chapter3learning and memory

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CHAPTER 3

LEARNING AND MEMORY

Multiple Choice

1. ________________ refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior that is

caused by experience. a. Adjustment

b. Memory cycling

c. Learning d. Reinforcement

Answer: c! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: '(

2. am !olton hums the "urina #at #ho$ jingle as he drives do$n the express$ay. Athought suddenly occurs to am% &'hy am ( humming this stupid jingle) ( don*t buy

this stuff. (n fact% ( don*t even have a cat.+ Many people have experiences just li,eam. 'hether they reali-e it or not% they have learned about the $orld around

themselves in casual% unintentional $ays. Acuisition of ,no$ledge in this manner is

,no$n as/ a. memory cycling.

b. reinforcement modeling.

c. learning.incidentald. learning through experimentation.

Answer: c! Di""icult#: H! Applic%tion P%&e: '(

0. ______________ is the casual% unintentional acuisition of ,no$ledge such as

learning by listening to jingles.

a. #omplex learning b. ystematic learning

c. Repetitive learning

d. (ncidental learning

Answer: )! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: '(

3. 'hich form of learning listed belo$ assumes that learning ta,es place as the result of responses to external events4

a. #ognitive learning.

b. (ncidental learning. c. 5estalt learning.

d. !ehavioral learning.

Answer: )! Di""icult#: H! $%ct P%&e: '(

06



7. ______________ theory sees the mind as a &blac, box+ and emphasi-es the

observable aspects of behavior. a. #ognitive learning

b. (ncidental learning

c. !ehavioral learning d. 5estalt learning

Answer: c! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: '(

8. 9ran, is sitting in his "sychology 1:1 class listening to his professor attempt to

explain the &blac, box+ process and its associations $ith learning. ;e suddenly

smells the aroma of fresh cinnamon rolls and his mouth begins to &$ater.+ ;e loo,saround and sees a student on the last ro$ bite into a big% juicy roll. &( $ish ( $ere

sitting next to him%+ 9ran, thin,s% &because ( ,no$ ( could steal a bite.+ 'hat 9ran,

just $ent through in class $as similar to the &blac, box+ process being described by

his professor. <his process is most closely associated $ith $hich of the follo$inglearning methods4

a. !ehavioral learning. b. 5estalt learning.

c. #ognitive learning.

d. (ncidental learning.

Answer: %! Di""icult#: H! Applic%tion P%&e: '(

=. <he behavioral learning vie$ is represented by t$o major approaches to learning.<hese approaches are/

a. observation and modeling.

b. repetition and extinction. c. classical and instrumental conditioning.

d. memori-ation and punishment.

Answer: c! Di""icult#: H! $%ct P%&e: '*

>. According to the ______________ perspective% people*s experiences are shaped by

the feedbac, they receive as they go through life. imilarly% consumers respond to brand names% scents% jingles% and other mar,eting stimuli based on the learned

connections they have formed over time.

a. behavioral learning b. gestalt learning

c. cognitive learning

d. incidental learning

Answer: %! Di""icult#: M! Applic%tion P%&e: '*

6. __________________ occurs $hen a stimulus that elicits a response is paired $ith

3:



another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its o$n.

a. #lassical conditioning

b. (nstrumental conditioning c. Rejection conditioning

d. ?xtinction conditioning

Answer: %! Di""icult#: E! $%ct P%&e: '*

1:. _________________ $as first demonstrated by experiments performed on dogs by (van "avlov% a Russian physiologist doing research on digestion in animals.


b. (nstrumental conditioning

c. Rejection conditioning d. ?xtinction conditioning

Answer: %! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: '*

11. According to (van "avlov*s famous &dog experiments+ that eventually $ere the

foundation of classical conditioning as a means of learning% aan ______________ isillustrated by a stimulus% such as dried meat po$der% that caused the dogs to salivate

$hen sprayed into their mouths.

a. neural stimulus @ b. conditioned stimulus #

c. mnemonic stimulus M

d. unconditioned stimulus #

Answer: )! Di""icult#: H! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: '*

12. A mar,eter ,no$s that the visual and olfactory senses can be stimulated to induce hunger% thirst% sexual arousal% and other basic drives. 'hen these cues are consistently

paired $ith conditioned stimuli such as brand names% consumers may learn to feel

hungry% thirsty% or aroused $hen later exposed to the brand cues. <his is an example of $hich of the follo$ing learning formats4

a. #lassical conditioning.

b. (nstrumental conditioning.

c. timulation conditioning. d. ?xtinction conditioning.

