chapter(3( the(biosphere( · ... (ecosystem?(•...

Chapter(3(The(Biosphere(

The(Biosphere(• A(Species(is(a(group(of(organisms(that(are(so(similar(to(each(other(that(they(can(breed(and(produce(fertile(offspring.((

2(

SPECIES(

3(

(A(miniature(poodle(and(a(pit(bull(are(the(same(species.((

SPECIES(

4(

(A(horse(and(a(donkey(can(produce(babies,(but(the(babies(can(NOT(reproduce,(so(a(horse(and(a(donkey(are(separate(species(and(their(babies(are(called(mules.((

SPECIES(

5(

The(bearded(dragon(is(a(species.(

A(Population(is(a(group(of(the(same(species(that(lives(in(the(same(area.((

6(

POPULATION(

7(

This group of bearded dragons in Australia is a population.

A(Community(is(all(of(the(living(things(in(an(area.((

8(

COMMUNITY(

9(

The bearded dragons, the Aborigines, spinifex grasses, acacias, thorny devils, and camels are the community of the MacDonnell Ranges.

An(Ecosystem(is(the(living(organisms(and(the(nonliving(environment(of(an(area.((

10(

ECOSYSTEM(

11(

All of the member of the community of the MacDonnell Ranges plus the mountains, sand, climate, and other non-living factors make up the Ecosystem.

A(Biome(is(a(group(of(ecosystems(that(have(similar(characteristics.(

12(

BIOME(

July(22,(2012( Footer(text(here(13(

The MacDonnell Ranges ecosystem is part of the Western Australian Desert Biome.


MAJOR(BIOMES(

DESERT(


MAJOR(BIOMES(

TROPICAL(RAINFOREST(


MAJOR(BIOMES(

DECIDUOUS(FORESTS(


MAJOR(BIOMES(

TUNDRA(


MAJOR(BIOMES(

TAIGA(


MAJOR(BIOMES(

WE(LIVE(IN(A(DECIDUOUS(FOREST(BIOME(


The Biosphere is all of the places on Earth where life exists, including the land, water, and air.

Energy(Flow(

21(

Organisms that make their own food are called Producers.

Plants are producers. They make their food by photosynthesis.

Energy(Flow(

22(

Organisms(that(make(their(own(food(are(also(known(as(Autotrophs.(

Energy(Flow(

23(

Organisms that get their food and energy from other organisms are called Consumers and are also known as Heterotrophs.

Energy(Flow(

24(

Herbivores only eats plants.

Energy(Flow(

25(

Bunnies and many birds are herbivores.

Energy(Flow(

26(

Carnivores only eat other animals. Wolves are carnivores.

Energy(Flow(

27(

Omnivores(eat(plants(and(animals.(

Energy(Flow(

28(

This is my favorite omnivore.

Energy(Flow(

29(

A(Food(Chain(is(a(series(of(steps(in(which(one(organism(eats(another(and(then(is(eaten(.(

Energy(Flow(

30(

A(Food(Web(is(a(series(of(interconnected(food(chains.((

Cycles(of(Matter(

31(

The(Water(Cycle(is(the(movement(of(water(in(different(stages((liquid,(solid,(gas)(on(the(Earth.(

Cycles(of(Matter(

32(

Evaporation(is(the(change(from(liquid(water(to(atmospheric(gas.((Transpiration(is(when(water(enters(the(atmosphere(from(the(leaves(of(plants((product(of(photosynthesis!)(

NUTRIENT(CYCLES(

33(

Carbon(is(the(most(important(element(in(living(things.(The(Carbon(Cycle(is(the(cycle(by(which(carbon(is(exchanged(on(Earth(in(various(forms

NUTRIENT(CYCLES(

34(

Photosynthesis(and(Cellular(Respiration(are(two(parts(of(the(Carbon(Cycle,(there(are(many(more.

NUTRIENT(CYCLES(

35(

The(Nitrogen(Cycle(is(the(process(by(which(nitrogen(is(converted(between(its(various(chemical(forms(

NUTRIENT(CYCLES(

36(

Nitrogen(is(required(to(build(proteins(and(is(part(of(most(plant(fertilizers.(

ECOLOGY(Chapter(4(ECOSYSTEMS(AND(CLIMATE(

The(Role(of(Climate(

• The(average,(year̀ after̀ year(conditions(of(temperature(and(precipitation(in(a(region(is(its(Climate.((


• The(natural(situation(in(which(greenhouse(gases(trap(heat(energy(to(maintain(Earth’s(temperature(range(is(the(Greenhouse(Effect.(


