child development across centuries
DESCRIPTION
psycology course (27,29-2-2012)TRANSCRIPT
Overview of Child DevelopmentDr. Osama Refaat
Director of Training Department
Child Development
Definition: Change in the child that occurs over time. Changes follow an orderly pattern that moves toward greater complexity and enhances survival.
Periods of development: Prenatal: from conception to birth Infancy and toddlerhood: birth to 2 years Early childhood: 2-6 years old Middle childhood: 6-12 years old Adolescence: 12-19 years old
Domains of Development
Development is described in three domains, but growth
in one domain influences the other domains. Physical Domain:
body size, body proportions, appearance, motor development, coordination, perception capacities, physical health.
Cognitive Domain: thought processes and intellectual abilities including
attention, memory, problem solving, imagination, creativity, academic and everyday knowledge, and language.
Social/Emotional Domain: self-knowledge (self-esteem, sexual identity, ethnic
identity), moral reasoning, understanding and expression of emotions, self-regulation, temperament, understanding others, interpersonal skills, and friendships.
Child Development Theories
Psychoanalytical Theories
Beliefs focus on the formation of personality. According to this approach, children move through various stages, confronting conflicts between biological drives and social expectations.
Sigmund Freud
Psychosexual Theory Was based on his therapy with troubled adults.
He emphasized that a child's personality is formed by the ways which his parents managed his sexual and aggressive drives.
Erik EriksonPsychosocial Theory
Expanded on Freud's theories. Believed that development is life-
long. Emphasized that at each stage, the
child acquires attitudes and skills resulting from the successful negotiation of the psychological conflict.
Identified 8 stages: Basic trust vs mistrust (birth - 1 year) Autonomy vs shame and doubt (ages 1-3) Initiative vs guilt (ages 3-6) Industry vs inferiority (ages 6-11) Identity vs identity confusion
(adolescence) Intimacy vs isolation (young adulthood) Generativity vs stagnation (middle
adulthood) Integrity vs despair (the elderly)
Behavioral and Social Learning Theories
Beliefs that describe the importance of the environment and nurturing in the growth of a child.
Behaviorism
Developed as a response to psychoanalytical theories.
Behaviorism became the dominant view from the 1920's to 1960's.
John Watson Early 20th century, "Father of American Behaviorist theory.”
Based his work on Pavlov's experiments on the digestive system of dogs.
Researched classical conditioning
Children are passive beings who can be molded by controlling the stimulus-response associations.
Skinner
Proposed that children "operate" on their environment, operational conditioning.
Believed that learning could be broken down into smaller tasks, and that offering immediate rewards for accomplishments would stimulate further learning.
Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura Stressed how children learn by observation and imitation.
Believed that children gradually become more selective in what they imitate.
Biological Theories
Belief that heredity and innate biological processes govern growth.
Ethology
Examines how behavior is determined by a species' need for survival.
Has its roots in Charles Darwin's research.
Describes a "critical period" or "sensitive period,” for learning
Konrad Lorenz
Ethologist, known for his research on imprinting.
Attachment Theory
John Bowlby Attachment between an infant and her caregiver can insure the infant’s survival.
Stranger’s anxiety Separation anxiety
Cognitive Theories
Beliefs that describe how children learn
Jean PiagetCognitive
development theory Children "construct" their understanding of the world through their active involvement and interactions.
Studied his 3 children to focus not on what they knew but how they knew it.
Described children's understanding as their "schemas” and how they use: Assimilation Accommodation.
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Stages
Sensori-motor Ages birth - 2: the infant uses his senses and motor abilities to understand the world
Preoperation Ages 2-7: the child uses metal representations of objects and is able to use symbolic thought and language
Concrete operations Ages 7-11; the child uses logical operations or principles when solving problems
Formal operations Ages 12 up; the use of logical operations in a systematic fashion and with the ability to use abstractions
Lev VygotskySocio-Cultural Theory
Agreed that children are active learners, but their knowledge is socially constructed.
Cultural values and customs dictate what is important to learn.
Children learn from more expert members of the society.
Vygotsky described the "zone of proximal development", where learning occurs.
ced.ncsc.edu/hyy/devtheories.htm
Information Processing Theory
Uses the model of the computer to describe how the brain works.
Focuses on how information is perceived, how information is stored in memory, how memories are retrieved and then used to solve problems.
