characteristics of the chronically unemployed in …
TRANSCRIPT
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHRONICALLY UNEMPLOYED
IN RELATION TO READING RETARDATION
by
RAYMOND J. CONDRElNl, B.A.
A DISSERTATION
IN
PSYCHOLOGY
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Apprc^v^
May, 197 2
901 T3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express my deep gratitude to the Chairman
of my committee. Dr. Robert P. Anderson, for his continued
encouragement, inspiration and assistance. I also wish to
thank Drs. Beatrix Cobb, Charles Halcomb, and Charles
Chandler, v.-hose encouragement and guidance have contributed
so much.
I would also give special thanks to the staffs of
the Veterans Administration Hospital, Northport, New York,
and the Sulfolk County Department of Labor, New York; for
without their assistance and cooperation this dissertation
would not have been possible.
11
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii
LIST OF TABLES V
I. INTRODUCTION 1
Purpose and Scope 1
Background Literature 3
Related Unemployment Literature 3
Related Learning
Disability Literature 6
Objectives of Present Study 13
II. METHOD 15
Subjects 15
Test Instruments 19
Procedure 27
III. RESULTS 32
General Results 33
Specific Statistical
Interpretations 42
IV. DISCUSSION 44
V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 59
REFERENCES 64
APPENDIX 69
A. PERSONAL INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE . . . . 70
B. MCGUIRE-WHITE INDEX OF SOCIAL STATUS 71
111
iv
c. M::GUIRE-WHITE INDEX OF SOCIAL STATUS:
GENERAL CONVERSION TABLE 75
D. EMPLOYMENT RESEARCH WAIVER FORM 76
E. MCGUIRE-WHITE INDEX OF SOCIAL STATUS: CONVERSION WEIGHTS 77
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Design of the Short Form Sccile, WAIS . . . . 21
2. MAT, Motivational Systems 25
3. Psychometric Tests and Variables Studied 29
4. Means, Standard Deviations, and t Tests of Gates-MacGinite Reading Test 34
5. Means, Standard Deviations, and t Tests of Wide Range Achievement Test 35
6. Means, Standard Deviations, and t Values of Written Story Test 37
7. Means, Standard Deviations, and t Values of Motivational Analysis Test 38
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Purpose and Scope
The high level of unemployment in the United States
is one of the most critical problems that our society faces
today. It is not an arm-chair problem which can be dis
cussed on an intellectual plane, but it is a real problem
concerned with human suffering and misery.
The causes of unemployment are varied and complex.
A considerable amount of attention has been given to under
standing these causes and their interrelationships. Investi
gators have examined the problem from the standpoint of
economic and social-psychological factors (Tiffany, Cowan &
Tiffany, 1970). Economic cycles of depression and recessions
have been a major cause of unemployment; seasonal movements
into and out of the labor force also affect unemployment
(Wolfbein, 1964). To combat the social crisis created by
unemployment, the Federal Government and state governments
disburse millions of dollars for scientific research each
year, particularly in the area of Vocational Rehabilitation.
The basic goal of Vocational Rehabilitation services,
provided by State Vocational Rehabilitation Commissions
and Agencies, is to return handicapped individuals to the
mainstream of society as productive workers. The
chronically unemployed worker is generally considered to
have a handicap by virtue of his apparent inability to
function on a job with a degree of stability. A possible
contributing factor to chronic unemployment is the basic
inability to read and communicate effectively in written
language. The basic purpose of the present study was to
study the relationships between reading retardation and/or
learning disabilities and chronic unemployment.
A series of related studies carried out at Texas
Tech University have been concerned v/ith identifying the
psychometric variables associated with reading retardation
and/or learning disabilities (Bean, 1967), (Bell, 1969),
and (Lewis, 1969). These investigations were concerned
with adolescent male populations. The present investigation
was designed to extend the study of reading retardation
and/or learning disabilities to ar adult population likely
to be affected by a lack of readir.g skills. In addition,
an effort was made to determine if chronically unemployed
persons had the same pattern of personality characteristics
as a population of adolescent readers studied by Bell
(1969). An attempt was also made to determine whether
reading retardation and/or learning disabilities have an
adverse affect on the success or failure of an individual
in the area of gainful employment.
Background Literature
Related Unemployment Literature
It was not within the scope of this study to
delineate all the factors related to unemployment. Thus,
the review of the literature related to economic factors
is brief. The study was limited to those individuals who
could be classified as being chronically unemployed.
The chronically unemployed person was defined as
an individual who had accepted three jobs and left them
for reasons that could not be explained by physical handi
cap, sickness, training, education and/or dismissal from
the place of employment in the prior calendar year.
A major source of authoritative statistics related
to unemployment is prepared by the United States Department
of Labor. These categories includ: the following:
(1) workers who left one job to look for another;
(2) workers who entered the job market for the first time
or after a period of being outside the labor force, and
(3) those who were laid off or lost their jobs.
It is very difficult to find statistics that list
or enumerate those individuals who would be categorized
as chronically unemployed. To arrive at any figure that
could be classified as representing the chronically
unemployed, one would have to make inferences from the
statistics presented by the Department of Labor.
The United States Department of Labor's publica
tion Manpower Report to the President stated the following:
1. In 1970, the number of Jobless persons rose to 4.1 million on an annual average basis, up more than 1 million from 1969.
2. As a consequence, the overall unemployment rate, which has averaged 3.5 percent in 1969, also moved markedly higher in 1970, to an average of 4.9 percent.
3. The number of long-termed unemployed—those who had been jobless for 15 or more weeks— increased gradually during the year. By December, 1970, the number of such persons passed 1 million and accounted for one-fifth of total unemployment. For the year as a whole, the number of long-term unemployed averaged 660,000 an increase of 290,000 over 1969 (1971, pp. 17, 18).
These figures point to the severity of the unemploy
ment crisis which occurred in 1970 because of the ongoing
economic situation. The Department of Labor in Suffolk
County, New York, provided statistics regarding the unem
ployment situation in the local area, where the present
study was carried out. Suffolk County, which is 30 miles
east of New York City, had a population of 1,127,030 in
1970. The average number of unemployed individuals during
1970 in Suffolk County was 28,100, out of a total work
force of 413,000 individuals. The unemployed rate was
6.92 percent of the total work force.
Neither the United States Department of Labor nor
the Suffolk County Department of Labor maintain statistics
on persons defined as chronically unemployed. At the
request of this investigator the Suffolk County Department
of Labor estimated that there were 1,182 chronically unem
ployed in the county; this group represented 6.4 percent
of the total unemployed in Suffolk County in 1970.
There were numerous studies in the literature
related to the condition of unemployment; there were
relatively few existing studies concerned with chronically
uneTaployed persons. In a factorial study of the motivational
characteristics of the chronically unemployed (Lawlis,
1968), fifteen factors were isolated which significantly
discriminated a chronically unemployed group of males from
an employed group. The factors were lowered motivational
integration, anxiety, general career interest, introverted
uoubt, rebellion against parents and home, lack of assertion,
general fear, inability to deal with threat, intensified
disposition to fight, conflict with society, greater career
conflict, lack of need for affection, lowered sexual
potential, neurotic interaction with spouse, and limited
activity by self-absorption.
In a study utilizing Rotter's (1954) internal-
external control dimension. Tiffany, Cowan and Tiffany
(1970) found that chronically unemployed males perceived
greater controls from others than did those who were
regularly employed. The chronically unemployed were
significantly different from the regularly employed males,
demonstrating low self-esteem, general maladjustment, and
less control over their impulses. Few other studies
related to the personality characteristics of the chroni
cally unemployed were available in the literature.
Related Learning Disability Literature
Learning disabilities have been a perplexing problem
for many years and have been the focus of much attention
from the lay and professional public. When the literature
concerning learning disabilities is reviewed, it is
apparent that a problem of semantics exists regarding the
labels used to describe the learning disabilities syndrome.
Over fifty terms have been used to describe the syndrome.
For example, some of the commonly used labels were:
congenital word blindness (Morgan, 1896), strephosymbolia
(Orton, 1928), primary reading retardation (Rabinovitch,
Drew, DeJong, Ingram & Withey, 1954) and specific reading
disability (Eisenberg, 1966). Johnson and Myklebust (1967)
discussed the variety of descriptive terminology found in
the literature: minimal brain damage, Strauss Syndrome,
neuophrenia, perceptually handicapped, minimal brain
dysfunction syndrome, and specific dyslexia. Rabinovitch
(1956) noted fourteen such descriptive terms; among them
were: congenital word blindness, bradylexia, strepho-
symbolia, specific dyslexia, and specific reading
disability.
