farms, industrial effluents and municipal waste (solid and
liquid). Effluents from thousands of industrial units containing highly toxic
chemicals, such as arsenic and mercury are mostly pumped into rivers, lakes and
sea. Where such easy outlets are absent, the effluents are pumped into ditches,
from where they reach ground water. Water quality in the major rivers has
deteriorated to such a low level that elaborate action plans to clean them up had to
be drawn up. India has a vast recycling industry that imports, every year, huge
quantities of hazardous wastes. The problem has become so acute that the
Supreme Court, in May 1997, ordered that a complete ban on import of hazardous
wastes should be imposed by the end of 1998 32. The fact that almost the entire
recycling industry is in the small scale and tiny sector (most of them unregistered)
makes it almost impossible to control them properly.
Due to dumping of acidic waste from the many soda ash factories
along the shoreline, coastal waters of the Mitapur and Porbander areas of Gujarat
have become inhospitable to marine life. In Goa, the dumping of iron ore rejects
has turned the beaches red and made the water highly polluted j3. In the country's
capital, as many as 89000 industrial units let out some 20 million litres of waste
water each day, of which half a million litres contain highly toxic D.D.T. waste.
With another 410 million litres of municipal waste flowing in daily, the Yamuna
has turned into a "huge sewer". The water has become a true menace to public
health. A study made in 1993 showed samples of water taken from Yamuna,
-i containing colifo&m counts up to 24 million mpn. per 100ml. (the recommended / ,
maximum is 5000 rnpn/100 ml. of water) (1993-report) 34.
The very high pollution levels of river Ganga - the holy river for
the Hindus - has attracted considerable national attention. A massive action plan
to clean up the river was drawn up in 1985 - which included establishment of
sewage treatment plants, low cost sanitation facilities, electric crematoria and
regulation of traffic in the river. The Central Ganga Authority, which was to
direct these activities, first turned its attention to the most polluted sections of the
river in U.P., Bihar and W. Bengal. The project's first phase aimed to intercept,
divert and treat 870 million litres of sewage a day. But due to administrative and
financial problems, less than half of this target was achieved in 1 9 9 1 ~ ~ . The task
is by no means easy since the river serves the needs of 25 large towns and
numerous industrial centres along its course. The total sewage entering Ganga,
daily, is estimated at 1400 milliotl litres 3h.
When all the different surface water sources are taken together,
nearly 70 per cent of them suffers from pollution of varying degree. Pollution of
ground water is also on the increase, though very little attention has so far been
paid to this. The water pollution problem is attributed to the failure of local
governments to curb and control the growth and casual disposal of waste - solid
as well as liquid. Even the financially better off administrative units in large cities
are not able to clear the mess created and thrown about by their inhabitants. An
estimate made in mid 1990s revealed that only eight out of a total of 3119 large
and medium cities had full waste water collection and treatment facilities. In many
cases the sewer net works, established a long time back are crumbling. They were
meant to serve only a small fraction of the current population 37. Table 6.5
presents the performance of the four largest cities of the country on garbage
collection. The uncontrolled waste,causes severe water and land pollution. Water
borne diseases take a heavy toll of life-both in rural areas and urban areas. One
and a half million infants die every year in the country, a majority of them due to
diarrheal diseases 3x.
Table. 6.7
Daily Generation and Collection of Garbage - Selected Cities
Source: Subltadra Menon (1997.b), adapted
c. Radiatiori Pollution: Radiation pollution is a relatively unnoticed, yet very
lethal type of pollution. India has 10 operational nuclear power plants, many of
Uncollected Portion( per cent)
40
27
25
35
32.3
which are in a dilapidated state. The under ground tests of nuclear devices in
Pokhran (Rajastan) in two stages (1974, 1998) have been carried out with very
little 'impact assessments' (other than from a military angle). There is high
Garbage collected (tonstday)
3000
4964
1875
3900
3434.8
City
Delhi
Calcutta -
Chennai -
Mumbai
Average
possibility of contamination of the ground water sources in the nearby locations
through residual radioactivity 39. It is reported that the concerned authorities pay
Garbage generated (tons1 day)
5000
6800
2500
6000
5075
little attention to the health and other impacts emanating from the high profile
nuclear tests4'. The government has monopoly in the production, storage and use
of nuclear fuel. This enables the officials to mislead the people on health effects
from radiation. Recent revelations by erstwhile top brass of the country's premier
nuclear establishments indicate that many of the power stations are devoid of the
necessary facilities for safety4'. John Hallam, a well known expert in the nuclear
field, warns that, the VVER-1000 Russian reactor proposed to be set up at
Koodankularn, in its safely aspects, is not suitable to Indian condition^^^.