• Greenhouse(gasses(are(carbon(dioxide,(methane,(water(vapor,(and(other(gases.((


• There(are(three(main(climate(zones.((


• The(polar(zones(are(near(the(North(and(South(poles(


• The(tropical(zone(is(near(the(equator.(


• The(temperate(zones(are(between(the(polar(zones(and(the(tropical(zone.(

What(Shapes(an(Ecosystem?(


• The(living(things(in(an(ecosystem(are(the(Biotic(Factors.(


• The(non`living(factors(are(the(Abiotic(Factors.(


• An(organisms’(job(in(an(ecosystem(is(its(Niche.(((


• The(relationship(between(two(species(that(live(closely(together(is(called(Symbiosis.(


• Predation:(one(organism(captures(and(eats(another(


• Mutualism:(both(species(benefit(in(the(relationship(


• Commensalism:(one(species(benefits(and(the(other(in(unaffected(


• Parasitism:(one(species(benefits(and(the(other(is(harmed(


• Ecological(Succession:(the(change(in(a(community(caused(by(natural(and(human(disturbances(


• Primary(Succession(:(on(land(where(there(is(no(soil(.(Example(–(after(volcanic(eruption(


• Secondary(Succession:(on(land(where(there(is(soil.(Example(–(after(a(wildfire(

Biomes(

• There(are(at(least(ten(different(Biomes(on(the(Earth.(Each(Biome(has(a(characteristic(climate(and(community(of(organisms.((

Biomes(

• Tropical(Rainforest(•  Hot(and(wet(year̀ round(

•  Broad`leaved(evergreen(plants;(ferns;(orchids(•  Sloths;(jaguars;(parrots;(butterflies(

Biomes(

• Tropical(Savanna((Grassland)((

• Warm(temperatures;(seasonal(rainfall(

• Tall(grasses,(fire`resistant(trees(and(shrubs(

• Lions,(zebras,(ostriches,(elephants,(eagles(

Biomes(

• Desert(• (Varied(temperature;(• Little(rainfall(• Cacti,(succulents;(• Plants(with(short(growing(cycles(• Hawks,(rats,(ants,(snakes,(lizards,(tortoises(

Biomes(

• (Temperate((Deciduous)(Forest(

• Moderate(precipitation;(• Cold(winters,(warm(to(hot(summers(

• Broadleaf(deciduous(trees;(flowering(shrubs;(ferns(

• Deer,(bears,(squirrels,(songbirds(

Biomes(• Tundra((• Low(precipitation;(long,(cold,(dark(winters;(

• permafrost(• Mosses,(lichens;(low(growing(plants(

• Musk(ox,(caribou,(arctic(foxes;(animals(with(thick(fur(or(heavy(feathers(

Biomes(BIOME! CLIMATE! PLANTS! ANIMALS!

Tropical Rainforest!Hot and wet year-round! Broad-leaved evergreen

plants; ferns; orchids!Sloths; jaguars; parrots;

butterflies!

Tropical Savanna (Grassland)!Warm temperatures; seasonal

rainfall!Tall grasses, fire-resistant trees

and shrubs!Lions, zebras, ostriches,

elephants, eagles!

Desert!Varied temperature;!

Little rainfall!Cacti, succulents;!

Plants with short growing cycles!

Hawks, rats, ants, snakes, lizards, tortoises!

Temperate (Deciduous)!Forest!

Moderate precipitation;!Cold winters, warm to hot

summers!

Broadleaf deciduous trees; flowering shrubs; ferns!

Deer, bears, squirrels, songbirds!

Taiga!(Boreal Forest)!

Moderate precipitation, long cold winters!

Spruce and fir trees; small shrubs!

Wolves, weasels, moose!

Tundra!Low precipitation; long, cold,

dark winters;!permafrost!

Mosses, lichens; low growing plants!

Musk ox, caribou, arctic foxes; animals with thick fur or heavy

feathers!