One probable cause of the confusion regarding
descriptive terminology can be related to the professional
orientation of a given author. Depending on whether the
author is a psychologist, an educator, a pediatrician,
a neurologist, an optometrist, or a speech pathologist,
different terminology will be utilized (Anderson, 1970).
For the purpose of the present study the definition
of learning disabilities will be that of Rabinovitch and
his associates (1956). Primary reading retardation was
defined as a two-year lag between tested reading grade
level and mental age as obtained on a performance type
intelligence test.
The etiology of learning disabilities is still
unclear and has not been verified. Various authors suggest
different causative factors, and it would appear these
causative factors are primarily a function of the individuoT
author's professional orientation.
Hallgren (1950) came to the conclusion that reading
problems were genetically based and thus inherited,
following a monohybrid autosomal dominant mode of
inheritance.
Bateman (1966) reported that Bender saw a matura-
tional lag as a causative factor in learning disabilities.
Money stated that reading disabilities are the result
of ma'uurational lag:
8
The great majority of reading disability cases will be classified not on the basis of brain pathology, but simply as representative of a lag in the functional development of the brain and nervous systems that subserve the learning of reading (Money, 1964, p. 34).
Ames (1964) suggested that the majority of high I.Q.
children formerly labeled as "under achievers" may repre
sent cases of biological immaturity. Wepman stressed the
importance of differentiating between concepts of cerebral
injury and agenesis in childhood disorders. Agenesis
was defined as the arrest or delay in the developmental
process of " . . . (a) any specific modality of input or
output or (b) the central integrative process" (Wepman,
1968, p. 135). Critchley (1968), de Hirsh (1968) and
Money (1966) have postulated a maturational developmental
lag (cerebral immaturity) as the primary cause in specific
develop.mental dyslexia and/or learning disability.
Blau (1946) believed that all reading disabilities
stemmed from emotional problems. Orton (1928) postulated
that faulty cerebral dominance was an underlying cause or
factor in dyslexia. Rabinovitch and Ingram (1962)
emphasized a multifactor approach to the underlying causes
of learning disabilities including environmental, instruc
tional, emotional, and motivational factors.
There is a great divergence of opinion concerning
the etiology of learning disabilities. The divergence
of thought leads to confusion and there appears to be
a definite need for some terminology that will adequately
cover all the etiological categories. Rabinovitch has
made an attempt to do this with his proposed terminology.
The three groups that he proposed are as follows:
1. Capacity to learn to read is intact but is utilized insufficiently for the child to achieve a reading level appropriate to his intelligence. The causative factor is exogenous, the child having a normal reading potential that has been impaired by negativism, anxiety, depression, emotional blocking, psychosis, limited schooling opportunity, or other external influences. They are diagnosed as having secondary reading retardation.
2. Capacity to learn to read is impaired by frank brain damage manifested by clear-cut neurological deficits. History usually reveals the cause of the brain injury, common agents being prenatal toxicity, brain trauma or anoxia, encephalitis, and head injury. These cases are diagnosed as brain injury with reading retardation.
3. Capacity to learn to read is impaired without definite brain damage suggested in history or neurological examination. The defect is in the ability to deal with letters and words as symbols, with resultant diminished ability to integrate the meaning-fulness of written material. The problem appears to reflect a basic disturbed pattern of neurological organization. Because the cause is biological or endogeneous, these cases are diagnosed as primary reading retardation (Rabinovitch, 1959, p. 865).
The research reported in the literature concerning
the specific manifestations of learning disabilities has
been done exclusively with school-age populations. The
manifestation and effects of learning disabilities in a**
adult population do not appear to have been studied and/or
10
researched. The probable reason for the lack of research
lies in the fact that learning disabilities have only been
recognized as a syndrome since the early 1960's. The
emphasis in practice has been on the school-age child.
Clements and Peters (1962) noted nine symptoms
of the specific manifestation of learning disabilities,
which are usually associated with learning disabilities,
though not all nine are found in any one individual. They
were: (1) a specific learning deficit, (2) perceptual
motor damage, (3) general coordination defects,
(4) hyperkinesis, (5) impulsivity, (6) emotional lability,
(7) short attention span, (8) equivocal neurological signs,
and (9) border-line abnormal electroencephlograms.
Rabinovitch (1959) noted five areas of invcsLigation
which might define the specific process disturbances found
in primary reading retardation. Fsychometrically, the
individual with primary reading retardation was depicted
as having a mean discrepancy between verbal and performance
sub-scales on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
(Wechsler, 1949), with the verbal intelligence quotient
lower than the performance scale by an average of twenty
points. Achievement testing showed a mean discrepancy of
five and one-half years between performance mental age and
reading age. Psychiatric evaluation showed that primary
reading retardation cases exhibit a number of typical
reactions, i.e., anxiety about their reading difficulties;
11
they appear to have difficulty in conceptual thinking in
such abstractions as time, size, number, and direction.
He stated that the following was found in neurological
evaluations of children with learning disabilities:
. . . right-left confusion, various extinction or inattention phenomena, cortical sensory disturbances, mixed hand-eye preferances, nonspecific motor awkwardness, dissociated dysgraphia, and speech and spelling abnormalities are all variously combined with reading retardation disturbances (Rabinovitch, 1958, p. 867).
Bell (1969), in his study of reading retardation
in a population of junior high school Caucasian and Negro
readers, delineated five underlying concepts emerging from
a factor analysis of the personality and motivational
factors of this population. First, retarded readers of
both races manifested an overall verbal deficit, which in
turn was associated v.ath poor motor performance. Second,
aggression, impulsivity and excitability influenced the
behavior of inadequate readers in both races. Third, a
negativistic attitude or lack of acquiesence to authority
was an important consideration in the reading problems of
the Caucasian readers. Fourth, low socio-economic status
and low parental education were salient determiners of
reading difficulties, particularly for the Negro readers.
Finally, passivity was found to have some association with
reading retardation in both groups.
12
In the review of the literature there appeared to
be no research available on reading retardation and/or
learning disabilities in an adult population. Nor was
there any literature that was concerned with the relation
ships of learning disabilities to success or failure in
employment. All the research that has been done in the
field of learning disabilities has been done with school-
age populations. Reports of the incidence of reading
disability vary widely from 4 to 8 percent (Eisenberg, 1966)
to 5 to 20 percent (Critchley, 1964) of the normal school
population. Does this mean that the particular manifesta
tions of primary reading retardation and/or learning
disability as found in a population of school children are
not applicable to an adult population? It would appear
that such manifestations of reading disabilities would also
be present in an adult population considering the various
etiological factors that have beer, enumerated. It would
appear that today various concerned agencies are beginning
to recognize this possibility. Anderson stated:
Rehabilitation agencies are beginning to recognize minimal brain injury (dysfunction) as a disability if it can be demonstrated that the applicant has a handicap which serves as a deterrant to full employment (Anderson, 1970, p. 117).
It is of interest that Lawlis (1968), in his research
on the chronically unemployed, found them to be less
assertive. Bell (1969) in his research found that adolescent
13
readers with reading retardation were passive. It appears
in viewing Bell's research that these adolescent readers
had a long history of discouragement as they matured to an
age when they would seek gainful employment. The continuum
of passivity from adolesence to maturity might be charac
teristic of a significant portion of the chronically
unemployed. It leads to the further question of whether
or not an adult population of chronically unemployed
individuals has some of the same personality characteristics
of an adolescent population of reading retardates. It is
recognized that the chronically unemployed may not be
homogenous and may, polarize on the dimensions studied, i.e.,
passivity and assertiveness, reading and non-reading. The
studies that are available have not explained all the
parameters of the chronically unemployed population.
Objectives of Present Study
The present investigation was exploratory in nature.
No formal hypotheses were formulated or tested. It was
felt that the populations would differ on some, if not all,
the variables selected for the study; so rather than test
specific hypotheses, it appeared more relevant to produce
hypotheses for later cross validation. In this regard
the following questions appeared to be relevant:
14
1. Does a group of chronically unemployed individ
uals differ from a group of regularly employed individuals
on the dimension of reading retardation?