Attempts have been made to quantify the mortality and morbidity
cost of pollution in India. Carter Brandon and Kirstern Hommann of the World
Bank have calculated the annual health cost due to increase in pollution in 36
Indian cities, and reached a figure in the range of Rs.1810 to Rs.7357
Another estimate on mortality from pollution puts the total number of death at
40000 a year 44.
Environmental Issues from Development Projects
In India, recent controversies related to environment mostly
revolve around a few prestigious development projects. According to
environmentalists, these are capable of causing irreparable damage to the
country's environment. No case typifies this better than the Narmada Valley
Project (NVP). Billed as the largest river projects in the world, the NVP involves
setting up of over 3000 dams in the Narmada river, which flows through many
states. The states of Gujarat and M.P. are the main beneficiaries. It was proposed
that the two biggest dams in these,viz. Narmada Sagar (NSP) in M.P. and Sardar
Srovar (SSP) in Gujarat (heights 262 and 139 metres respectively) will bestow
enormous benefits to the respective states. But environmentalists and human
rights groups soon came up with irrefutable facts about the possible adverse
effects of these mega dams, which included serious threat to rare flora and fauna,
an increase in seismicity, inundation of vast tracts of fertile land (NSP & SSP
togethcr inundate 56000 ha.) and displacement of over one million people 45.
Stiff opposition from different quarters, including some international NGOs,
forced the government to suspend work on many occasions. The prqject, which
got government approval in 1987, is dragging on. Judged from the experience of
the operation ti l l now, the NVP does not appear to be a case of good
implementation4! 'The interests of powerful lobies of rich farmers, builders and
international agencies, rather than the upkeep of environmental balance, seems to
have guided official policy, all these years47. The controversy is far from settled,
at this juncture.
A widely reported study on the environmental costs of 111dia's
economic march is quoted in table 6.8. Prominent items, not quantified and
excluded from the estimate include: bio-diversity loss, health costs from
hazardous industrial waste, cost of provision of clean mater, loss of marine
resources due to unsustainable harvesting and health cost of indoor air pollution.
Table 6.8
Economic Costs of Environmental Degradation (estimated in mid 1990s)
Problem -
IJrban air pollulion -
-
Soil degradation -
Range land degradation -
Deforestation
Tourism - Total cost of environmerital degradation
Total cost as percentage of GDP L I I I I
Source: (a , ) Carter Brandon and Kirsten Hatnr~tart
(b . ) Artil Agarwnl. (both quoted in CSE (1999) Table 10.7 P. 232.)
India's Environmental Management System - What Went Wrong ?
The Environmental Management System (EMS) of India has to
improve substantially, from the present level. The major shortcomings of the EMS
are enumerated below:.
Faulty Planning; Inconsistency in the Approach
India was late to react to many problems, as planners were initially
preoccupied with the stepping up of output. The Fourth Plan considered EMS
rather seriously. But significant measures to correct environmental degradation
were taken only in the Sixth plan. In spite of the fact that India had a long
tradition of caring for nature, our constitution in its original version, contained
very little for environmental protection. This lacuna. had to be later corrected
through a series of amendments4'. When priorities of planned development were
being fixed, Gandhian economics did not get official patronage. Rather, Nehru's
obsession with big and grandiose projects greatly influenced the pattern of
planned development. Very little attention was paid to resource conservation and
environmental prudence49. The casual attitude of the government in environmental
matters changed only after the major disaster of Bhopal gas leak, in 1984''.
