chapters 8 utility and demand

CHAPTERS 8Utility and Demand

Marginal Utility Theory The purpose of marginal utility

theory is to explain an individual household’s demand.

Marginal utility theory predicts that individual demand curves slope downward.

Therefore, market demand curves must also slope downward.

Household Consumption Choices

Two factors determine a household’s consumption choices: Its budget constraint (how much money

it has to spend and the prices of each good or service it buys)

Its preferences (how much it likes each good relative to others)

Budget Constraint A household’s consumption choices

are constrained by its income and by the prices of the goods and services it buys.

The limits to a household’s consumption choices are described by its budget constraint or sometimes called its budget line.

Example - Lisa’s Consumption Possibilities

Lisa has $30 per month to spend on movies and soda.

Movies cost $6 each. If she spends her entire budget on movies, she can see 5 per month.

Soda costs $3 per six-pack. If she spends her entire budget on soda, she can drink 10 six-packs a month.

Movies ($6) Soda ($3) Expenditure

ExpenditurePossibility Q (dollars) Q (dollars)

a 0 0 10 30b 1 6 8 24c 2 12 6 18d 3 18 4 12e 4 24 2 6f 5 30 0 0

Consumption Possibilities


Movies (per month)

0 1 2 3 4 5

2

4

6

8

10So

da (s

ix-p

acks

per

mon

th) a

b

c

d

e

f


Movies (per month)

0 1 2 3 4 5

2

4

6

8

10 a

b

c

d

e

f

Soda

(six

-pac

ks p

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onth

)

Each point on line exhausts the entire $30 budget

Affordable


Movies (per month)

0 1 2 3 4 5

2

4

6

8

10 a

b

c

d

e

f

Unaffordable

Soda

(six

-pac

ks p

er m

onth

)

Preferences The combination of goods and

services a person chooses to consume from the available choices on the budget line is determined by their likes and dislikes — their preferences.

The satisfaction a person gets from consumption is called utility.

Lisa’s Preferences How Lisa spends her $30 per month

depends on her preferences for movies and soda.

Each additional movie or soda she consumes increases her total utility.

Utility Is an Abstract Concept

We cannot directly observe values for utility.

However, each of us knows what we like and what we dislike.

We will consume more of the goods and services we like and less of those we dislike.

Total Utility Total utility is the total benefit or

satisfaction that a person gets from the consumption of goods and services.

Total utility depends on the level of consumption — more consumption generally increases total utility.

Lisa’s Total Utility The more movies Lisa sees each

month, the greater her total utility from movies.

The more soda Lisa drinks each month, the greater her total utility from soda.

Marginal Utility Marginal utility is the change in total

utility resulting from a one-unit increase in the quantity of a good consumed.

Total Utility and Marginal Utility

Quantity Total utility Marginal utility

0 0 1 50 2 88 3 121 4 150 5 175 6 196 7 214 8 229 9 24110 250

Movies

-


Quantity Total utility Marginal utilityMovies

-50

0 0 1 50 2 88 3 121 4 150 5 175 6 196 7 214 8 229 9 24110 250



-5038

0 0 1 50 2 88 3 121 4 150 5 175 6 196 7 214 8 229 9 24110 250



-503833

0 0 1 50 2 88 3 121 4 150 5 175 6 196 7 214 8 229 9 24110 250



-50383329

0 0 1 50 2 88 3 121 4 150 5 175 6 196 7 214 8 229 9 24110 250



-5038332925

0 0 1 50 2 88 3 121 4 150 5 175 6 196 7 214 8 229 9 24110 250



-503833292521

0 0 1 50 2 88 3 121 4 150 5 175 6 196 7 214 8 229 9 24110 250



-50383329252118

0 0 1 50 2 88 3 121 4 150 5 175 6 196 7 214 8 229 9 24110 250



-5038332925211815

0 0 1 50 2 88 3 121 4 150 5 175 6 196 7 214 8 229 9 24110 250



-503833292521181512

0 0 1 50 2 88 3 121 4 150 5 175 6 196 7 214 8 229 9 24110 250



-503833292521181512 9

0 0 1 50 2 88 3 121 4 150 5 175 6 196 7 214 8 229 9 24110 250

Diminishing Marginal Utility As consumption of a good or service

increases, the incremental (or marginal) satisfaction we get from consuming one more unit decreases.

