Children, Marriage Form, and Family Support for the Elderly in Rural China:

Evidence from Songzi

Marcus W. Feldman

Li Shuzhuo

Jin Xiaoyi

August, 2004

BACKGROUND

• Aging, old-age security, family support for the elderly

• Patrilineal family system and old-age support in rural China

– Marriage form: Virilocal marriage VS uxorilocal marriage

– Gender: Sons VS daughters

• Low fertility and rural couples without a son

OBJECTIVES

• Effects of children’s gender and marriage form on their

provision of old-age support for parents

– Differences in old-age support for parents provided by

children of different gender and different marriage forms

– Differences in old-age support for each set of parents

provided by couples in virilocal and uxorilocal

marriages

– Differences in duration of coresidence with parents after

marriage between couples in virilocal and uxorilocal

marriages

DATA

• Songzi: a relatively well-developed county in Hubei province

– Low fertility and zero growth population

– High proportion of no-son couples

– Diversified marriage form

– Weak son preference

• The survey of "Marriage and old-age support"

– 1,745 couples in 1,459 households – Continuation of the survey "Cultural transmission of son preference” in Sanyuan and Lueyang (Shaanxi) – New section concerning intergenerational exchange between each couple and both sets of their non-coresiding parents in 2000, as well as timing of marriage and family division for each couple– For intergenerational exchange, children who are under 60 years old and whose parents are 60 and above years old (1,152 children)– For duration of coresidence, those couples at least one of whose parents that have ever resided with them is still alive (1,120 couples)

METHODS

• Dependent Variables

– Intergenerational exchange: mutual help between children and their non-coresiding parents in 2000 – Likelihood and amount of financial help (both in cash and in kind) – Housework help, measured in frequencies – Agricultural fieldwork help, measured in extent

• Measures – Gross measure, likelihood and amount of gross help to parents – Net measure, likelihood and amount of net help to parents

• Duration of coresidence with parents – Probability of coresiding with parents by duration of marriage

• Independent Variables

– Sons in virilocal marriage

– Sons in uxorilocal marriage

– Daughters in virilocal marriage

– Daughters in uxorilocal marriage

– Couples in virilocal marriage

– Couples in uxorilocal marriage

• Control Variables

– Children’s individual characteristics

Age,

Education,

Number of brothers and sisters,

Household economy,

Number of offspring

– Parents’ individual characteristics

Marital status,

Age,

Location of residence,

Other coresiding children,

Main source of income,

Ability to do housework and

agricultural field work,

Giving help to children.

• Methods– Survival, Logistic and OLS models

• Source: Survey of marriage and old-age support in Songzi, 2000

Fi gure 4 Di st r i but i on of marr i age f ormby marr i age cohort

05

1015

2025

30

3540

4550

556065

7075

80

85

1930- 1949 1950- 1959 1960- 1969 1970- 1979 1980- 1989 1990- 2000

Marr i age cohort

Percentage

Vi ri l ocal

Uxori l ocal

Other

• Source: Survey of marriage and old-age support in Songzi, 2000

Fi gure 5 Probabi l i ty of coresi di ng wi th parentsby durat i on of marr i age

0. 3

0. 4

0. 5

0. 6

0. 7

0. 8

0. 9

1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Durat i on of marr i age ( years)

Probabi l i t yVi ri l ocal

Uxori l ocal

Table 1 D istribution of intergenerational exchange type, by childÕs gender and marriage,Songzi, 2000 (%)---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Gender/Marriage Mutual flow Upward flow only Downward flow only No flow---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------EconomicSon/Virilocal 13.6 41.0 5.1 40.4Son/Uxorilocal 24.6 51.8 1.8 21.9Daughter/Virilocal 37.4 46.1 3.1 13.4Daughter/Uxorilocal 14.3 28.6 4.8 52.4All 27.5 44.4 3.6 24.5

HouseworkSon/Virilocal 18.6 5.3 21.0 55.1Son/Uxorilocal 3.5 6.1 2.6 87.7Daughter/Virilocal 5.2 12.3 9.8 72.7Daughter/Uxorilocal 19.0 16.7 9.5 54.8All 9.9 9.5 12.8 67.8

Agricultural fieldworkSon/Virilocal 34.3 18.9 6.1 40.7Son/Uxorilocal 5.3 12.3 2.6 79.8Daughter/Virilocal 10.8 21.8 3.9 63.5Daughter/Uxorilocal 35.7 14.3 2.4 47.6All 18.8 19.6 4.4 57.1------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Source: Calculation based on data from the survey of ŅMarriage form and old-age supportÓ in Songzi, 2000.

1

2.39***

3.39***

0.64

1

1.67+1.67**

0.64

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

Gross Net

Figure 1 Children's odds ratios of providing financial help to parents

Sons in VrSons in UxDaughters in VrDaughters in Ux

Table 14. Estimated child’s odds ratios of giving financial help to parents, Songzi

Gross Help Net Help Variable Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Child gender and marriage Son/Virilocal 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Son/Uxorilocal 2.69*** 2.46*** 2.39** 2.13*** 1.92** 1.67+ Daughter/Virilocal 4.24*** 4.66*** 3.39*** 1.97*** 2.10*** 1.67** Daughter/Uxorilocal 0.63 0.75 0.64 0.59 0.67 0.64

Child characteristic Age 1.01 1.02 1.03+ 1.01 Education 1.12** 1.10* 1.09** 1.09** Number of brothers 1.15* 1.16* 1.14* 1.15** Number of sisters 1.09 1.13* 1.18*** 1.19*** Household economy 1.12** 1.11** 1.11** 1.11** Number of offspring 0.98 0.93 0.98 0.94