But even after the build up of an elaborate administrative set up
and passing of a number of new laws, the EMS is effective only in patches. A lot
of attention has been focussed on problems of the urban areas. Very small interest
was shown on the specific issues connected to rural environment5'. Within the
industrial sector, the small-scale sector was largely left uncontrolled. Until 1994,
only mega projects required mandatory environmental c l e a r a n ~ e ~ ~ . In order to
protect endangered species, many reserves and sanctuaries were created, but
attention was focussed on the protection of a limited number of 'exotic and large
species of animals'. Protection of plant species received attention only after a
number of instances of surreptitious taking out of useful plant varieties (mostly
medicinal herbs), by large multinational corporations for patenting came to light
through media reports 53. The official policy regarding protected areas was not
firm and consistent. Commercial interests led the government to resort to 'de-
notification' of certain reserved areas. In case of Darlaghat in Himachal Pradesb
and Narayan Sarovar in Gujerat, vast areas of the reserves were de-notified to
promote mining activity 54. Often notification steps were taken in an arbitrary
manner, inviting popular resistance.
Another deficiency of the control system is that the Centre mostly
makes laws while implementation is left to the statesss. The executive agencies
very often lack the power to take action. For e.g., the pollution control board can
identify polluting sources but cannot proceed against the offending units, on its
own. (Either the government or the offended party has to make an appeal). The
legislators were reluctant to grant more powers to these bodies.
Absence of a Comprehensive Approach
Planning related to environmental management generally consisted
of ad hoc measures. The systematic tackling of major causes of environmental
damage demanded a coherent, comprehensive and consistent policy. For eg.
opening of a major mine involves (a) degradation of land (b) deforestation and (c)
eviction of people. If any one of these aspects does not get attention, the long run
impact of the project will be negative. Major projects like the Sardar Sarover,
Failed to tackle the different issues satisfactorily. The international commission
(Morse Cornmiltee) which studied the project found serious infringement of
human rightss6. At the macro level, environmental destruction is related to
poverty and over population. Thus policies on all the three fronts are to be
operated in a complementary manner. But the country's record in this respect is
not very good. The official policy treats the environmental issues and growth
issues as if they are mutually exclusive ".
Paucity and Low Quality of Staff
The extensive operations related to project evaluation, monitoring
and enforcement of regulations require good number of qualified personnel in the
various departments related to EMS. There is serious shortage of personnel. The
lower level staff does not have any specialised training. As a result, the advanced
computerised systems of monitoring and information, employing the satellites,
cannot be expanded to all areass8. Many non-complying industries are tolerated
because of the immense workload at the pollution control boards and the lack of
staff, budget, equipment, and facilitiess9. The large number of small industries is
not monitored now because of the shortage of the required infrastructure for
checking, and due to understaffing '".
Poor Implementation
Since 1986, there were laws and regulation to book serious
offenders. But these were not implemented properly. The state governments were
rather reluctant to apply the regulations of the centre once they seemed to affect
the economic interest of the region or touch any of the pressure groups controlling
local politics. Because of poor implementation of regulations on handling, storage
and use of hazardous substances, accidents of varying intensity occur regularly.
The Bhopal gas leak attracted considerable media attention because of the sheer
size of civilian population killed (about 2000). Accidents of smaller intensity take
place unnoticed. According to one estimate, between November 90 and October
94, chemical disasters alone claimed 208 lives6'. Judged by international
standards, fines and penalties for noncompliance with regulations in India are
moderate, so that firms do not bother to establish pollution control equipments.
Enforcement of penalties requires the ratification of courts and a protected legal
battle is frequently considered cheaper than following guidelines rightaway 62.
One of the reasons for the lack of efficiency in implementation is
the small size of budgets that the low profile Ministry of Environment and Forests
commands. Ever since it was created (1985) the ministry was headed by political
'light weights' so that fund flow into this critical area could not be augmented.