This decrease is called the principle of diminishing marginal utility.


0 1 2 3 4 5

Uni

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f util

ity 50 50

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0 1 2 3 4 5Quantity (movies per month)

Uni

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Quantity (movies per month)

0 1 2 3 4 5

50 50

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Uni

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Uni

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Increasingtotal utility...

Totalutility



Uni

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3850

0 1 2 3 4 5

50

…and diminishingmarginal utility

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Uni

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Totalutility



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333850

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Uni

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Totalutility



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29333850

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Uni

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Totalutility



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Totalutility



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Marginalutility

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Quantity Total utility Marginal utility Soda

- 0 0 1 75 2 117 3 153 4 181 5 206 6 225 7 243 8 260 9 27610 291



-75

0 0 1 75 2 117 3 153 4 181 5 206 6 225 7 243 8 260 9 27610 291



-7542

0 0 1 75 2 117 3 153 4 181 5 206 6 225 7 243 8 260 9 27610 291



-754236

0 0 1 75 2 117 3 153 4 181 5 206 6 225 7 243 8 260 9 27610 291



-75423628

0 0 1 75 2 117 3 153 4 181 5 206 6 225 7 243 8 260 9 27610 291



-7542362825

0 0 1 75 2 117 3 153 4 181 5 206 6 225 7 243 8 260 9 27610 291



-754236282519

0 0 1 75 2 117 3 153 4 181 5 206 6 225 7 243 8 260 9 27610 291



-75423628251918

0 0 1 75 2 117 3 153 4 181 5 206 6 225 7 243 8 260 9 27610 291



-7542362825191817

0 0 1 75 2 117 3 153 4 181 5 206 6 225 7 243 8 260 9 27610 291



-754236282519181716

0 0 1 75 2 117 3 153 4 181 5 206 6 225 7 243 8 260 9 27610 291



-75423628251918171615

0 0 1 75 2 117 3 153 4 181 5 206 6 225 7 243 8 260 9 27610 291

Maximizing Utility A household’s income and the prices

it faces limit the total utility it can obtain.

We assume that households consume the quantities of goods and services that maximize total utility.

People must make hard choices because wants exceed resources.

The Utility-maximizing Choice

A consumer equilibrium is a situation in which a consumer has allocated his or her income in the way that, given the prices of goods and services, maximizes his or her total utility.

Lisa's Affordable Combinations

Movies Soda Total utility

Quantity from movies Six-packsper month Total utility and soda Total utility per month

a 0 0 291 10

b 1 50 260 8

c 2 88 225 6

d 3 121 181 4

e 4 150 117 2

f 5 175 0 0




a 0 0 291 291 10

b 1 50 260 8

c 2 88 225 6

d 3 121 181 4

e 4 150 117 2

f 5 175 0 0




a 0 0 291 291 10

b 1 50 310 260 8

c 2 88 225 6

d 3 121 181 4

e 4 150 117 2

f 5 175 0 0




a 0 0 291 291 10

b 1 50 310 260 8

c 2 88 313 225 6

d 3 121 181 4

e 4 150 117 2

f 5 175 0 0




a 0 0 291 291 10

b 1 50 310 260 8

c 2 88 313 225 6

d 3 121 302 181 4

e 4 150 117 2

f 5 175 0 0




a 0 0 291 291 10

b 1 50 310 260 8

c 2 88 313 225 6

d 3 121 302 181 4

e 4 150 267 117 2

f 5 175 0 0




a 0 0 291 291 10

b 1 50 310 260 8

c 2 88 313 225 6

d 3 121 302 181 4

e 4 150 267 117 2

f 5 175 175 0 0

Equalizing Marginal Utility Per Dollar Spent

The allocation that maximizes total utility will also make the marginal utility per dollar spent on each good equal for all goods.