Answer: %! Di""icult#: H! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: '*

10. Repeated exposures increase the strength of stimulusBresponse associations and/

a. are an irritant to the subconscious. b. produce illness in some consumers.

c. prevent the decay of these associations in memory.

d. are usually best delivered by spo,espersons.

31



Answer: c! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: '*

13. timulus generali-ation refers to/ a. the tendency for stimuli to be similar in nature.

b. the situation $hen a stimulus similar to a #onditioned timulus is not follo$ed by

an nconditioned timulus. c. the tendency of stimuli similar to a #onditioned timulus to evo,e similar%

conditioned responses.

d. the tendency for the consumer to rationali-e purchases for general reasons.

Answer: c! Di""icult#: H! $%ct P%&e: '+

17. A private label shampoo company pac,ages its product in a similar container and pac,age but charges 27C less for its product to Dohnson E Dohnson*s !aby

hampoo. (f the consumer assumes the t$o products are similar and buys the cheaper

of the t$o% then a &piggybac,ing+ strategy has been employed. 'hich of the

follo$ing terms accurately describes the learning principle that the company used to formulate their strategy4

a. timulus discrimination b. timulus generali-ation

c. timulus conditioning

d. Fifferential discrimination

Answer: ,! Di""icult#: M! Applic%tion P%&e: '+

18. Recently% Miller !re$ing #o. $anted to try a ne$ approach to reach consumers $ho had previously been uninterested in Miller products. (t created a dummy company

called "lan, Road !re$ery $hen it launched its (cehouse and Red Fog beers.

#onsumers $ho purchased these products never ,ne$ that they $ere really part ofMiller*s product line. <his strategy is called/

a. dual branding.

b. covert branding. c. deceptive branding.

d. mas,ed branding.

Answer: )! Di""icult#: M! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: '-

1=. _________________ occurs $hen a stimulus similar to a #onditioned timulus #

is not follo$ed by an nconditioned timulus #. a. timulus generali-ation

b. timulus discrimination

c. timulus conditioning d. Fifferential discrimination

Answer: ,! Di""icult#: H! $%ct P%&e: '-

32



1>. (f a brand has strong positive associations in a consumer*s memory and commands

a lot of loyalty as a result% the brand can be said to have/

a. brand exposure. b. brand energy.

c. brand development.

d. brand euity.

Answer: )! Di""icult#: E! $%ct P%&e: ''

16. <he process of ____________ is often central to branding and pac,aging decisions

that attempt to capitali-e on consumers* positive associations $ith an existing brand

or company name.

a. stimulus generali-ation b. stimulus discrimination

c. stimulus conditioning

d. differential discrimination

Answer: %! Di""icult#: H! $%ct P%&e: '.

2:. All of the follo$ing are strategies based on stimulus generali-ation ?G#?"</

a. family branding.

b. bac,$ard branding. c. product line extensions.

d. licensing.

Answer: ,! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: '.

21. 'hen American ?xpress <raveler*s #hec,s uses an ad campaign that says% &As, for

them by name......%+ American ?xpress is encouraging/ a. stimulus generali-ation

b. stimulus discrimination

c. stimulus conditioning d. differential generali-ation

Answer: ,! Di""icult#: H! Applic%tion P%&e: './ .0

22. Another name for operant conditioning is/

a. instrumental conditioning.

b. neoBclassical conditioning. c. stimulus conditioning.

d. re$ard conditioning.

Answer: %! Di""icult#: E! $%ct P%&e: .0

20. _________________ occurs as the individual learns to perform behaviors that

produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes.

30




b. ?xtinction conditioning

c. timulation conditioning d. (nstrumental conditioning

Answer: )! Di""icult#: E! $%ct P%&e: .0

23. "sychologist !.9. ,inner is most associated $ith $hich of the follo$ing form of

conditioning4a. #lassical conditioning.

b. ?xtinction conditioning.

c. timulation conditioning.

d. (nstrumental conditioning.

Answer: )! Di""icult#: H! $%ct P%&e: .0

27. Dohn $ants to teach his dog to do tric,s such as &it up%+ &Roll over%+ and &9etch a stic,.+ !y systematically re$arding his dog for responding in the correct $ay% he is

able to accomplish great progress over a 0:Bday period. Dohn $as able to teach his dog using $hich of the follo$ing learning processes4

a. #lassical conditioning.

b. (nstrumental conditioning. c. timulation conditioning.

d. ?xtinction conditioning.