"The vastness of the country and the magnitude of the problem (of environmental
deterioration) are such that measures will have to be implemented on a massive
scale to achieve any perceptible results"63. In the situation of cash crunch facing
the MEF, many programmes stop short of the viable minimum size.
Administrative convenience and self-interest, rather than common
good, guide the bureaucracy, 64. A review of the major river valley projects, made
by the MEF (1995) brought to light the fact that the public authorities
implementing these projects, gave a damn observing the many regulatory
prescriptions set by the government. Of the total number of 212 projects reviewed,
as much as 87 per cent was found to be violating at least a major item in the
regulations. Each one of the projects implemented in the central and southern
region (total 84) involved violations 65. It is paradoxical that the authorities violate
laws and regulations set by the government. The union government has violated
the zoning rules when building new offices in large cities like Mumbai 66.
'Top Down' Approach - Low Involvement of the People
In the formulation of policy and in their implementation, very little
popular involvement is allowed. Regarding the forest policy legislation
(amendment) carried out in 1995, one critic has commented that it retains the
'colonial touch'. The alienation of the people in and around the reserved forests is
such that terms like 'sarkari forest' and 'sarkari tiger' are commonly used in
conversations 67. The official policy is guided by certain wrong ideas about the
capacity as well as interest of the poor to protect natural resources. It is assumed
by bureaucrats that (a) over extraction of resources is the only means of
sustenance that the poor people know (b) the poor are ignorant of both the
limitations of their environmental resources and the consequence of their over
extraction. (c) the poor have little stake in the health and productivity of natural
resources. In reality each of these assumptions emanate from ignorance about the
ways the traditional Indian society protected its natural resources ". But it is a fact
that, with the destruction of the grassroots level mechanism that previously existed
and with increased impoverishment, some change in the approach of the poor has
taken place. When the rich, with their command over market and technology
engage in reckless exploitation of natural resources, the poor, by reaction and by
69 force of circumstances, occasionally deviate from the customary practices .
People who are not in touch with the ground realities often take
important policy decisions. These 'outsiders' who lack sufficient understanding of
the concerns of local communities, their capabilities and knowledge,often end up
making patently wrong suggestions ' O .
When affected parties and NGOs demand details on projects,
authorities often withhold information. The lack of transparency breeds more
suspicion and the meeting ground between the rulers and the ruled melts away. An
extremely antagonistic relation develops, leading to heightened passions on both
sides - which is ultimately detrimental to environment and wider national interest.
A sincere attempt should have been made to involve people at all stages. The
success of the joint forest management in few states and more conspicuously the
success of grassroot movements like the Relegaon Siddhi experiment guided by
Anna Hazare in Maharastra, prove that once people are suitably motivated and
assured a fair share of the gains from a development project, considerable
improvement in the environment can be achieved 71.
Many of the reserved area are in or around tribal settlements.
Granting limited rights to these people to collect forest produce and at the same
time involving them in the protection activity would benefit both the government
and the local population. In the present arrangement, forests are classified into
'reserved', 'protected' and 'village' type and the entire control of the first two, is
vested with the government. This not only raises the cost of protection but also
alienates the local cornm~ni t ies~~. An estimated three million people reside in the
protective areas, and forest acts as their life support system. In view of the
enormous expense required to resettle them, granting limited rights (to collect
minor forest products) to them would appear the logical step 73.
Lack of Political Commitment
The greatest obstacle to efficient operation of environmental policy
is the lack of commitment on the part of the government. It is the dictates of an
industrial and consumerist economy and political exigencies that guide the
government - be i t the case of deforestation or pollution 74. After enacting laws,
the same government, grants liberal exemptions, and worse still, violates its own
laws when public sector projects are implemented. On many occasions reserved
forests have been de-notified on purely economic grounds even when the public
wanted a continuation of protection 75.
In fact some of the major statutes on environmental management
have been made just to satisfy the international donors or as follow up steps to the
country signing certain international conventions. The spadework usually
preceding national enactment, has been conspicuously absent in such cases 76.