ECOLOGY(

POPULATIONS(

How(populations(grow(

The(number(of(individuals(per(unit(of(area(is(the(Population(Density.(

It(is(one(of(the(main(characteristics(that(describe(a(natural(population.((


The(population(density(of(Buford(is(720(people(per(square(mile.(


The(population(density(of(Atlanta(is(3,161(people(per(square(mile..((


The((population(density(of(Union(County(in(the(north(Georgia(mountains(is(31(per(square(mile.(


In(science,(the(metric(system(is(used.(For(instance,(the(density(of(deer(in(rural(north(Georgia(is(11(to(17(deer(per(square(kilometer.(


The(movement(of(individuals(INTO(an(area(is(called(Immigration.((


The(movement(of(individuals(OUT(of(an(area(is(called(Emigration.((


Exponential(Growth(occurs(when(the(population(grows(at(a(constant(rate.((


Logistic(Growth(occurs(when(the(population’s(growth(slows(or(stops(following(a(period(of(exponential(growth.((


The(number(of(individuals(that(an(environment(can(support(is(the(Carrying(Capacity.((

Limits(to(growth(

A(Limiting(Factor(is(a(factor(that(causes(population(growth(to(decrease.((

Limits(to(growth(

Limiting(Factors(are:((

COMPETITION(

Limits(to(growth(


PREDATION(

Limits(to(growth(


PARASITISM(

Limits(to(growth(


DISEASE(

Limits(to(growth(


DROUGHT(

Limits(to(growth(


OTHER(CLIMATE(EXTREMES(

Limits(to(growth(


HUMAN(DISTURBANCES(

Limits(to(growth(

Density(–(Dependent(Limiting(Factors(depend(on(population(size.(Limiting(factors(that(depend(on(population(size(are(competition,(predation,(parasitism,(and(disease.(These(factors(are(stronger(when(a(population(is(large(and(dense.(

Limits(to(growth(

If(there(is(a(flu(outbreak,(where(will(it(spread(faster?(((Atlanta,(

(Buford,(or((

north(Georgia(mountains?(

Limits(to(growth(


Competition(–(organisms(compete(for(food,(water,(space,(sunlight,(and(other(essentials.((The(more(individuals(there(are(in(an(area,(the(sooner(the(available(resources(will(be(used(up.((

As(the(moose(population(increases(from(1960(to(1965,(the(wolf(population(also(increases.(When(the(wolf(population(falls(in(1966,(the(moose(population(shows(a(significant(increase.((As(the(wolf(population(increases(after(1970,(the(moose(population(falls.(As(the(wolf(population(falls(after(1985,(the(moose(population(rises(dramatically.((

Limits(to(growth(


Unusual(weather,(natural(disasters,(seasonal(cycles,(and(human(activities(are(Density(–(Independent(Limiting(Factors.(

Human(Population(Growth(

The(human(population(tends(to(increase(with(time.((

Human(Population(Growth(

Demography(is(the(scientific(study(of(human(population.((

ECOLOGY(

HUMANS(IN(THE(BIOSPHERE(

Humans(in(the(Biosphere(

The(biosphere(is(the(part(of(the(Earth(where(life(exists,(including(the(land,(water,(and(air.((

Human(activities(that(affect(the(biosphere(are:((

HUNTING(


GATHERING(


AGRICULTURE(


INDUSTRY(


URBAN(DEVELOPMENT(


The(use(of(modern(agricultural(techniques(developed(in(the(20th(century(that(increased(the(food(supply(was(called(the(Green(Revolution.(


Renewable(resources(can(be(replenished(by(a(biochemical(cycle(if(they(are(non(living(and(can(regenerate(if(they(are(living.(


Even(though(most(animals(need(oxygen(to(survive,(it(is(a(renewable(resource(because(it(is(replenished(through(photosynthesis.((


•  Pine(trees(that(are(grown(on(farms(and(used(for(building(materials(can(be(regenerated((re`grown).(


A(renewable(resource(is(NOT(unlimited.(Although(water(is(replenished(through(the(water(cycle,(if(it(becomes(polluted(or(there(is(a(drought,(it(is(limited.(


Human(activity(affects(the(quality(and(supply(of(renewable(resources.((


Using(a(natural(resource(without(using(it(up(is(called(Sustainable(Development.(


A(Nonrenewable(resource(cannot(be(replenished(by(natural(processes.((


Fossil(fuels(like(coal(and(gas(take(millions(of(years(to(be(replenished.((


A(redwood(forest(is(nonrenewable(because(it(would(take(thousands(of(years(to(regenerate(if(it(was(destroyed.(


Overgrazing,(poor(farming(practices,(and(drought(can(turn(productive(land(into(a(desert(–(the(process(is(called(desertification.(


The(loss(of(forests(leads(to(severe(erosion(`(the(process(is(called(deforestation.(


Smog:(a(mixture(of(chemicals(that(causes(a(gray`brown(haze(in(the(air.(Smog(usually(occurs(in(big(cities.(


A(pollutant(is(anything(harmful(that(enters(the(biosphere(through(the(land,(water,(or(air.(