Answer: ,! Di""icult#: M! Applic%tion P%&e: .0

28. All of the follo$ing are $ays that instrumental learning may occur ?G#?"</

a. positive reinforcement. b. negative reinforcement.

c. punishment.

d. extinction.

Answer: )! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: .0

2=. _________________ is in the form of a re$ard) the response is% therefore%strengthened and appropriate behavior is learned.

a. @egative reinforcement

b. "ositive reinforcement c. "unishment

d. #oercion

Answer: ,! Di""icult#: E! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: .0

2>. A computer company runs an ad that sho$s a young male sitting in front of his

computer on $hat appears to be a lonely aturday night. <he copy in the ad implies

33



that if the young man had only purchased the latest soft$are for his computer% he

$ould have been able to have friends over to play the latest in video games. 'ithout

the soft$are% ho$ever% he is the &lonely guy.+ <his $ould be an example of $hich ofthe follo$ing instrumental conditioning options4

a. @egative reinforcement.

b. "ositive reinforcement. c. "unishment.

d. #oercion.

Answer: %! Di""icult#: M! Applic%tion P%&e: .0

26. A $oman no longer receives compliments on the perfume that she $ears. (n learning

terms% the stimulusBresponse connection has $ea,ened. 'hich of the follo$ing instrumental conditioning processes explains $hat has occurred to the $oman in the

example4

a. @egative reinforcement.

b. ?xtinction. c. "unishment.

d. #oercion.

Answer: ,! Di""icult#: H! Applic%tion P%&e: .01.2

0:. An important factor in operant conditioning is the set of rules by $hich appropriate

reinforcements are given for a behavior. All of the follo$ing are among those

schedules cited by the text ?G#?"</

a. dependent reinforcement. b. fixedBinterval reinforcement.

c. variableBinterval reinforcement.

d. variableBratio reinforcement.

Answer: %! Di""icult#: H! $%ct P%&e: .2

01. A department store decides to use &secret shoppers+ to test for service uality among

its personnel. tore personnel are re$arded for &excellent service attitudes.+ 'hich

of the follo$ing reinforcement schedules $ould most li,ely apply in the above

situation4 a. 9ixedBratio reinforcement.

b. 9ixedBinterval reinforcement.

c. HariableBratio reinforcement. d. HariableBinterval reinforcement.

Answer: )! Di""icult#: H! Applic%tion P%&e: .2

02. 'ith respect to the application of instrumental conditioning principles% a popular

techniue ,no$n as ____________ reinforces regular purchases by giving consumers

pri-es $ith values that increase along $ith the amount purchased.

37



a. rebate mar,eting

b. discount mar,eting

c. re$ard mar,eting d. freuency mar,eting

Answer: )! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: .(

00. __________________ approaches stress the importance of internal mental processes

or vie$s the consumer as a problemBsolver $ho actively uses information from the $orld to master her environment.

a. (nstrumental learning theory

b. #ognitive learning theory

c. Iperant learning theory d. #lassical learning theory

Answer: ,! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: .3

03. An adolescent girl observes that $omen on television and in real life seem to be

re$arded $ith compliments and attention $hen they smell nice and $ear alluring clothing. (f she adjusts her behavior to achieve the same results by the same means%

she is experiencing $hich of the follo$ing learning processes4

a. (nstrumental learning theory b. Ibservational learning theory

c. Iperant learning theory

d. #lassical learning theory

Answer: ,! Di""icult#: M! Applic%tion P%&e: .3

07. ____________________ occurs $hen people $atch the actions of others and notethe reinforcements they receive for their behaviors.

a. #lassical learning

b. Ibservational learning c. Rote learning

d. tochastic learning

Answer: ,! Di""icult#: E! $%ct P%&e: .3

08. (n order for observational learning in the form of modeling to occur% all of the

follo$ing conditions must be met ?G#?"</ a. the consumer*s attention must be directed for $hatever reason to the

appropriate model.

b. the consumer must remember $hat is said or done by the model. c. the consumer must be able to better enhance $hat the model has done.

d. the consumer must be motivated to perform actions.

Answer: c! Di""icult#: H! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: .*

38



0=. According to the model that describes the components of observational learning% the

first step in the observational learning process is/ a. retention.

b. production processes.

c. attention. d. motivation.