2. Can the chronically unemployed be distinguished
from the regularly employed on the basis of different
personality characteristics, e.g., passivity-aggressiveness?
3. Do the chronically unemployed differ from the
regularly employed in demonstrating characteristics of
learning disability in written language, i.e., spelling,
arithmetic, syntax, mild dysgraphia, and reduced word
produc t i V i ty?
4. Do the chronically unemployed and the regularly
employed differ on the dimension of total motivation and
total motivational conflict?
CHAPTER II
METHOD
In attempting to answer the research questions which
were proposed in the introductory chapter, the present
chapter describes the population sampled, the test instru
ments utilized, and the procedures employed in examining
the subjects.
Subjects
The subjects consisted of fifty Caucasian males
who were divided into two groups of twenty-five each.
Group one included those subjects who met the criterion
of chronic unemployment; grcup two included regularly
employed males who served as a control group.
T'le subjects in the chronically unemployed group
were defined as individuals who had at least three jobs
in the calendar year preceding the date of their participa
tion in the study. The chronically unemployed subject was
one who had left three jobs for reasons other than physical
handicap, sickness, training, education, and/or dismissal.
All the subjects v>rere tested between November 1, 1971,
and April 30, 1971.
The subjects in the experimental group were selected
from the Suffolk County Departr.;ent of Labor, Hauppauge,
15
16
New York (N = 7) labor pool and patients from the Mental
Health Service, Veterans Administration Hospital, Northport,
New York (N = 18). The subjects from the Veterans Adminis
tration Mental Health Service were selected from out
patients referred for vocational assessment.
The regularly employed control subjects had retained
their positions for at least one year prior to the date
of their participation in the study. All the subjects
in this group were selected from employees of the Veterans
Administration Hospital, Northport, New York.
The subjects were limited to English speaking
Caucasians. Persons from bilingual homes were excluded
from the sample, in order to control for the effects of
language on test results. Frequently persons from bilingual
homes are at a disadvantage when required to take tests
standardized on persons not representative of minority
groups.
The subjects in the two groups were matched accord
ing to the control relevant variables of age, intelligence,
educational level, and socio-economic status. There were
no significant differences between the two groups on any
of these variables.
The subjects were considered to be matched for age,
if their chronological age was within the same age group
utilized by the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (1955),
to correct raw scores for age. The ranges utilized in the
17
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Manual (Wechsler, 1955,
pp. 77-97) are as follows:
1. Age Group: 16 - 17 years. 2. Age Group: 18 - 19 years. 3. Age Group: 20 - 24 years. 4. Age Group: 25 - 34 years. 5. Age Group: 35 - 44 years. 6. Age Group: 45 - 54 years.
7. Age Group: 5 5 - 6 4 years.
The mean age of the chronically unemployed group was
40.40 years (S.D. = 11.73), and the mean age for the
regularly employed group was 40.68 years (S.D. = 11.87).
The subjects ranged in age from 20 years to 61 years. The
age difference between the two groups was not significant.
All of the subjects were screened utilizing an
abbreviated form of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
(WAIS), (Wechsler, 1955). The WAIS was utilized to screen
out subjects who had an I.Q. of less than 80. The purpose
of the screening was to eliminate ricantally retarded persons
from the study. The subjects were matched for intelligence
utilizing the intelligence classifications as found in the
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Manual (Wechsler, 1955,
p. 20). Subjects were considered to be matched for intelli
gence if their I.Q.'s were within the same classificatory
grouping. The classificatory groups are as follows:
1. I.Q. of 130 and above. 2. I.Q. of 120 to 129. 3. I.Q. of 110 to 119. 4. I.Q. of 90 to 109. 5. I.Q. of 80 to 89.
18
The mean Full Scale I.Q. obtained for the chronically
unemployed group was 106.5 (S.D. = 10.67); the mean Full
Scale I.Q. for the regularly employed group was 107.6
(S.D. = 10.22). The range in Full Scale I.Q.'s was from
85 to 130. The Full Scale I.Q. difference between the two
groups was not significant.
A personal interview was carried out with each
subject in order to obtain demographic data regarding
education, employment history and socio-economic status.
Educational level was noted by the last completed year of
formal education. The mean educational level for the
chronically unemployed group was 12.20 years (S.D. 1.53).
The mean educational level for the regularly employed group
was 12.20 years (S.D. 1.38). Educational level ranged
from 9.0 years to 16.0 years. The difference between the
educational level of the two groups was not significant.
The McGuire-White Index of Social Status, Short
Form (1955), was employed to obtain an estimate of each
subject's social class level. The data was used in matching
pairs of subjects on the variable of social class. The
index was dependent upon a combination of ratings from
three scales; they were occupation, source of income, and
education. A copy of the form utilized to obtain the
necessary personal information for each subject may be found
in Appendix A. Three steps were required to complete the
index. First, the individual was rated on each component
19
scale (Appendix B). Second, the ratings were multiplied
by appropriate weights; and the products summed to secure
the total index score (Appendix E). Third, a table of
estimating status levels from the total index score was
employed for an approximation of the individual's probable
social status. Appendix C presents the general conversion
table utilized to achieve these approximations of social
status.
The mean socio-economic level was 46.80 (S.D. =
9.09) and 46.80 (S.D. = 6.69) for the chronically unem
ployed group and the regularly employed group respectively.
The range in socio-economic level was from 23.0 to 67.0.
The difference between the two groups in socio-economic
Isval was not significant.
All of the participants were volunteers. They
received no financial compensation for their participation
in the study. Those individuals who agreed to participate
were required to sign release forms. The form (Appendix D)
summarized the purpose of the study.
Test Instruments
The test battery consisted of four standardized
tests and a test requiring the subject to compose a story
about Card 9BM of the Thematic Apperception Test (Murray,
1943). The four standardized tests were the Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), (Wechsler, 1955), the
20
the Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT), (Jastak & Jastak,
1965), the Gates-MacGinite Reading Test (Gates-MacGinite,
1965), and the Motivational Analysis Test (MAT), (Cattell,
et al., 1964). Three of the four standardized tests were
administered according to test manual instructions. The
tests were scored and interpreted consistently with the
procedures described in the test manuals, with the excep
tion of the WAIS. An abbreviated form of the WAIS was
employed and scored according to the scoring procedures
outlined by Satz and Mogel (1963).
The WAIS has been described in detail by Wechsler
(1950) and others .(Euros, 1965). An abbreviated form of
the WAIS developed by Satz and Mogel (1963) was employed
instead of the full test. The reason for employing this
abbreviated form of the WAIS was that it allowed the
investigator to shorten the total amount of time necessary
to complete the testing of an individual subject. It was
believed that it wa.s feasible to limit the subject's
total testing time so that it would not become burdensome.
The correlations reported between the abbreviated form of
the WAIS used in the present study and the respective
WAIS I.Q.'s are as follows: Verbal I.Q., r = .99;
Performance I.Q., r = .97; and Full Scale I.Q., r = .99.
(Satz & Mogel, 1963, p. 78).
Each record was administered and scored according
to the conversions weights as presented in Table 1.
21
TABLE 1
DESIGN OF SHORT FORM SCALE, WAIS
Subtest Name Item Used Multiply by
Information Comprehension Arithmetic Similarities Digit Span Vocabulary Digit Symbol Picture Completion Block Design Picture Arrangement Object Asscrbly
Every third item Odd item only Odd item only Odd item only Unchanged Every third item Unchanged Every third item Odd item only Odd item only Odd item only
3 2 2 2 1 3 1 3 2 2 2
Source: Satz & Mogel, 1963, p. 78
The Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT), (Jastak &
Jastak, 1965), was used to determine reading-vocabulary
level, arithmetic level, and spelling level of the subjects.
The WRAT -/e? designed to measure achievement in the basic
school subjects of reading (word recognition and pronuncia
tion) , written spelling and arithmetic computation. Each
of the three subtests was divided into two levels, I and II.
Level I was designed for use with children between the ages
of 5 years 0 months and 11 years 11 months, and Level II
was designed for use with persons ranging in age from
12 years 0 months to adulthood. Level II was employed on
the arithmetic and reading grade equivalencies. Level I
was utilized to obtain spellinLj grade equivalencies because
it was anticipated that it would be more appropriate for
22
the given sample population. It was believed that the
subject's spelling levels might not be accurately ascer
tained by the more difficult Level II spelling words.
