christian ethics. how should we live? 1. introduction: the moral quest sunday, may 1, 2005 10 to...

Christian Ethics. How Christian Ethics. How Should We Live?Should We Live?

1. Introduction: The Moral Quest1. Introduction: The Moral Quest

Sunday, May 1, 200510 to 10:50 am, in the Parlor.

Everyone is welcome!

Almighty God, who created us in your Almighty God, who created us in your image: Grant us grace fearlessly to image: Grant us grace fearlessly to contend against evil and to make no contend against evil and to make no peace with oppression; and, that we peace with oppression; and, that we may reverently use our freedom, help may reverently use our freedom, help us to employ it in the maintenance of us to employ it in the maintenance of justice in our communities and among justice in our communities and among the nations, to the glory of your holy the nations, to the glory of your holy Name; through Jesus Christ our Lord, Name; through Jesus Christ our Lord, who lives and reigns with you and the who lives and reigns with you and the Holy Spirit, one God, now and for ever.Holy Spirit, one God, now and for ever.

- Book of Common Prayer, p. 260- Book of Common Prayer, p. 260

How Should We How Should We Live? An Live? An Introduction to Introduction to Ethics,Ethics, Louis P. Louis P. Pojman, Wadsworth Pojman, Wadsworth Publishing, 2005. Publishing, 2005. ISBN: 0-534-55657-ISBN: 0-534-55657-4.4.

Dr. Pojman is Dr. Pojman is professor of professor of philosophy at the philosophy at the United States United States Military Academy Military Academy

The Moral Quest: The Moral Quest: Foundations of Foundations of Christian Ethics,Christian Ethics, Stanley J. Grenz. Stanley J. Grenz. InterVarsity Press, InterVarsity Press, 2000. ISBN: 0-830-2000. ISBN: 0-830-81568-6.81568-6.

Dr. Grenz is Dr. Grenz is professor of professor of theology and ethics theology and ethics at Carey / Regent at Carey / Regent College in College in Vancouver, B.C.Vancouver, B.C.

Basic Moral Basic Moral Philosophy, Third Philosophy, Third EditionEdition, Robert L. , Robert L. Holmes. Thomson Holmes. Thomson Wadsworth, 2003. Wadsworth, 2003. ISBN 0-534-58477-ISBN 0-534-58477-22

Dr. Holmes is Dr. Holmes is professor of professor of philosophy at the philosophy at the University of University of Rochester.Rochester.

Like obedient children, do not be Like obedient children, do not be conformed to the desires that you conformed to the desires that you formerly had in ignorance. Instead, as formerly had in ignorance. Instead, as he who called you is holy, be holy he who called you is holy, be holy yourselves in all your conduct; for it is yourselves in all your conduct; for it is written, “You shall be holy, for I am written, “You shall be holy, for I am holy.”holy.”

- 1 Peter 1:14-16 (NRSV)- 1 Peter 1:14-16 (NRSV)

IntroductionIntroductionHow Should We Live as a Society?How Should We Live as a Society?

Advances in modern science and medicine Advances in modern science and medicine have made old ethical problems more acute, as have made old ethical problems more acute, as well as created new ones:well as created new ones: Is abortion always wrong? What if amniocentesis Is abortion always wrong? What if amniocentesis

reveals the fetus has a severe birth defect?reveals the fetus has a severe birth defect? Is euthanasia always wrong? What if it is used Is euthanasia always wrong? What if it is used

only as a means to a “death with dignity?”only as a means to a “death with dignity?” Genetic engineering. Can experimenting on human Genetic engineering. Can experimenting on human

embryos be justified if it might cure genetic embryos be justified if it might cure genetic diseases?diseases?


Science has made us aware of the impact of Science has made us aware of the impact of how we live on the environment.how we live on the environment. To what degree can we exploit and consume our To what degree can we exploit and consume our

natural resources in order to build more houses and natural resources in order to build more houses and factories, provide cheap transportation and modern factories, provide cheap transportation and modern conveniences?conveniences?


We now live in a global rather than a “local” We now live in a global rather than a “local” economy.economy. Is it okay to use cheaper labor in countries with Is it okay to use cheaper labor in countries with

poorer standards of living in order to make our poorer standards of living in order to make our higher standard of living more widely available to higher standard of living more widely available to others in our country?others in our country?