Answer: c! Di""icult#: E! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: .*/ $i&ure 33

0>. _________________ involves a process of acuiring information and storing it

over time so that it $ill be available $hen needed.

a. Memory b. Recognition

c. #omprehension

d. Attention

Answer: %! Di""icult#: E! $%ct P%&e: .+

06. (f a mar,eter assumes a consumer*s mind is much li,e a computer $ith respect to

memory functions% then the mar,eter $ill probably employ aan ______________

to study memory. a. meansBend chain

b. information processing approach

c. experiential approach

d. experimental approach

Answer: ,! Di""icult#: M! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: .+

3:. 'ith respect to the information processing approach to memory formulation% in

the ___________ stage% information is entered in a $ay the system $ill recogni-e.

a. storage b. retrieval

c. encoding

d. decoding

Answer: )! Di""icult#: E! $%ct P%&e: .+/ $i&ure 3*

31. 'illiam has decided to buy a ne$ television set. "rior to the purchase of any ne$ product% 'illiam thin,s about the last time he bought a <H% the process he $ent

through% the store he purchased it from% and ho$ satisfied he has been $ith his old

set. 'hen 'illiam does this% he is using his ______________ to revie$ events. a. shortBterm memory

b. sensory memory

c. longBterm memory

d. $or,ing memory

3=



Answer: c! Di""icult#: M! Applic%tion P%&e: .4/ .'

32. _____________ permits storage of information $e receive from our senses.

a. hortBterm memory

b. ensory memory c. LongBterm memory

d. 'or,ing memory

Answer: ,! Di""icult#: E! $%ct P%&e: .4

30. According to the _____________% a message is processed in a bottomBup fashion. (n

other $ords% processing begins at a very basic level and is subject to increasinglycomplex processing operations that reuire greater cognitive capacity.

a. information processing model

b. decay processing model

c. parallel processing model d. hierarchical processing model

Answer: )! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: .'

33. Martha*s mother as,s her for a uic, list of her favorite perfumes it*s time for the #hristmas shopping list. As a consumer% Martha gives her mother six names that are

all &her favorite.+ <his group constitutes Martha*s ________________ for perfume.

a. position group

b. desire patterns c. rational set

d. evo,ed set

Answer: )! Di""icult#: M! Applic%tion P%&e: .'/ ..

37. As MayBLee considers her purchase of perfume% she shifts bac, and forth bet$eenthin,ing about claims made by the different brands% remembering ads she has seen%

and considers her emotional responses to the various brands. 'hich of the follo$ing

processes most accurately describes $hat MayBLee is going through4

a. preading activation. b. Advertising decay.

c. "olar parallels.

d. calar processing.

Answer: %! Di""icult#: H! Applic%tion P%&e: ..

38. #learly% forgetting is a big problem for mar,eters $ith respect to messages and

communications sent to consumers. Memories of products can simply fade or decay

$ith time or forgetting can occur because of/

a. interference.

3>



b. lac, of interest.

c. salience.

d. recall.

Answer: %! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: 20(

3=. Many mar,eters use &the good old days+ as a common theme in messages. <his

is a strategy of focusing on ___________________.

a. retroBinterference. b. &return to the $omb+ syndrome.

c. nostalgia.

d. memory spi,es.

Answer: c! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: 203

3>. (n a typical _________________ test% subjects are sho$n ads one at a time and

as,ed if they have seen them before. a. recall

b. recognition c. remembrance

d. recovery

Answer: ,! Di""icult#: M! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: 20*/ 20+

36. (n a typical _____________ test% subjects are as,ed to independently thin, of $hat

they have seen $ithout being prompted for this information first. a. free recall

b. recognition

c. retrieval d. recovery

Answer: %! Di""icult#: E! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: 20*/ 20+

7:. usan aurage pic,s and runs her focus groups carefully. he $ants to ma,e sure

that each focus group member provides meaningful information for her research

purposes. As she is examining potential focus group candidates% she notices that threemen and t$o $omen seem to provide &yes+ ans$ers regardless of $hat she as,s them.

<hey seem to $ant to be on the focus group very badly and appear eager to be &good

subjects.+ (f usan follo$s prudent testing methodology% she should reject these test subjects in order to avoid the possibility of $hich of the follo$ing biases4

a. 5ender bias.

b. Irder bias. c. Response bias.

d. Affinity bonding bias.