The Gates-MacGinite Reading Test, Survey E,
Form I (Gates-MacGinite, 1965) was designed for use in
grades 7 through 9. The test consisted of three parts:
Speed and Accuracy, Vocabulary and Comprehension.
The Speed and Accuracy Test provided an objective
measure of how rapidly an individual could read with under
standing. The test contained 36 short paragraphs of rela
tively uniform difficulty. Each paragraph ended in a
question or incomplete statement; a choice of four words
followed the paragraph. The subject was required to choose
the word that best answered the question or completed the
statement. The number of paragraphs completed within the
time limit (four minutes) provided a measure of speed of
reading.
The Vocabulary Test sampled the subject's reading
vocabulary. The test consisted of 50 items, each consisted
of a test word followed by five other words, one of which
was similar in meaning to the test word. The subject's
task was to choose the word that was synonymous with the
test word.
The Comprehension Test measured the subject's
abili'cy to read complete prose passages. It contained
21 passages graded in terms of difficulty of level. For
23
each paragraph the subject had to decide which answer among
five alternatives characterized the intended meaning of
the entire passage.
The Gates-MacGinite Reading Test was selected
because of its appropriateness for the sample population.
The test has grade norms ranging from a low of grade level
3.0 to a high of grade level 12.6. It was anticipated that
the range in grade level equivalencies would distinguish
average readers from retarded readers. Subjects were con
sidered to be retarded readers if their reading level was
two years below their last completed grade in high school
(grades 10-12), junior high school (grades 7-9), or
elementary school (grades 1-6).
The Motivational Analysis Test (MAT), (Cattell,
et al., 1964), is an objective, paper and pencil inventory,
considered to be a test in the sense that the subject
answers items in terms of personality characteristics. It
utilized four scores to assess integrated and unintegrated
levels of ten dynamic motivational systems. The four types
of scores were:
1. Unintegrated scores (U) which reflect id-like
motivation, which the subject wishes, unrelated to
objective reality.
2. Integrated (I) scores which reflect ego and
superego functions and were related to social reality,
experience and overt interest.
24
3. Total Motivation (M) which was a function of
U and I (U + I), which gave the individual's total dynamic
interest in a given area.
4. Conflict (C) which was a function also of
U and I (U - I). High scores in this area were indicative
of frustration and/or repression in a given area (Cattell,
et al., 1964).
The ten dynamic systems were classified into two
sub-groups, five of which were termed ergs or drives;
and the other five were termed sentiments. Table 2 presents
a brief description of these ten systems as they are
described by Cattell (1964).
The MAT was composed of 208 items; it can be
completed by normal subjects in 46 to 60 minutes. The time
limit was not adhered to in test administration because
each individual was given all the time he needed to complex.e
the instrument. The test was read orally to six subjects
who were unable to cope with the reading vocabulary level .
of the test.
The Written Story Test was quite simple to admin
ister. The subject was presented Card 9 BM of the Thematic
Apperception Test (Murray, 1943). The subject was asked
to look at the picture stimulus for two minutes. After
looking at the picture he was requested to write a story
about it. The picture was left in the subject's view
while he wrote. There were no time limits and the subject
25
TABLE 2
MAT, MOTIVATIONAL SYSTEMS
Title Symbol Brief Description
ERGS
Mating Erg
Assertiveness Erg
Fear (Escape) Erg
N^.rcism-comfprt Erg
Pugnacity-sadism Erg
SENTIx^lENTS
Self-concept Sentiment
Ma
.\s
Fr
Na
Pg
SS
Strength of the normal heterosexual or mating drive.
Strength of the drive to self-assertion, mastery and achievement.
Level of alertness to external dangers.
Level of drive toward sensuous, self-indulgent satisfactions.
Strength of destructive, hostile impulses.
Level of concern about the self-concept, social repute, and more remote rewards.
Superego Sentiment
Career Sentiment
SE Strength of development of conscience.
Ca Amount of development of interests in a career.
Sweetheart- Sw spouse Sentiment
Home-parental Ho Sentiment
Strength of attachment to spouse or sweetheart
Strength of attitudes attaching to the parental home (p. 3).
26
was given no instructions other than to produce the best
story that he could write.
The purpose of the Written Story Test was to evalu
ate deficits in the use of written language. Myklebust's
scoring system contained in the Myklebust Picture Story
Test (Myklebust, 1965) was utilized. Myklebust evaluated
a subject's writing in the three areas of written produc
tivity, correctness, and sentence meaning. Productivity
was measured in three ways: (1) the total number of words
in the written paragraph; (2) the total number of sentences
in the written paragraph; and (3) the total number of words
per sentence. Correctness of expression was measured by
a syntax scale. The scale measured the accuracy of word
usage, word endings and punctuation. The number of errors
committed was a function of the opportunity to make them;
thus, syntax errors were scored as a quotient. The quotient
was derived by dividing the number of errors by total words
and punctuation units. An additonal score was derived
from the abstract-concrete level of each story. This
score was obtained by comparing a story with examples
provided by Myklebust. There were five levels of abstrac
tion. The most concrete level was reflected in the naming
of objects in the picture. The most complex or abstract
level was indicated by using objects in the picture as a
starting point for developing a story, complete with a
plot containing a past, present, and future. Raw scores
27
were used since the norm tables provided by Myklebust were
not applicable to an adult population.
Procedure
The experimental subjects were interviewed by the
author at the Suffolk County Department of Labor Office,
Hauppauge, New York, and at the Veterans Administration
Hospital, Northport, New York. First, it was ascertained
if their employment history met the standard of being
chronically unemployed individuals. If their employment
history reflected the probability of chronic unemployment,
the study was briefly explained to them; and they were
asked to participate. The persons who volunteered made an
appointment to be tested at a later date in the author's
office. Veterans Administration Hospital, Northport, New
York. The- appointment v/as made in order to insure that
there woujc be a sufficient amount of time available to
complete the testing. The same procedure was followed in
obtaining the regularly employed control subjects from
among the employees of the Veterans Administration Hospital,
Northport, New York. Each participant was individually
tested in the author's office.
The firs step in the evaluation procedure was to
obtain the information necessary to complete the McGuire-
White Index of Social Status (1955). The information
necessary to match the two groups on the control relevant
28
variables of age and educational level. A copy of the form
utilized to obtain this information is found in Appendix A.
The second step in the testing procedure was to
administer an abbreviated form of the WAIS. The subject
was then administered the WRAT. Following the completion
of the WRAT the subject was administered the Gates-
MacGinite Reading Test.
At this point in the testing procedure the subject
was allowed to relax for ten minutes so that he would not
become overtired. On the completion of the ten minutes
the subject was administered the MAT. The final test
administered v/as the Written Story Test.
The approximate time required to complete each
test was as follows:
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 40 minutes. Wide Range Achievement Test 25 minutes. Gc'tes-MacGinite Reading Test 45 minutes. Motivational AJialysis Test 50 minutes. Written Story Test 10 minutes.
The dependent variables on each of the various tests
and subtests were the raw scores, or in the case of the
WAIS, the raw score corrected for age. Raw scores were
utilized since the norm tables published for the different
tests express the scores in percentile ranks which are not
amenable to further statistical treatment. The tests and
the variables obtained from each are shown in Table 3.
In all, 7 2 dependent variables were obtained.
29
TABLE 3
PSYCHOMETRIC TESTS AND VARIABLES STUDIED
Tests and Subtests Number of Variables
Employment score; one indicated chronically 1 unemployed subjects, and two indicated employed control subjects.