These legislation's, carried on with a view to placate aid dispensing agencies are
not seriously implemented. This has given rise to numerous disputes between the
state and citizens. In recent years the Supreme Court has taken the government to
task on many an occasion for its lapses 77. Dictates of political economy than that
of reason seem to guide the governments at all levels. The 'vote -bank' politics
being played by all parties make a mockery of the EMS.
Chapter Reference
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Pouchepadass, Jacques (1995): "Colonialism and Environment in India", Economic and Political Weekly, (Aug.19). pp. 2059-2067
CSE (1999), op.cit., tables 10.5.2 and 10.5.3, pp. 227-230
Ibid., Table 10.7.2, p.233
The World Bank (1998): World Developntent Indicators-1998, Washington D.C: World Bank, Table 3.2., p.123
Sen, RajKumar [1992(1995)] "Environment Versus Development" in Roy, Karthik C. et.al. (eds.) Economic Development and Environment, Calcutta. Oxford University Press, p.119 ( Data for salinity and desertificatiom quoting a study by Vaidynathan)
CSE (1999), op.cit., table 1.3.2, p.9
Chauduri, Prarnit (1979): The Indian Economy- Poverty and Development, New Delhi: Vikas, pp.llO-147
CSE (1999), op.cit., table 1.3.1.. p.8
Mohnot, S.M. (1999): "Mining- Gouging Out the Desert Heart" Hindu Survey of Environment-1999, pp. 85-89
Report in the Hindu Survey of Environment-1999, p.329
CSE (1999). op.cit., Table 11.4, p.238
Ibid., Table 8.2.1 and 8.2.2, pp. 182-3
Ibid., Footnote to table 3.3.2. , p.78
Krishnan, N.R. (1999): " Where People Help Themselves" in The Hindu (daily), Sunday Supplement, (Sept.26), p.11
16. WWF- International's Research Report, Summarised in WWF- lndia Quarterly, (Jan- March, 1995), p.26
Report in WWF- lndia Quarterly, (Oct-Dec,1993), p.24
Laxmi, Vijay et.al. (1997): "Environment - Can Neglect no longer" in Parikh, Kirit S. (ed.) India Development Report-1997, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp.104-105
CSE (1999), op.cit., Table 9.1.3, p.207
Sharma V.S (1999): "Bishnois- An Eco-Religion" Hindu Survey of Environment-1999, pp 95-99
Laxmi, Vijay et.al. (1997), op.cit., p. 105
CSE (1999). op.cit., Table 9.3.1, p.214
Vyas V.S. and V. Ratna Reddy (1998): "Assessment of Environmental Policies and Policy Implementation in India" Economic and Political Weekly, (Jan. lo), p.50
CSE (1999), op.cit., Tables 7.10.1 and 7.10.2, pp. 178-179
Ibid., Table 10.7.2., p.233
Ibid., graph on p.219
Ibid., Table 5.8.1, p.128
Singh, Damdeep (1996): "Their Profits- Our Health in Indian Express (daily), (Oct. 14)
Mohan, Dinesh and Geetam Tiwari (1999): "Sustainable Transport Systems", Economic and Political Weekly (June-19), pp. 1589-1596
Halarnkar, Sarnar (l998):"Hell at Home", India Today, (July 13). pp.70-71
CSE (1999). Table 11.1, p.236
Menon, Subhadra and Srnruti Koppikar (1997): "Toxic Terror", lndia Today, (July 14), pp.69-70
33. Koppikar, Smruti (1997): "The Death of Life", India Today, (March 15), P.85(ln 35 years from 1962, 15 million tons of ore waste has been dumped)
Roy, A.K. (1993), "Delhi's Sewer of Sledge" WWF- India Quarterly, (Oct- Dec.). pp. 14-15
World Resources Institute (1994): World Resources- 1994-95, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.94
Ibid., p.94
Menon, Subhadra (1997) : Cities- Drowning in Trash" India Today, (MaylS), pp. 78- 82
Ambekar, Jayawant (1999): "Water Pollution and Epidemics in India3'- towards a sustainable approach" Journal of Human Ecology, (Vol.10. Jan), pp.35-39
Ramana M.V. (1999) Underground Tests - Ravaging Nature", Hindu Survey of the Environment - 1999, pp.53-57
Sharma, Kalpana (1999): "Khetolai - the Forgotten Village" Hindu Survey of Environment-1999, pp.17-19
Gopalakrishnan, A. (1999): "Foreign Reactors - Dangerous Liaisons", Hindu Survey of Environment-1999, pp.39-43
Hallam, John (1999): VVER - 1000 -'Untested and Unsafe', Hindu Survey of Environment-1999, pp.53-57
Singh, Dandeep (1996). op.cit., p.22
Halarnkar, Samar (1998). op.cit.,
Sen, Rajkumar (1992) op.cit., pp. 115-16
Report of the Independent Review (1992): Sardar Sarovar, Pune, Narmada Bachao Andolan and others.