Answer: c! Di""icult#: M! Applic%tion P%&e: 20-

36



True5$%lse

71. Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior that is caused by

experience.

Answer: True! Di""icult#: E! $%ct P%&e: '(

72. #asual% unintentional acuisition of ,no$ledge is ,no$n as classical conditioning.

Answer: $%lse! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: '(

70. hari 5ome- sees the &big red heart+ on the front of a #heerios box and immediately

thin,s of an ad she has seen for the cereal that discusses the lo$ cholesterol benefits of

#heerios. <his $ould be an illustration of a stimulusBresponse connection behavioral

theory.

Answer: True! Di""icult#: H! Applic%tion P%&e: '(1'3

73. <here are t$o major approaches associated $ith behavioral learning theory) the

approaches are classical conditioning and observational learning.

Answer: $%lse! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: '*

77. <he form of conditioning most associated $ith psychologist (van "avlov is classicalconditioning.

Answer: $%lse! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: '*

78. (n the original behavioral learning experiments in classical conditioning% it $as found

that conditioning effects are more li,ely to occur after the conditioned andunconditioned stimuli have been paired a number of times.

Answer: True! Di""icult#: M! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: '*

7=. timulus generali-ation refers to the tendency of stimuli similar to a conditioned

stimulus # to evo,e similar% conditioned responses.

Answer: True! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: '+

7>. A good illustration of the phenomenon of stimulus generali-ation occurs if a drug store*s private brand of mouth$ash is deliberately pac,aged to resemble a leading

brand such as cope.

Answer: True! Di""icult#: E! Applic%tion P%&e: '+

7:



76. Mas,ed branding occurs $hen the brand name is deliberately covered up so the

consumer cannot see it.

Answer: $%lse! Di""icult#: E! $%ct P%&e: '-

8:. timulus discrimination occurs $hen an unconditioned stimulus # does not

follo$ a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus #.

Answer: True! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: '-

81. Marlboro% (!M% Microsoft% and #ocaB#ola exert po$erful effects on consumers. All

of these brands use brand euity to ensure a strong positive association in aconsumer*s memory.

Answer: True! Di""icult#: E! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: '4/ ''

82. <he order in $hich the conditioned stimulus # and the unconditioned stimulus

# are presented do not affect the li,elihood that learning $ill occur.

Answer: $%lse! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: ''

80. An example of a mar,eting strategy that results from an appreciation and

understanding of stimulus generali-ation is licensing.

Answer: True! Di""icult#: M! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: '.

83. (nstrumental conditioning occurs as the individual learns to perform behaviors that

produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes.

Answer: True! Di""icult#: M! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: .0

87. (nstrumental conditioning is also ,no$n as operant conditioning.

Answer: True! Di""icult#: E! $%ct P%&e: .0

88. A $oman $ho gets compliments after $earing Ibsession perfume $ill learn that

using this product has the desired positive effect of gaining attention) she $ill be more

li,ely to ,eep buying the product. <his is an example of instrumental learning.

Answer: True! Di""icult#: M! Applic%tion P%&e: .0

8=. (nstrumental conditioning occurs in three $ays. <he $ays are positive reinforcement%

positive re$ard% and monetary re$ard.

Answer: $%lse! Di""icult#: M! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: .0

71



8>. ecret shoppers may be used by mar,eters to test the effectiveness of serviceB

uality among employees. <his is a form of variableBinterval reinforcement testing.

Answer: True! Di""icult#: M! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: .2

86. 9reuent flyer incentive programs that achieved popularity in the 16>:s are a form

of re$ard lin,ed to the classical conditioning process.

Answer: $%lse! Di""icult#: M! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: .(

=:. #ognitive learning theory approaches stress the importance of internal mental

processes.

Answer: True! Di""icult#: E! $%ct P%&e: .3

=1. A $oman shopping for a ne$ ,ind of perfume may remember the reactions her friend received upon $earing a certain brand several months earlier% and she $ill

base her behavior on her friend*s action. <his is an example of a form ofcognitive learning.

Answer: True! Di""icult#: H! Applic%tion P%&e: .3/ .*

=2. ensory memory*s duration is usually very shortJsometimes lasting less than one

second.

Answer: True! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: .4

=0. <he salience of a brand refers to its degree of pricing flexibility i.e.% freuency of price changes.

Answer: $%lse! Di""icult#: E! $%ct P%&e: 202

=3. 9orgetting may occur due to interferenceJlearning additional information about a

subject.