Chronological Age 1
Years of Formal Schooling 1
Socio-Economic Status 1
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 14 Information Comprehension Arithmetic Similarities Digit Span Vocabulary Digit Symbol Picture Completion Block Design Picture Arrangement Object Assembly Verbal Subscale Performance Subscale Full Scale Total
Wide Range Achievement Test 3 Reading Subtest Arithmetic Subtest Spelling Subtest
Gates-MacGinite Reading Test 4 Speed and Accuracy, Number Attempted Speed and Accuracy, Number Correct Vocabulary Comprehension
30
TABLE 3—Continued
Tests and Subtests Number of Variables
Motivational Analysis Test 42 Career, Unintegrated Sentiment Career, Integrated Sentiment Career, Total Sentiment Career, Conflict Sentiment Home-parental, Unintegrated Sentiment Home-parental, Integrated Sentiment Home-parental, Total Sentiment Home-parental, Conflict Sentiment Fear, Unintegrated Erg Fear, Integrated Erg Fear, Total Erg Fear, Conflict Erg Narcism-comfort, Unintegrated Erg Narcism-comfort, Integrated Erg Narcism-comfort, Total Erg Narcism-comfort, Conflict Erg Superego, Unintegrated Erg Superego, Integrated Erg Superego, Total Erg Superego, Conflict Erg Self-sentiment, Unintegrated Self-sentiment. Integrated Self-sentiment. Total Self-sentiment. Conflict Mating, Unintegrated Erg Mating, Integrated Erg Mating, Total Erg Mating, Conflict Erg Pugnacity-sadism, Unintegrated Erg Pugnacity-sadism. Integrated Erg Pugnacity-sadism. Total Erg Pugnacity-sadism, Conflict Erg Assertiveness, Unintegrated Erg Assertiveness, Integrated Erg Assertiveness, Total Erg Assertiveness, Conflict Erg Sweetheart-spouse, Unintegrated Sentiment Sweetheart-spouse. Integrated Sentiment Sweetheart-spouse. Total Sentiment Sweetheart-spouse. Conflict Sentiment Total Integrated Motivation Total Conflict
31
TABLE 3—Continued
Tests and Subtests Number of Variables
Written Story Test Total Words Total Sentences Total words per sentence Syntax Quotient Abstract-Concrete Scale
Total 72
CHAPTER III
RESULTS
The purpose of the study was to investigate if a
group of chronically unemployed individuals could be dis
tinguished from a group of regularly employed individuals
on a number of dimensions. The basic questions can be
summarized as follows. One, can chronically unemployv=d
subjects be distinguished from regularly employed subjects
on the dimension of reading retardation? Two, do chroni
cally unemployed subjects de.monstrate spelling deficits,
arithmetic deficits, syntax problems, and reduced produc
tivity in written language, characteristic of adolescents
with learning disability? Three, do chronically uiiCiiiployed
subjects demonstrate similar personality characteristics,
i.e., passivity-aggressiveness, at: adolescents with reading
retardation and/or learning disability? Four, can chroni
cally unemployed subjects be distinguished from regularly
employed subjects on the dimension of total motivation and
total motivational conflict as measured by the MAT? It
was anticipated that the experimental group of chronically
unemployed subjects could be distinguished from the control
group of regularly employed subjects on all the above
dimensions.
The present chapter presents and interprets the
results of the statistical procedures utilized in answering
32
33
the questions under investigation. Descriptive statistics
were obtained on all the variables. The Student t test
was computed on all the variables to determine if signifi
cant differences existed between the experimental and
control group on each of the variables under investigation.
All analyses were conducted at the Yale University
Computer Center, New Haven, Connecticut, under the auspices
of the Veterans Administration, Eastern Research Center.
The library programs available through the Veterans
Administration Eastern Research Center were utilized.
General Results
The Means, Standard Deviations, and t values for
the experimental group and the control group on tlie speed,
accuracy, vocabulary and comprehension subtests of the
Gates-MacGinite Reading Test (Gates-MacGinite, 1965) are
reported in Table 4. There were no significant differ
ences between the regularly employed group and the chroni
cally unemployed group on any of the subtests of the Gates-
MacGinite Reading Test.
The Means, Standard Deviations, and t values for
the chronically unemployed group and the regularly employed
group for the reading, spelling, and arithmetic subtests
of the WRAT are reported in Table 5. Inspection of the
results reveals no significant differences between the
regularly employed group and the chronically unemployed
34
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WRAT. However, the regularly employed group obtained
significantly higher scores than the chronically unem
ployed group on the arithmetic subtest (t = 2.065, 2- <.05).
The performance of the regularly employed group
and the chronically unemployed group on the Written Story
Test is reported in Table 6. Significant differences did
exist between the regularly employed group and the chroni
cally unemployed group for total word productivity; the
regularly employed group scored significantly higher in
total written word production, than the chronically unem
ployed group (t = 2.49, p. <.05). Significant differences
were also found to exist between the regularly employed
group and the chronically unemployed group on the d? mension
of number of sentences produced. The regularly employed
group scored significantly higher chan the chronically
unemployed group in total sentence productivity
(t = 3.40, p. <.01).
The Means, Standard Deviations, and t values for
the regularly employed group and the chronically unemployed
group on the MAT are reported in Table 7. The regularly
employed group had significantly higher scores than the
chronically unemployed group on the unintegrated scores
and total motivational scores of the narcism-comfort erg,
personality variable (t = 2.92, p. <.01 and t = 3.08,
p.< .01, respectively). The chronically unemployed group
37
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42
received a higher conflict score on the assertiveness
conflict erg (t = 2.56, p. <.01) than the regularly
employed group. In addition, the chronically unemployed
group received a significantly higher total motivational
conflict score than did the regularly employed group
(t. = 2.41, p. <^.05) . Generally there were no significant
differences between the regularly employed group and the
chronically unemployed group on the personality variables
as defined by the MAT.
Specific statistical Interpretations
Wilkinson (1951) and Sakoda, et, al. (1954) report:
Whenever a large group of statistics is collected in the 'blind analysis' type of experiment, the number of significant statistics should be tect^'5. by the binomial expansion to determine if that number is sufficiently great to indicate a non-chance occurence (Wilkinson, 1951, pp. 156, 157).
Sakoda, et al,. (1954) have published tables for p. at .05
and .01 levels showing the probability of obtaining n or
more significant statistics out of N calculated statistics.
The results of the present study must be examined
to determine if the significant results obtained at the
p. <.05 and p.<.01 levels were not a function of chance
probability and not significant. In analyzing the present
study's results which achieved significance at the p. <.05
level, utilizing the published tables (Sakoda, ejt al. ,
1954, p. 173), it appeared these significant results are
43
due to chance at the .50 percent level. Thus, some of the
results at the g. <.05 level of significance must be
attributed to chance .50 percent of the time. One cannot
categorically state that all the results at p. <.05 level
occurred by chance.
The results obtained in the study at the p. <.01
level were significant at the .01 percent level (Sakoda,
et al., 154, p. 174). Thus, the results obtained at the
jg. <.01 level are significant and not a function of chance
occurrence.
Also, the stringent matching of the experimental
chronically unemployed subjects with regularly employed
control subjects on the confounding variables of age,
intelligence, educational level, and socio-economic status
adds weight to the validity of the significant results.
These confounding variables were controlled for and reduceo
the probability of spurious chance results occurring
because of these variables.
CHAPTER IV
DISCUSSION
The purpose of the present chapter is to discuss
the results of the study in terms of the cjuestions raised
in Chapter I. The findings of the study will be integrated
with the results derived from other research in the field
of chronic unemployment and the relationship of reading
retardation to chronic unemployment. The implications of
the study will be discussed in relationship to existing
vocational planning and placement services. Finally, sug
gestions for further research will be discussed.
From the investigation of the first question, it
was sho'/ n that a group of chronically unemployed individuals
could not be differentiated from a group of regularly
employed incividuals on the dimensions of reading retarda
tion. The instruments utilized to examine this dimension,
i.e., the Wide Range Achievement Test (Jastak & Jastak,
1964) and the Gates-MacGinite Reading Test (Gates-MacGinite,
1965), revealed no significant differences between the two
groups. The two groups were not significantly different
in the areas of vocabulary, speed and accuracy of reading,
nor in comprehension. Thus, reading retardation does not
appear to have a causitive relationship to the condition
of chronic unemployment.
44
45
The answer to the second question which was con
cerned with the problem of whether chronically unemployed
persons could be distinguished from regularly employed
persons on the basis of personality characteristics proved
to be quite complicated. The two groups were measured in
terms of ten personality variables from the Motivational
Analysis Test (Cattell, et al., 1964). Out of the ten
characteristics, the chronically unemployed men were shown
to be significantly higher than the regularly employed
men on the assertiveness conflict di.mensiori. The chroni
cally unemployed men tended to have more frustrated needs
for wealth and status symbols, which appeared to lead them
into a more aggressive approach to life.
It had been anticipated that the chronically unem
ployed men would demonstrate the personality characteristic
of passivity seen in adolescents ^ith learning disabilities.
The findings of the study did not ?;upport this expectation.