Parent characteristic Parent alive

Both alive 1.00 1.00 Only father alive 1.10 1.09 Only mother alive 1.03 1.13

Age 0.99 1.01 Residence

Local village 1.00 1.00 Local township 1.44 1.40+ Local county 1.68* 1.55* Other county 0.59+ 0.67 Coresiding with other

children 1.18 0.96

Children main source of income

2.35*** 2.09***

Giving financial help to child

3.98***

Giving housework help to child

1.31

Giving agricultural fieldwork help to child

0.80

Ever helped child with child care

1.28 1.00

–2 x (log likelihood) 1369*** 1229*** 1128*** 1525*** 1487*** 1436*** Number of cases 1,152 1,152 1,152 1,152 1,152 1,152

Source: Li S. et al. (2002b). *** p < 0.001; ** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05; + p < 0.1.

1

1.30

1.68*

3.07**

1

1.29

2.01*

3.25**

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

Gross Net

Figure 2 Children's odds ratios of providing housework help to parents

Sons in VrSons in UxDaughters in VrDaughters in Ux

Table 15. Estimated child’s odds ratios of giving housework help to parents

Gross Help Net Help

Variable Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2

Child gender and marriage Son/Virilocal 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Son/Uxorilocal 0.34** 0.34** 1.30 0.74 0.72 1.29 Daughter/Virilocal 0.67* 0.67* 1.68* 1.36 1.40 2.01* Daughter/Uxorilocal 1.77+ 2.46* 3.07** 2.66* 3.08** 3.25**

Child characteristic Age 0.97+ 0.98 1.00 1.01 Education 1.01 0.99 1.00 0.98 Number of brothers 1.00 1.05 1.07 1.08 Number of sisters 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 Household economy 1.03 1.02 1.06 1.05 Number of offspring 0.64** 0.66* 0.71+ 0.69+

Parent characteristic Parent alive

Both alive 1.00 1.00 Only father alive 1.25 1.52 Only mother alive 0.93 0.95

Age 0.99 0.98 Residence

Local village 1.00 1.00 Local township 0.77 0.92 Local county 0.33*** 0.40** Other county 0.21** 0.25* Coresiding with other

children 0.97 0.98

Ability to do housework Yes 1.00 1.00 Partly 0.90 1.08 No 0.92 0.94

Giving financial help to child 1.40+

Giving housework help to child 3.30*** Giving agricultural fieldwork help to child 1.57*

Ever helped child with child care

1.47* 1.29

–2 x (log likelihood) 1114*** 1073*** 946*** 796* 787+ 768** Number of cases 1,152 1,152 1,152 1,152 1,152 1,152

Source: Li S. et al. (2002b). *** p < 0.001; ** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05; + p < 0.1.

1

0.72

1.23

1.081

0.71

1.13

0.92

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

Gross Net

Figure 3 Children's odds ratios of providing agricultural fieldwork help to parents

Sons in VrSons in UxDaughters in VrDaughters in Ux

Table 16. Estimated child’s odds ratios of giving agricultural fieldwork help to parent

Variable Gross Help Net Help Model

1 Model 2

Model 3

Model 1

Model 2

Model 3

Child Gender and Marriage Son/ Virilocal 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Son/ Uxorilocal .19*** .20*** .72 .36*** .36*** .71 Daughter/ Virilocal .43*** .41*** 1.23 .68** .68* 1.13 Daughter/ Uxorilocal .88 1.07 1.08 .88 .95 .92 Child Characteristic Age .96** .99 .99 1.00 Education .99 .98 1.01 1.00 Number of brothers 1.01 1.10 1.05 1.08 Number of sisters 1.02 1.01 1.03 1.02 Household economy .92* .90* .96 .95 Number of offspring .92 1.11 1.02 1.06 Parent Characteristic Parent alive Both alive Only father alive .73 .92 Only mother alive .96 1.19 Age 1.00 1.01 Residence Local village Local township .47*** .56** Local county .21*** .33*** Other county .08*** .11*** Coresiding with other children 1.34 1.19 Can do agricultural fieldwork Yes Partly .60** .83 No .37*** .50*** Giving economic help to child 1.15 Giving housework help to child 2.00*** Giving agricultural fieldwork help to child 5.52*** Ever helped child with childcare 1.02 1.07 £ 2LL 1466*** 1537*** 1127*** 1290*** 1287* 1226*** Number of cases 1152 1152 1152 1152 1152 1152

*** p < 0.001; ** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05; + p < 0.1. Source: Calculation based on data from the survey of “Marriage form

and old-age support” in Songzi, 2000.

CONCLUSIONS

• Strong intergenerational exchange

– Primarily economic

– Housework and agricultural supplementary

– Characterized by reciprocity between parents and children

– Children in Songzi provide substantial old-age support for

parents

• Different modes of intergenerational exchange may be

substitutable

– Exchange between parents and sons in uxorilocal

marriages and daughters in virilocal marriages mainly

financial

– Exchange between parents and sons in virilocal

marriage and daughters in uxorilocal marriage mainly

of housework and agricultural fieldwork

• Old-age support

– Daughter’s old-age support to their parents is not worse,

but may be better, than that of sons

– Support to parents for couples in uxorilocal marriage is

not weaker, but may be stronger, than that of couples in

virilocal marriage

LIMITATIONS

• Dimensions of old-age support are rather narrow

• Measurement of old-age support is quite basic

• Validity of the conclusions observed in Songzi for most

rural areas?

IMPLICATIONS

• Policy for females