The marginal utility per dollar spent is the marginal utility obtained from the last unit of a good consumed divided by the price of the good.

Maximizing Total Utility Total utility is maximized when all the

consumer’s income is spent and when the marginal utility per dollar spent is equal for all goods.

If all income is not spent, utility could be improved by spending more. Therefore, the consumer will spend all income.

Lisa Maximizes Utility She spends all her income andMUmovies/ Pmovies = MUsoda/ Psoda

Equivalently:MUmovies/MUsoda = Pmovies/ Psoda

Equalizing Marginal Utilities Per Dollar Spent

a 0 0 - 10 15b 1 50 8 17c 2 38 6 19d 3 33 4 28e 4 29 2 42 f 5 25 0 0 -

Movies ($6 each) Soda ($3 per six-pack)Marginal Marginal utility utility

Marginal per dollar Marginal per dollar Quantity utility spent Quantity utility spent


a 0 0 - 10 15b 1 50 8.33 8 17c 2 38 6 19d 3 33 4 28e 4 29 2 42 f 5 25 0 0 -




a 0 0 - 10 15b 1 50 8.33 8 17c 2 38 6.33 6 19d 3 33 4 28e 4 29 2 42 f 5 25 0 0 -



Equalizing Marginal Utilities per Dollar Spent

a 0 0 - 10 15b 1 50 8.33 8 17c 2 38 6.33 6 19d 3 33 5.50 4 28e 4 29 2 42 f 5 25 0 0 -




a 0 0 - 10 15b 1 50 8.33 8 17c 2 38 6.33 6 19d 3 33 5.50 4 28e 4 29 4.83 2 42 f 5 25 0 0 -




a 0 0 - 10 15b 1 50 8.33 8 17c 2 38 6.33 6 19d 3 33 5.50 4 28e 4 29 4.83 2 42 f 5 25 4.17 0 0 -




a 0 0 - 10 15 5.00b 1 50 8.33 8 17c 2 38 6.33 6 19d 3 33 5.50 4 28e 4 29 4.83 2 42 f 5 25 4.17 0 0 -




a 0 0 - 10 15 5.00b 1 50 8.33 8 17 5.67c 2 38 6.33 6 19d 3 33 5.50 4 28e 4 29 4.83 2 42 f 5 25 4.17 0 0 -




a 0 0 - 10 15 5.00b 1 50 8.33 8 17 5.67c 2 38 6.33 6 19 6.33d 3 33 5.50 4 28e 4 29 4.83 2 42 f 5 25 4.17 0 0 -




a 0 0 - 10 15 5.00b 1 50 8.33 8 17 5.67c 2 38 6.33 6 19 6.33d 3 33 5.50 4 28 9.33e 4 29 4.83 2 42 f 5 25 4.17 0 0 -




a 0 0 - 10 15 5.00b 1 50 8.33 8 17 5.67c 2 38 6.33 6 19 6.33d 3 33 5.50 4 28 9.33e 4 29 4.83 2 42

14.00f 5 25 4.17 0 0 -



Lisa Maximizes Utility She spends all her income andMUmovies/ Pmovies = MUsoda/ Psoda

(38/6) = (19/3) = 6.33 Equivalently:MUmovies/MUsoda = Pmovies/ Psoda

(38/19) = (6/3) = 2

Why the Marginal Utility Rule Maximizes Total Utility

Case I If the ratio of marginal utility to price

is higher for movies than for soda, Lisa can increase total utility by consuming less soda and more movies.

If MUmovies/ Pmovies > MUsoda/ Psoda then the next movie provides more satisfaction per dollar than a soda.