Rather, the unemployed appeared to be more assertive instead
of less assertive. The author's clinical observation of
the chronically unemployed group, during the testing sessions,
was that they tended to be more manipulative and utilized
sociopathic approaches to problem solving. Their aggresive-
ness appeared to be manifested through their manipulative
manner.
The regularly employed persons appeared to have
higher unsatisfied basic needs for comfort than the
46
chronically unemployed persons. As defined by Cattell
(1964), comfort referred to the primitive creature needs
and a lack of satisfaction of the fulfillment of these
needs. The unsatisfied basic needs were reflected in the
significantly higher scores achieved by the regularly
employed persons on the unintegrated and conflict scores
on the narcism-comfort dimension as measured by the MAT.
No significant differences existed between the chronically
unemployed group and the regularly employed group on the
other eight personality characteristics of the MAT (career
sentiment, home-parental sentiment, fear erg, pugnacity-
sadism erg, self-concept sentiment, superego sentiment,
mating erg, and sweetheart-spouse sentiment).
Question three concerned the differences between
the chronically unemployed group and the regularly employed
group in terms of their capacity to produce written langua' e.
The two groups were compared on the dimensions of spelling,
arithmetic, syntax, dysgraphia and productivity. The
regularly employed group scored significantly higher than
the chronically unemployed group on arithmetic computation
and total written word productivity at the p. <.05 level
of significance. The significance of these two findings
might be a result of chance probability at 50 percent level.
That is, the possibility exists that these findings would
have occurred 50 percent of the time by chance alone as
previously discussed in Chapter III. The regularly employed
47
group scored significantly higher than the chronically
unemployed group on total written sentence productivity.
The significance of this finding was at the £. <.01 level
of significance. Thus, it was a significant finding as
previously discussed in Chapter III. The results do point
to a significant difference between the two groups in the
area of written productivity, which was possibly a function
of lowered positive motivatiuiial potential in the chroni
cally unemployed group. There were no significant differences
between the two groups in terms of spelling, syntax and
mild dysgraphia.
The investigation of cjuestion four concerning the
differences between the chronically unemployed group and
the regularly employed group on the dimension of total
motivation and total motivational conflict suggested that
the former had significantly higher total motivational con
flict than tne regularly employed group. Again it should
be emphasized that this finding might have been a function
of chance probability discussed in Chapter III. It would
appear that the chronically unemployed individual experi
enced a high level of frustration and inner conflict. The
conflict may not be manifested in his overt behavior, but
it might reflect the amount of energy utilized in dealing
with the internal conflict he experienced. Thus, the
chronically unemployed individiial possibly was lacking in
energy for investment in employment-directed behavior.
48
No significant difference was found between the two groups
on the dimension of total motivation.
In the survey of the literature there appeared to
be no research available on reading retardation and/or
learning disabilities in an adult population. Nor was
there any learning disability literature concerned with
individuals categorized as chronically unemployed. The
literature in the area of unemployment deals almost exclu
sively with the demographic chracteristies of the unem
ployed. In all of these studies there was an apparent
vagueness in defining the meaning of unemployment. There
was a conspicuous lack in the literature concerning studies
dealing with the causative factors of chronic unemployment,
such as personality factors. Only two studies appear to
exist which are relevant to the present study. Tiffany,
Cowan, ann Tiffany (1970) in their book. The Unemployed,
report a study dealing with chronic unemployment and
personality variables. They found that the chronically
unemployed had less control over their impulses. For the
most part the finding of the present study that the
chronically unemployed group demonstrate higher aggressive
ness than the regularly employed group can be interpreted
as being consistent with these findings.
In a study by Lawlis (1968), many of the personality
variables under investigation -.rere the same as those in the
present study. The present findings revealed that the
49
chronically unemployed group had lowered narcism-comfort
than the regularly employed group and that the chronically
unemployed group had higher total motivational conflict
than the regularly employed group. These findings were
consistent with those of Lawlis.
However, there was also an inconsistency between
the findings of the present study and those reported by
Lawlis. He found the chronically unemployed group scored
significantly higher than the regularly employed group on
the characteristics of pugnacity-sadism and career sentiment
The regularly employed group was also significantly higher
than the chronically unemployed group on the personality
characteristics of self-esteem, total motivation and
assertiveness. In contrast, the present results suggested
the chronically unemployed group was significantly higher
than the regularly employed group on the assertiveness
dimension. No significant differences existed between the
two groups on the personality characteristics of pugnacity-
sadism, self-esteem, career sentiment, and total motivation.
There are several possible explanations for the
inconsistence between Lawlis' findings and those of the
present study. The subject sample for Lawlis' study con
sisted of three ethnic groups: Caucasian, Negro, and
Mexican-American, as contrasted to the present study's
subject sample which consisted solely of Caucasians. If
the inconsistency of the results of these two studies can
50
be attributed to the subject sample differences, then it
would be reasonable to assume that ethnic differences are
a factor in the personality characteristics of the chroni
cally unemployed.
Another possible explanation for the inconsistency
of these two studies in terms of subject differences was
in the area of subject selection. Lawlis' subject sample
was .selected from the geographical area of West Texas.
The subjects for the sample in the present study were
selected from the geographical area of suburban New York
City, New York. If the inconsistency between the two studies
was due to the difference in subject selection, then it is
possible that geographical region is an important factor
in what defines and/or differentiates the chronically
unemployed from the regularly employed. In addition, Lawlis
had paid subjects while the present study utilized volunteer
subjects. Inferentially, the volunteer subject might be
more motivated than the paid subject. It would appear that
a chronically unemployed individual who was paid to partici
pate might be lacking in positive motivation regarding
participation in the study. The volunteer subject possibly
could be more motivated because he was participating with
inner directed motives versus the possibly externally
directed paid subject.
Tiffany, Cowan, and Tiffany (1970) report that the
chronically unemployed group can be divided into two
51
sub-groups. One group was dependent on public agencies
for assistance in finding employment and experienced anxiety
and passivity. The second group was more independent,
rebellious and sought employment independently. The
possibility exists that Lawlis studied the first group
who demonstrated passivity, lack of aggressiveness and
possibly alcoholism. If the inconsistency between the two
studies can be attributed to this sub-group difference
reported by Tiffany, then the differences between the two
studies can be understocxl more readily.
The differences between the findings of Lawlis'
study and the present study might also be a function of
the definition of the chronically unemployed group utilized
by the two investigators. Lawlis defined the chronically
unemployed group as having six jobs in the last six months,
whereas the present investigator defined the chronically
unemploye<l aj having three jobs in the last calendar year.
If these two classifications are different enough to
establish two significantly different groups, then the
differences in findings between the two studies could be
easily understood.
The findings of the present study have their greatest
implications in the area of employment-services which deal
with the condition of chronic unemployment. The present
employment-services dealing with chronic unemployment appear
to have certain preconceived ideas concerning the nature
52
of the chronically unemployed group. The employment-
service appears to be based on certain commonly accepted
descriptions of the nature of a chronically unemployed
population. For the most part the chronically unemployed,
as a group, are seen as having lowered intellectual func
tioning. In turn this is often cited as a causative factor
for the lack of job stability. The labeling of the chroni
cally unemployed as having lowered intellectual functioning
can lead to the assumption that they are incapable of
handling higher level jobs. The chronically unemployed
group is considered more capable of handling menial tasks.
When there is no consistent pattern of employment even
for menial jobs this deviant behavior is explained crudely
in terms of "not having the intellectual capacity" to
succeed at a certain type of work.
In addition, chronically unemployed persons usually
accjuire the label "lazy," often applied in a derrogatory
manner. Those individuals who demonstrate an unstable
work history are often considered lazy with the typical
pattern of behavior being a by-product of their lack of
motivation. Unfortunately the labeling of the chronically
unemployed group as unintelligent and lazy has not been
founded on any empirical evidence. Instead, they are
accjuired prejudices which have developed over time.
The findings of the present study showed that these
common labels of the chronically unemployed individuals
53
to be grossly inaccurate. Frequently the chronically
unemployed are labeled as having lowered intellectual
capacity, learning deficits and minimal skills. The
present findings revealed that no learning disability was
apparent in the chronically unemployed group. Although,
in fact, it may be true that the chronically unemployed
individuals have less knowledge and skills in certain areas,
it is unrealistic to assume that the lack of knowledge and
skills was caused by learning disabilities alone. In
fact, the results revealed that the chronically unemployed
demonstrated no gross indications of learning disability
and/or reading retardation. Similarly the common references
to laziness that usually are applied to chronically unem
ployed persons has been shown to be unjustified. On the
basis of analysis of personality factors, chronically
unemployed individuals appeared to have the same level of
motivation as the regularly employed.