Vyas V.S. and Retna Reddy (1998), op.cit., p.48
Sen, Rajkumar (1992). op.cit., p.102
49. Roy, Karthik C. et.al.[eds.,1992(1995)]: Economic Development and Environnzent - A case study of India, Calcutta: Oxford University Press, P.x.(Preface)
The World Resources Institute (1994), op.cit., Box 5.2, p.90
Krishnan N.R. (1999), op.cit., p. I1
Spedding, Linda (1995): Irztemational Environmerltal Policy and Marlagenlent, Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes, p.42
Vardan, M.S.S. (1998): "Greening in a Big Way7',The Hindu(dai1y) (June 7), p.5
Kothari, Ashish (1996): "Conserving Biodiversity- Doomed Without People",Hindu Survey of Environment -1996, p. 13 1
Spedding, Linda S. (1995), op.cit., pp. 44-45
Roy, Karthick C. et. al. (eds., 1992), op.cit., (Preface) p.xi
Vyas V.S. and Retna Reddy (1998), op.cit., pp. 48-54
Vardan, M.S.S. (1998). op.cit., p.5
The World Resources Institute (1994). op.cit., p.88
Ibid., p. 88
Rego, Loy (1995): "Environmental Legislation-A Long Way to Go" Hindu Survey of Environment-1995, pp.170-71
The World Resources Institute (1994). op.cit., p.88
Roy, Karthik C. and C.A. Tisdell [1992(1995)] : "Planned Development" in Roy, Karthik C.et. al.(eds.) op.cit., pp. 38-39
Ibid., pp.35-36
Brijnath, Rohit(1995): "River Valley Projects and Low Standards",lndia Today, (Sept.l5), pp.96-101
Vyas V.S. and Retna Reddy (1998), op.cit., p.51
Kothari, Ashish (1995), "Forest Bill - Old Wine in New Bottle", Hindu Survey of the Environment 1995, p.51
(a) Jodha N.S. (1998) "Poverty and Environmental Resource Degradation", Economic and Political Weekly, (September 5- 12)
(b) Report on Third World Consultation on Wild Life Conservation and Peoples Rights, Econornic and Political Weekly, (Aug.l4), pp. 2305-8
Ibid., (a), p.2384
Ibid., p.2386
Sinha, A (1995): "A Concrete Agenda for Sustainable Development" The Admir~istrator Quarterly (Vol.XL. April-June), pp. 12-39 (for details on Relegaon Siddi)
Kothari, Ashish (1995), op.cit., p.52
Kothari, Ashish (1996), p.131
Kothari, Ashish (1995), pp.51-52
Ecological Economic Unit- ISEC (1999): "Environment in Karnataka", Ecor~omic and Political Weekly, (September 18) (reference to the case of the move for de-notification of part of the Cubbon Park in Karnataka which had to be withdrawn due to spirited resistance of people)
(a) Report on Third World Consultation, op.cit.,(68.b) p.2305
(b) Chandrasekharan Pillai, K.N. (1998): "Environmental Legislation in India-a Hapazard Exercise" Paper presented at the National seminar on Health,safety and Environment, FACT, COCHIN, Dec.5, 1998
Ibid. (b)