Why the Marginal Utility Rule Maximizes Total Utility

Case II If the ratio of marginal utility to price

is lower for movies than for soda, Lisa can increase total utility by consuming more soda and less movies.

If MUmovies/ Pmovies < MUsoda/ Psoda then the next soda provides more satisfaction per dollar than a movie.


MoviesSodaPossibility

0 1 2 3 4 510 8 6 4 2 0a b c d e f

4.00

8.33

12.00

16.00

6.335.67

Mar

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l util

ity p

er d

olla

r sp

ent

(uni

ts o

f util

ity p

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olla

r)



0 1 2 3 4 510 8 6 4 2 0a b c d e f

4.00

8.33

12.00

16.00

6.335.67

Mar

gina

l util

ity p

er d

olla

r sp

ent

(uni

ts o

f util

ity p

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olla

r)

MUm

Pm



0 1 2 3 4 510 8 6 4 2 0a b c d e f

4.00

8.33

12.00

16.00

6.335.67

MUs

Ps

MUm

Pm

Mar

gina

l util

ity p

er d

olla

r sp

ent

(uni

ts o

f util

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olla

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0 1 2 3 4 510 8 6 4 2 0a b c d e f

4.00

8.33

12.00

16.00

6.335.67

MUs

Ps

MUm

Pm

Maximumtotal utility

Case IIUtility gainfrom moresoda and fewer movies

Case IUtility gainfrom moremovies and less soda

Mar

gina

l util

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ent

(uni

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Consuming Only Sodas


0 1 2 3 4 510 8 6 4 2 0a b c d e f

MUs

Ps

MUm

Pm

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Consuming Only Movies


0 1 2 3 4 510 8 6 4 2 0a b c d e f

MUs

Ps

MUm

Pm

Mar

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(uni

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The Power ofMarginal Analysis

The method we have used to maximize Lisa’s utility is an example of marginal analysis.

By comparing marginal gain with marginal loss, we can guarantee that total utility is maximized.

New Ways of Explaining Consumer ChoicesBehavioral Economics

Behavioral economics studies the ways in which limits on the human brain’s ability to compute and implement rational decisions influence economic behavior—both the decisions that people make and the consequences of those decisions for the way markets work.There are three impediments to rational choice:

Bounded rationality Bounded willpower Bounded self-interest

New Ways of Explaining Consumer Choices

Bounded RationalityBounded rationality is rationality that is limited by the computing power of the human brain. Faced with uncertainty, consumers cannot rationally make choices and instead rely on other decision-making methods such as rules of thumb, listening to the views of others, or gut instinct.


Bounded WillpowerBounded will-power is the less-than-perfect willpower that prevents us from making a decision that we know, at the time of implementing the decision, we will later regret.


Bounded Self-InterestBounded self-interest is the limited self-interest that sometimes results in suppressing our own interests to help others. Main applications are in finance where uncertainty is the key factor and savings where future is the key factor.


One behavior observed by behavioral economists is more general and might affect your choices.The Endowment Effect

The endowment effect is the tendency for people to value something more highly simply because they own it.


NeuroeconomicsNeuroeconomics is the study of the activity of the human brain when a person makes an economic decision.Different decisions appear to activate different areas of the brain. Some decisions are made

In the pre-frontal cortex where memories are stored and data analyzed and where decisions might be deemed rational.

In the hippocampus where memories of anxiety and fear are stored and where decisions might be deemed irrational.


ControversyShould economics focus on explaining the decisions we observe or should it focus on what goes on inside people’s heads?This is the controversy.For most economists, the goal of economics is to explain the decisions that we observe people make, and not to explain what goes on inside people’s heads.

chapters 8 utility and demand

Documents

movies total utility

total utilitytotal utility

total benefit

consumption of goods

lisas total utilitythe

level of consumption

soda lisa

movies lisa