Certain personality differences do exist between
the chronically unemployed individuals and the regularly
employed individuals. Essentially it was found that
chronically unemployed individuals have frustrated needs
for satisfaction. The chronically unemployed, regardless
of the type of job they might obtain (wealth or status) ,
cannot achieve a sense of satisfaction from the work. The
probable cause for this frustrated satisfaction was the
setting of unrealistic goals. The unrealistic goals can
54
never be attained regardless of the status associated with
the work or the wealth accjuired by the work. As a result,
any work in which this type person engages, regardless of
its nature, was not rewarding in the sense that it allowed
the individual to attain his unrealistic goals. In order
to eliminate this frustrating situation the chronically
unemployed individual withdrew from the world of work.
Another personality factor apparent in the chroni
cally unemployed individual was the existence of internal
conflict. The findings of the present study show that the
chronically unemployed individuals must invest great energy
expenditures in dealing with the internal conflict experi
enced. The finding, in effect, meant the chronically
unemployed individual see themselves as having a more
important and threatening problem than unemployment. The
internal conflict may become so great that concern over
matters that are not directly related to this conflict
becomes irrelevant.
Understanding of the factors associated with chronic
unemployment is of extreme importance in the establishment
of realistic and effective rehabilitation programs. Pre
sently, the existing efforts for remedying the unemployment
situation are attempted with the common prejudice view of
the unemployed. On the basis of characterizing the unem
ployed as lazy and unable to acquire more knowledge and
skills, the employment-services developed their services
55
for the chronically unemployed. For the most part the
employment-services extended to the chronically unemployed
consisted of job placement. Very little effort has been
extended in the direction of teaching and training indi
viduals in new skills commensurate with their potential
learning abilities. No attempt has been made by these
agencies to assess personality problems in the chronically
unemployed individual. It was generally assumed that
either these personality problems were nonexistent or that
they were not a factor in the condition of chronic unem
ployment. However, as revealed by the present study,
personality in terms of inner conflict was very much a
factor in unemployment. As previously mentioned it would
be unrealistic to expect regular employment from an indi
vidual whose internal conflict was so great that employment
became an irrelevant factor. Therefore, prior to any
training or job placement it is necessary to first determine
if such internal conflicts exist and second to alleviate
them through some type of counseling or treatment if in
fact such conditions do exist. This in part could account
for the lack of success which can be attributed to the
present programs which were designed to alleviate the
condition of unemployment. Certainly it is unrealistic
to expect a person with extreme inner conflict to success
fully participate in regular employment.
56
Aside from the issue of inner conflict the employ
ment agency does not account for the potential ability in
the chronically unemployed person. Based on the common
concept that the chronically unemployed are not able to
gain additional knowledge of skills, employment services
usually select job placements for these individuals on the
basis of their present status. Such practices can prove
to be extremely detrimental to the client because they can
further frustrate his needs for social status, wealth,
and job satisfaction. As shown by the present study,
learning disability was not necessarily associated with
chronic unemployment. A more positive rehabilitation pro
gram for the chronically unemployed would be to first assess
learning ability and potential, second to evaluate interest,
third to supply training and education, and fourth to
select job placement on the basis of realistic definitions
of work capacity. In this way the final selected placement
would be more in line with the client's realistic capacities
and interests. Therefore, more job satisfaction might be
generated, which in turn would increase the probability of
regular employment.
In order to establish the efficacy of new programs
developed similarly to the previously proposed program
further research is warranted. First, studies similar in
design to the present study, with the inclusion of cultural
background, I.Q., geographical area, and sex, should be
57
undertaken in order to more firmly establish all the
relevant factors associated with the condition of chronic
unemployment.
In an attempt to establish a base line of effi
ciency of the present employment services, several investi
gations of the effectiveness of these present services
should be attempted. The findings revealed by these studies
would establish a basis of comparison for new programs.
On the basis of the findings of the present study
further research is suggested in the area of internal
conflict as a major cause of chronic unemployment. The
purpose of the research should be to first investigate the
unemployment record and the occurrence of internal conflict
in those individuals counseled and placed by employment
services. Secondly, a counseling program should be designed
to deal with the internal conflict of these individuals.
Employment stability should then be examined again in order
to determine the efficiency or efficacy of counseling with
the chronically unemployed in the new program.
As suggested by the implications of the present
study, rehabilitation programs for the chronically unem
ployed should include an assessment of potential learning
abilities and interests in order to establish a realistic
training program for each individual. The effectiveness
of such programs certainly warrants further investigation.
Research with these programs would investigate regularity
58
of employment before and after such a program has been
applied.
Unemployment in the United States is a serious
problem which has gained in magnitude within recent years.
Surprisingly there has been relatively little effort in
the area of applied research of the chronically unemployed
group. Existing government programs for the chronically
uneirployed for the most part have not been based on
empirical research. Relatively few studies have dealt with
the issues of their efficiency. No serious attempts have
been made to improve the efficiency of the existing system
by altering the aims and designs of the programs. The
present study was a modest attempt in a relatively naive
area. The findings certainly suggest that personality
factors may be an underlying cause for unemployment.
Although the need for further research is realized, the
suggestion for more realistic rehabilitation employment
programs for the chronically unemployed should be considered
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Unemployment in the United States has been and is
presently one of the great social problems with which our
society must cope. There appears to be much concern
regarding the causes of unemployment and the inter
relationships of these causes.
The total unemployed group contains a smaller
group that could be categorized as being chronically
unemployed. The chronically unemployed individual is one
who works for a couple of days and cjuits the job for no
apparent reason, such as sickness, physical handicap,
ond/or lack of training.
The present study was basically concerned with
cjuestions concerning a group of chronically unemployed
persons. The chronically unemployed person is generally
considered to have a handicap by virtue of his apparent .
inability to function on a job with a reasonable degree
of stability. The present study attempted to determine
whether chronically unemployed individuals might not
experience reading retardation and/or learning disabilities,
which hindered their ability to work. Concurrent with the
possible learning disability, did a group of chronically unem
ployed individuals demonstrate personality characteristics
59
60
similar to adolescents with learning disability, i.e.,
passivity-aggressiveness? Also, did the chronically unem
ployed persons demonstrate characteristics of learning
disability in written language, e.g., deficits in spelling,
deficits in arithmetic, deficits in syntax usage, mild
dysgraphia, and reduced word productivity? Finally, did
the chronically unemployed person differ from a regularly
employed person on the dimensions of total motivation and
total motivational conflict as defined by the Motivational
Analysis Test.
The study involved a total of 50 subjects, 25
regularly employed control subjects, and 25 chronically
unemployed experimental subjects. The chronically unem
ployed individual was one who had at least three jots in
the calendar year preceding the date of his participation
in the study. The unemployed individual was one who had
left three jobs for reasons other than physical handicap,
sickness, training, education, and/or dismissal from the
place of employment. The regularly employed individual
had retained his position for at least one year prior to
his participation in the study. The subjects were male
Caucasians from homes in which English was the only language
spoken. The chronically unemployed experimental group was
matched with the regularly employed control group on the
control relevant variables of age, intelligence, total years
of formal education completed, and socio-economic status.
61
The subjects were all volunteers. The instruments utilized
to answer the research cjuestions were the Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale, the Wide Range Achievement Test, the
Gates-MacGinite Reading Test, the Motivational Analysis
Test, and the Written Story Test.
The statistical procedures utilized in analyzing
the data was the Student t test of significance for each
of the dependent variables. It was found that the statis
tical results obtained at the p.< .05 level might have
been a function of chance probability at the 50 percent
level, based on the ratio of significant results obtained
to the number of statistics computed. The results obtained
at the p. <.05 level cannot be categorically assumed to be
spurious for there was a 50 percent chance that they were
actually significant. The results obtained at the p.<.01
level are validly significant at the 01 percent level and
did not o-:cur by chance.
The results indicated there were no significant
differences between the regularly employed group and the
chronically unemployed group on the dimension of reading
retardation and/or learning disabilities. The results did
indicate that the regularly employed group obtained possibly
significantly higher arithmetic scores than did the
chronically unemployed (p.<;.05). Significant differences
also existed between the reguli^rly employed group and the
chronically unemployed group for total word productivity
62
(fi.<.05) and total written sentence productivity (p. <.01).