Burning(fossil(fuels(causes(acid(rain(which(can(damage(or(kill(plants.(


The(variety(of(organisms(in(the(biosphere(is(called(Biodiversity.(


Biodiversity(provides(us(with(foods(and(medicines.(

Human)activity)reduces)biodiversity)by))

destroying(habitats(


hunting(species(to(extinction(


introducing(toxins(into(the(food(web(


introducing(foreign(species(into(the(environment(


When(concentrations(of(harmful(substances(increase(in(organisms(at(higher(trophic(levels,(it(is(called(Biological(Magnification.(


An(Invasive(Species(is(one(that(has(immigrated(to(a(place(where(they(are(not(native.(

Humans(in(the(Biosphere(The(Ozone(Layer(is(a(layer(in(the(Earth’s(atmosphere(with(a(high(concentration(of(ozone(gas.(It(absorbs(harmful(UV(radiation(which(causes(sunburns.(It(is(the(Earth’s(sunscreen.(


Global(warming(is(the(increase(in(the(average(temperature(of(the(biosphere.(Melting(polar(ice(is(a(sign(of(global(warming.(

25-1 Hormones and Plant Growth

25-1 Hormones and Plant Growth

Plant growth follows certain patterns that differ among species. Also, plants never stop growing due to action of chemicals/meristems

Biologists have found that plant cells send signals to one another that indicate when to divide and when not to, and when to develop into a new kind of cell

Plant hormones, which are chemical substances, control a plant's patterns of growth and development, and the plant's responses to environmental conditions

Hormones have different affects in different tissues of the plant

25-2 Plant Responses

Like all living things, plants respond to changes in their environments. Biologists call this plant behavior

The responses of plants to external stimuli are called tropisms. These include gravitropism, phototropism, and thigmotropism

The response of a plant to gravity is called gravitropism. This causes a plant to grow up out of the soil against the force of gravity. It causes the roots to grow into the soil with the force of gravity.

A plant's response to light is called phototropism. This causes a plant to grow toward a light source.

The response of plant to touch is called thigmotropism. A plant that is touched regularly can sometimes be stunted in growth. Another example of this is the growth of vines and climbing plants.

Some plant responses are so fast they are not considered tropisms. Instead they are referred to as rapid responses. Sometimes caused by changes in osmotic pressure (caused by diffusion of water into cells) and cell wall expansion.

Plants also respond to periods of light and darkness. This response is called photoperiodism. This is responsible for timing of seasonal activities like flowering and growth.

Plants that flower when days are short are called short-day plants, plants that flower when days are long are called long-day plants.

The period during which an organism's growth and activity decrease or stop is known as dormancy. These changes are important in protecting plants over the cold winter months.

As cold approaches deciduous plants turn off photosynthetic pathways and transport materials from leaves to roots and seal off the rest of the plant.

In temperate regions, flowering plants lose their leaves during winter. A series of events that gradually shut down the leaf. First, chemical pathways for chlorophyll synthesis stop, revealing yellow and organge carotenoids. New pigments are produced in autumn which produce the brilliant colors of autumn.

The nutrients from the broken down chlorophyll are transported to other parts of the plant, where they're stored until spring. An abscission layer of cells at the petiole seals the leaf off from the plant's vascular system.

25-3 Plant Adaptations

To take in sufficient oxygen, many aquatic plants have tissues with large air-filled spaces through which oxygen can diffuse.

The reproductive adaptations of aquatic plants include seeds that float in water and delay germination for long periods.

Salt-tolerant plants take in much more salt than the plant can use. The roots are adapted to high salt concentrations. The leaves have specialized cells that pump salt out of the plant tissues and onto leaf surfaces, where it is washed away by rain.

Plants that live in the desert are called xerophytes. They have adaptations that include extensive roots, reduced leaves, and thick stems that can store water. Seeds of many desert plants can lie dormant for years, until sufficient moisture guarantees them a chance for survival.

Plants that have specialized features for obtaining nutrients include carnivorous plants and parasites.

Some plants live in areas where there is very little or no nitrogen present. They obtain nutrients and use specialized leaves that trap and digest insects or sometimes frogs.

Some plants extract water and nutrients from a host.

Epiphytes are plants that are not rooted in soil, so they grow on the bodies of other plants. Found mostly in tropical rain forest, but also in other moist biomes. They gather their own moisture from rainfall and produce their own food. The most common epiphyte is spanish moss.

Many plants defend themselves against insects attack by manufacturing compounds that have powerful effects on animals. Some are poisons and are lethal when eaten. Others act as insect hormones and disrupt normal growth and development.

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