Cognitive Development
Piaget Main concepts:
Schema: Mental patterns (thought/action) Assimilation: Adapting new information into existing
schemata Accommodation: Modify existing schemes for new
information
Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development
1-The Sensori-motor Stage
2-The Preoperational Stage
3-The Concrete Operational Stage
4-The Formal Operational Stage
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Inborn Reflexes
Sensorimotor Period
Preoperational Period
Concrete Operations
Formal Operations
(~Birth to 2 yrs)
(~2 to 6 yrs)
(~ 7-12 yrs)
(adolescence to adult)
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)
Coordinate sensory inputs and motor skills Transition from being reflexive to reflective Adualism Development of Problem-Solving Abilities Development of Object Permanence
Objects continue to exist when they are no longer visible/detectable
Appears by 8-12 months of age A-not-B error: search in the last place found, not
where it was last seen Complete by 18-24 months
The Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) Symbolic function / representational insight
One thing represents another Language Pretend (symbolic) play – developmentally a positive
activity Deficits in preoperational thinking:
Animism Attribute life-like qualities to inanimate objects
Egocentrism View world from own perspective, trouble recognizing other’s
point of view 3 mountain problem
Prelogic (intuition) Magical thinking Omnipotence
Deficits in preoperational thinking Centration:
the tendency to focus on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object or event
Appearance/reality distinction Cannot distinguish between the two
Lack of conservation Do not realize properties of objects do not change just
because appearance does Lack of reversibility
Mentally undo an action
Type of conservation Number Matter Length
Initial presentation Two identical
rows of objects shown to child
Two identical balls of clay shown to child
Two sticks are aligned in front of child
ManipulationOne row is spaced
Experimenter changes shape of one ball
Experimenter moves one stick to right
Preoperational child’s answer to “Are they still the same?”
“No, the longer row has more”
“No, the longer one has more”
“No, the one on top is longer”
Some Dimensions of Conservation: Number, Matter, and Length
The Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)
Cognitive operations Internal mental activity to modify symbols to reach a
logical conclusion (concrete) Conservation of matter Decentering:
They can appreciate the perspective of another viewer They can think about two concepts at the same time
Reversibility Appreciate causality Thinking systematically
remains difficult
The Formal Operational Stage (12+)
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning Ability to generate hypotheses and use deductive reasoning (general to
specific) Inductive reasoning
Going from specific observations to generalizations Individuals can imagine alternative worlds and reason systematically
about all possible outcomes of a situation Work in probabilities and possibilities Abstract concepts (Equality, Patriotism)
Piaget believed that the attainment of the formal operations stage, in contrast to the other stages, is not universal
Moral Development
Moral Development
Development of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding rules and conventions about what people should do in their interactions with other people..
The process by which children acquire society's standards of what is right and wrong.
Moral perspectives: Psychoanalytic theory emphasizes feelings of anxiety and guilt
Children identify with parents to reduce anxiety and avoid punishment
Superego: moral element of personality Other, more positive emotions contribute to child’s moral
development Example: empathy, which involves perspective-taking
Cognitive theory: Kohlberg We MUST understand right from wrong if we are to be expected to act in right or wrong ways.
Is morality a topic of concern for children? Regression (playing games):
taking turns, following a set of rules
Home: Questions such as “why can't I stay up as late as you??
You always get to watch what you want to watch. ”
School: So in everyday situations, children are confronted by some
rules, they have some sense of “right” and “wrong”
Exercise
Heinz stole a bottle of expensive drug from the pharmacy to save his mother’s life Do you agree with that or not ? Why ?
Not strictly linked to age Not everyone reaches the highest level
Preconventional1-Punishment Orientation Goodness or badness of an act are based on its
consequences. Child will defer to authority figure and obey their
commands in order to avoid punishment (BUT there is no true conception of rules--> it is only bad if you get caught).
Preconventional
2-Reward Orientation: person conforms to rules in order to gain rewards
or to satisfy personal needs doing things for others is “right” if the actor will
benefit in the long run
Conventional
3- Bad boy Orientation Behavior is guided by fear of being condemned by
others.
Conventional
4- Good boy Orientation Moral behavior is that which pleases, helps, or
is approved by others. One objective is to be thought of as a “nice”
person
Postconventional
5) Social contract and rules flexibility begins in moral reasoning moral actions are those that express the will of
the majority of individuals a sense of having to live up to the law, but an
understanding that laws can be wrong.
Postconventional
6) Conscience & ethical values “highest” stage of moral reasoning right and wrong defined on a personal belief or
self-chosen ethics belief in abstract principles which override all
others (life, liberty, equality)