The regularly employed group was significantly higher in
written productivity than the chronically unemployed group.
The regularly employed group had significantly
higher scores than the chronically unemployed group on the
unintegrated scores and total motivational scores on the
narcism-comfort erg personality variable as measured by
the MAT (p. <.01 and p. <.01 respectively). It would appear
that the regularly employed individuals appeared to have
unsatisfied basic needs for comfort.
The chronically unemployed group received a higher
conflict score than the regularly employed group for the
assertiveness personality variable as measured by the MAT
(E < . 0 1 ) . The chronically unemployed group tended to
have more frustrated needs for wealth and status symbols,
which appeared to lead to a more aggressive approach to
life. The finding of aggressiveness in the chronically
unemployed group was not anticipated; it was anticipatecl
that they would demonstrate passivity similar to adolescents
with learning disabilities.
Finally, the chronically unemployed group received
a significantly higher total motivational conflict score
than did the regularly employed group (p.<.05). The
significance of this finding might be attributed to chance
as dic^cussed previously, but it cannot be categorically
attributed to chance. Thus, it would appear that
63
chronically unemployed individuals experience a high level
of frustration and inner conflict. Dynamically this inner
conflict possibly prevents them from entering permanently
into gainful employment.
Several suggestions were made relative to further
studies. The suggested studies include partial replication
of the present study including cultural background, geo
graphical areas, I.Q., and sex. Further possible investi
gations of present employment services would be accomplished
in order to establish a basis of comparison for new programs
Counseling and/or treatment programs should be established
to deal with the empirically founded inner conflict in the
chronically unemployed group. The counseling and/or
treatment programs could then be followed by post counseling
and/or treatment evaluation to determine if the programs
positively affected later employment stability.
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Rabinovitch, R. Reading and learning disabilities. In Arieti, S. (Ed.), American handbook of psychiatry. . New York: Basic Books, 1959, 857-869.
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67
Roswell, F. & Natchez, G. Reading di.gabilitv: diacinnc;i« and treatment. New York: Basic Books, 1964.
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fle
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Wolfbein, S. L. Employment, unemployment and public policy. New York: Random House, 1965.
APPENDIX
A. Personal Information Questionnaire
B. McGuire-White Index of Social Status
C. McGuire-White Index of Social Status: General Conversion Table
D. Employment Research Waiver Form
E. McGuire-White Index of Social Status: Conversion Weights
69
70
APPENDIX A: PERSONAL INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE
EMPLOYMENT RESEARCH PROJECT;
RE: SUBJECT DATA.
NAME:
AGE:
DATE OF BIRTH:
SUBJECT'S USUAL OCCUPATION;
SUBJECT'S SOURCE OF INCOME:
SUBJECT'S EDUCATION;
FATHER'S OCCUPATION:
FATHER'S SOURCE OF INCOME;
FATHER'S EDUCATION:
DATE:
APPENDIX B: ^CGUIRE-WHITE INDEX OF SOCIAL STATUS
TABLE B-1
McGuire-White: Occupation, Levels & Kinds
71
Rate Professionals Proprietors Businessmen White Collar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Law^'ers, judge, physician, engineer, professor, school supt., et, al_.
High School teacher, librarians, others with 4-year degree.
Grade school teacher, registered r.urse, minister without 4-year deg.
Large business valued at $100,000 or more depending on community.
Businesses valued at $50,000 to $100,000.
Business or equity valued from $10,000 to $50,000.
Business or equity valued from $5,000 to $10,000.
Business or equity valued from $2,000 to $5,000.
Business or equity valued at less than $2,000.
Top executives; Presidents of corporations, banks, etc.
Asst. Office & deot. manager or supervisors.
Managers of small branches or buyers & salesmen of known mechdse.
CPA; editor of newspapor, magazine; executive secretary of status organ.
Accountant; insurance, real estate stock salesman; editorial writers.
Bsnk clerks, auto salesmen, postal clerks, RP. or Tel agent or suprvsr.
(Stenographers, bookkeeper; ticket agent, sales people m dept. stores, et al.)
(Dime store clerks, grocery cler.'.?, telephone & beauty operators, et al.)
(Semi-skilled factory & production workers, et al.)
•Reputed Lawbreakers"
72
TABLE D-1—Continued
Rate Blue Collar Service Farm People
2.
Gentleman Farmer or land owners who do not supervise directly their property.
Land operators v/ho supervise proparties & have an active urban life.
3.
5.
Small Contractors who work or supervises his Jobs.
Foreman; master carpenter, electrician, et al .; RR engineer.
Apprentice to skilled trades r epa i rne n; '\ea. skilled v.'orkers.
(Semi-skilled factory and production workers; assistants to skilled trcde; warehDUse.T.c"; watchrrer.) .
(H avy labor; odd job men; mine or mil hands, unskilled workers.)
Police Capt., tailor, RR cond., watchmaker.
Policemen; barbers; practical nurse; brakcman.
Taxi ti truck drivers; waiter; waitress, gas station attendant.
Doaiestic help; busboy; scrubwoman; janitor.
Farm owners with "hired help" operators of leased property who supervise.
Small landowner; operators of rented property hiring "hands."
Tenants on good farms; foremen; .ovvTiers of farms v'lio "hire out."
Sharecroppers; established farm laborers; subs'ce farmers.
Migrant workers "squatters & nesters.
73
TABLE B-2
McGuire-White
Rate Source of Income
1. Inherited saving and investments; "old money" reputed to provide basic income.
2. Earned wealth; "new money" has provided "transferable' investment income.
3. Profits, fees, royalties, includes executives who receive a "share of the profit."
4. Salary, commissions, regular income aid on monthly or yearly basis.
5. Wages on hourly basis; piece work; weekly checks as distinguished from monthly.
6. Income from "odd jobs" or private relief; "share-cropping" or seasonal work.
7. Public relief or charity; non-respectable incomes (reputation).
74
TABLE B-3
McGuire-White
Rate Educational Attainment
1. Completed appropriate graduate work for a recognized profession, at highest level; graduate of a generally recognized, high status, four year college.
2. Graduate from a four year college, university, or professional school with a recognized bachelor's degree, including four-year teacher colleges.
3. Attended college or university for two or more years; junior college graduate; teacher education from normal school; R.N. from a nursing school.
4. Graduate from a high school or completed equivalent secondary education, includes various kinds of "post-high" business education or trade school study.
»
5. Attended high school, completed grade nine, but did not graduate from high school; for persons born prior to 1900, grades four to seven would be equivalent.
6. Completed grade eight but did not attend beyond grade nine; for persons born prior to 1900, grades four to seven would be equivalent.
7. Left elementary or junior high school before completing grade eight; for persons born prior to 1900, no education or attendance to grade three.
APPENDIX C:
75
MCGUIRE-WHITE INDEX OF SOCIAL STATUS: GENERAL CONVERSION TABLE
McGuire-White General Conversion Table
For Status Indices
Index Score Relative Status Level Social Class prediction
12 13-17 10-22
A+ A A-
Upper Class
23-28-33-
38-42-47-
52-57-62-
67-72-76-
-27 -32 -37
-41 -46 -51
-56 -61 -66
-71 -75 -84
B+ B B-
C+ C C-
D+ D D-
E+ E E-
Upper-
Lower-
Upper-
Lower-
-xMiddle
-Middle
-Lower
-Lower
76
APPENDIX D: EMPLOYER RESEARCH WAIVER FORM
EMPLOYMENT RESEARCH WAIVER FORM:
I hereby agree to voluntarily and without external
coercion, participate in the employment research project
being conducted by Mr. Raymond J. Condren. It is under
stood by me that all information obtained thru this
research will be confidential and privileged. It is
further understood that all information obtained will be
used and only used in an anonymous manner for purposes
of this research. The names of individuals participating
will be divulged to no one.
Signed
Date
77
APPENDIX E: MCGUIRE-WHITE INDEX OF SOCIAL STATUS: CONVERSION WEIGHTS
McGuire-White: Conversion Weights
©...Occupation Rate 1 to 7 on OC Scale. .Weight- X 5
S...Source of Income..Rate 1 to 7 on SI Scale. .Weight- X 4
E.. .Education Rate 1 to 7 on ED Scale. .Weight- X 3