Answer: True! Di""icult#: M! $%ct P%&e: 20(

=7. (n a typical free recall test% subjects are sho$n ads one at a time and as,ed if theyhave seen them before.

Answer: $%lse! Di""icult#: H! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: 20*/ 20+

Ess%# 6uestions

72



=8. Fescribe the term learning . Fefine the term incidental learning .

Answer:

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior caused by experience. <he learner

need not have the experience directly. 'e can also learn by observing events that affect

others. 'e learn even $hen $e are not trying. #onsumers recogni-e many brand namesand can hum many product jingles even for products they do not personally use. <his

casual% unintentional acuisition of ,no$ledge is ,no$n as incidental learning .

Di""icult#: E! $%ct P%&e: '(

==. #ompare and contrast classical and instrumental operant conditioning.

Answer:

Classical conditioning involves the close pairing of t$o stimuli. #lassical conditioning

occurs $hen a stimulus that elicits a response is paired $ith another stimulus that initially

does not elicit a response of its o$n. Iver time% this second stimulus causes a similarresponse because it is associated $ith the first stimulus. <he person to study this form of

conditioning $as (van "avlov% a Russian physiologist $hile doing research on digestionin animals.

Operant (or instrumental) conditioning occurs as an individual learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative

outcomes. !.9. ,inner demonstrated the effects of instrumental conditioning by

teaching animals to dance% play pingBpong% and so on by systematically re$arding them

for desired behaviors.

'hile responses in classical conditioning are involuntary and fairly simple% those in

instrumental conditioning are made deliberately to obtain a goal and may be morecomplex and shaped over a period of time. Instrumental learning occurs as a result of a

re$ard follo$ing the desired behavior. (t ta,es place over a period of time $hile the

individual tries a variety of other behaviors and abandons them because they are notreinforced. (n instrumental learning% the response is performed because it is instrumental

in gaining a re$ard or avoiding punishment.

Di""icult#: H! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: '*1.0/ .01.3

=>. Fiscuss $hat stimulus generali-ation and stimulus discrimination are and present an

example of each that is relevant to the field of mar,eting.

Answer:

a Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency of stimuli similar to a #onditionedtimulus to evo,e similar% conditioned responses. <he idea is that people react to other

stimuli similar stimuli in much the same $ay they respond to the original stimuli. 9or

example% a drug store*s bottle of private brand mouth$ash might be deliberately

pac,aged to resemble a name brand such as Listerine. <he consumer $ould assume this

70



&meBtoo+ product has the same characteristics as the name brand and buy it because of its

cheaper price.

b Stimulus discrimination occurs $hen a stimulus similar to a #onditioned timulus isnot follo$ed by an nconditioned timulus. (n this case% reactions are $ea,ened and

$ill soon disappear. @ational manufacturers remind consumers that if they buy cheaper

brands they $ill not get the same results as they do $hen they buy the national brand.

Di""icult#: M! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: '+1'4

=6. <he process of stimulus generali-ation is often central to branding and pac,aging

decisions that attempt to capitali-e on consumers* positive associations $ith an existing

brand or company name. (n this context% list and briefly discuss the four strategies based

on stimulus generali-ation presented in the text.

Answer:

•

9amily brandingJa variety of products capitali-e on the reputation of a companyname. "ositive corporate images help to sell the company*s different product

lines.

• "roduct line extensionsJrelated products are added to an established brand.

• LicensingJ$ellB,no$n brand names are &rented+ by others. <his strategy is

increasing in popularity as mar,eters try to lin, their products and services $ith

$ellBestablished figures.

• Loo,Bali,e pac,agingJdistinctive pac,aging designs create strong associations

$ith a particular brand. (mitating the loo, of an existing successful brand is

common in today*s cro$ded mar,etplace.

Di""icult#: M! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: '.

>:. ?xplain ho$ instrumental conditioning occurs. !e sure to use the proper terms to

explain this process.

Answer:

Instrumental conditioning occurs as the individual learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes. <his form of

conditioning occurs in one of three $ays. 'hen the environment provides positive

reinforcement in the form of a re$ard% the response is strengthened% and appropriate behavior is learned. econd% negative reinforcement also strengthens responses so that

appropriate behavior is learned. Lastly% $e learn to do certain things in order to avoid punishment . (n this case% $e $ish to avoid an unpleasant conseuence. 'e learn the

hard $ay sometimes $hat these situations are.

Di""icult#: M! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: .0

>1. An important factor in instrumental operant conditioning is the set of rules by $hich

appropriate reinforcements are given for a behavior. <he chapter discusses four possible

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schedules of reinforcement. !riefly describe each and give a short example. !e sure to

use the proper terminology for each schedule.

Answer:

a Fixed-interval reinforcement Jafter a specified time period has passed% the first

response that is made brings re$ard. nder such conditions% people tend to respondslo$ly right after being reinforced% but their responses speed up as the time for the next

reinforcement looms. ?xample/ cro$ding a store on the last day of a sale but not

returning for another year.b Variale-interval reinforcement Jthe time must pass before reinforcement is

delivered varies around some average. ince the person does not ,no$ exactly $hen to

expect the reinforcement% responses must be performed at a consistent rate. ?xample/

using mystery or secret shoppers to $atch store employees and their attempt to provideuality service.

c Fixed-ratio reinforcement Jreinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of

responses. <his schedule motivates people to continue performing the same behavior

over and over again. ?xample/ repeat shopping to earn pri-es by earning credits ortrading stamps.

d Variale-ratio reinforcement Jthe person is reinforced after a certain number ofresponses% but he or she does not ,no$ ho$ many responses are reuired. "eople in such

situations tend to respond at very high and steady rates% and this type of behavior is very

difficult to extinguish. ?xample/ gambling or playing slot machines.

Di""icult#: H! $%ct %n) Applic%tion P%&e: .2

>2. 5ive a brief explanation of cognitive learning.

Answer:

(n contrast to behavioral theories of learning% cognitive learning theor! approaches stressthe importance of internal mental processes. <his perspective vie$s people as problemB

solvers $ho actively use information from the $orld around them to master their

environment. upporters of this vie$point also stress the role of creativity and insightduring the learning process.

Di""icult#: E! $%ct P%&e: .3

>0. List and describe the components of observational learning as displayed in a figure

sho$n in the text.

Answer:

• AttentionJthe consumer focuses on a model*s behavior.

• RetentionJthe consumer retains this behavior in memory.

• "roduction processesJthe consumer has the ability to perform the behavior.

• MotivationJa situation arises $herein the behavior is useful to the consumer.

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<his results in observational learningJthe consumer acuires and performs the behavior

earlier demonstrated by a model.

Di""icult#: M! $%ct %n) Discussion P%&e: .*/ $i&ure 33

>3. (dentify and briefly discuss each of the three distinct memory systems described inthe text.

Answer:

a Sensor! memor! Jpermits the storage of information $e receive from our senses.

<his storage is very temporary) it last a couple of seconds at most. (f information is

retained for further processing% it passes through an attentional gate and is transferred to

shortBterm memory.b Short-term memor! (S"#) Jstores information for a limited period of time) its

capacity is limited. Regarded as $or,ing memory li,e a computer% it holds the

information $e are currently processing. <his information is stored by combining small

pieces into larger ones in a process ,no$n as chun,ing.c Long-term memor! (L"#) Jis a system that allo$s us to retain information for a long

period of time. (n order for information to enter into longBterm memory from shortBtermmemory% an elaborate rehearsal is reuired. <his process involves thin,ing about the

meaning of a stimulus and relating it to other information already in memory.

Di""icult#: M! $%ct %n) Discussion P%&e: .4/ .'/ $i&ure 3+

>7. Measuring memory for mar,eting stimuli is often difficult. Fiscuss the differences

bet$een recognition and recall. 5ive examples of methods for testing each form. 'hichone is thought to the more reliable measure of memory4

Answer:

<$o basic measures of impact are recognition and recall . (n the typical recognition test %

subjects are sho$n ads one at a time and as,ed if they have seen them before. (n

contrast% free recall tests as, consumers to independently thin, of $hat they have seen$ithout being prompted for this information firstJobviously% this tas, reuires greater

effort on the part of respondents.

nder some conditions% these t$o memory measures tend to yield the same results%

especially $hen the researchers try to ,eep the vie$ers* interest in ads constant.5enerally% though% recognition scores tend to be more reliable and do not decay over time

the $ay recall scores do. Recognition scores are almost al$ays better than recall scores

because recognition is a simpler process and more retrieval cues are available to theconsumer.

Di""icult#: M! $%ct %n) Discussion P%&e: 20*120-

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chapter3learning and memory

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