When does “cheap labor” become exploitative or When does “cheap labor” become exploitative or “slave” labor? Where do we draw the line?“slave” labor? Where do we draw the line?

Are we under obligation to try to improve those poorer Are we under obligation to try to improve those poorer standards of living?standards of living?

IntroductionIntroductionHow Should We Live as Individuals?How Should We Live as Individuals?

Every day we each face personal decisions on Every day we each face personal decisions on how we should live.how we should live.

We understand many of these decisions We understand many of these decisions matter. We ask:matter. We ask: Am I doing the right thing?Am I doing the right thing? How will this affect who I am? How might it How will this affect who I am? How might it

change me? Will it change me for the better?change me? Will it change me for the better? How might it affect others?How might it affect others?

IntroductionIntroductionHow Should We Live?How Should We Live?

What is What is good good and what is and what is badbad?? What actions are What actions are rightright and what actions are and what actions are

wrongwrong?? As individuals, and as a society, we are As individuals, and as a society, we are

continually facing such questions. We are, in continually facing such questions. We are, in other words, continually having to make other words, continually having to make ethicalethical (= (= moralmoral) decisions.) decisions.

IntroductionIntroductionHow Should We Live?How Should We Live?

Deciding what is Deciding what is right/wrongright/wrong, , good/badgood/bad can can be difficult and complex, and there is no be difficult and complex, and there is no consensus even among Christians on the consensus even among Christians on the methods and criteria to use.methods and criteria to use.

Consider these scenarios:Consider these scenarios:

IntroductionIntroductionSome Ethical ChallengesSome Ethical Challenges

In the novel In the novel Sophie’s ChoiceSophie’s Choice by William by William Styron, Sophie is required at a Nazi Styron, Sophie is required at a Nazi concentration camp to choose which of her concentration camp to choose which of her two children the Nazis will execute. If she two children the Nazis will execute. If she refuses to choose, they will execute both refuses to choose, they will execute both children.children.

What should Sophie do?What should Sophie do?


You are driving a trolley down a track. The You are driving a trolley down a track. The brakes fail. If you do nothing, the trolley will brakes fail. If you do nothing, the trolley will kill ten people crossing at the upcoming red-kill ten people crossing at the upcoming red-light.light.

There is fortunately a side spur you could turn There is fortunately a side spur you could turn the trolley onto and spare the ten people. the trolley onto and spare the ten people. However, there is a child playing on the side However, there is a child playing on the side spur, and if you turn the trolley onto it, you spur, and if you turn the trolley onto it, you will kill the child.will kill the child.

What should you do?What should you do?


You discover proof that your parents have You discover proof that your parents have embezzled a large amount of money from the embezzled a large amount of money from the company they work for. You have confronted company they work for. You have confronted them, but they deny the charge. If you report them, but they deny the charge. If you report them, they will go to prison and their lives will them, they will go to prison and their lives will be ruined. If you don’t report them, the be ruined. If you don’t report them, the company will be ruined.company will be ruined.

What should you do?What should you do?


You and 19 friends are spelunking in a cave on You and 19 friends are spelunking in a cave on the ocean. Your friend Fred gets stuck in the the ocean. Your friend Fred gets stuck in the cave opening. The tide is rising. If you don’t cave opening. The tide is rising. If you don’t get Fred through the opening, everyone get Fred through the opening, everyone (except Fred, whose head is outside the cave) (except Fred, whose head is outside the cave) will drown. Fortunately, you do have some will drown. Fortunately, you do have some dynamite with you.dynamite with you.

Should you blow Fred out of the entrance to Should you blow Fred out of the entrance to save everyone else?save everyone else?


It is World War II and you are hiding two It is World War II and you are hiding two Jewish refugees. Jewish refugees.

Two Nazi soldiers come to your door and ask Two Nazi soldiers come to your door and ask if you have any Jewish refugees in your house.if you have any Jewish refugees in your house.

Should you lie or tell the truth?Should you lie or tell the truth?


Your wife is dying of a rare cancer.Your wife is dying of a rare cancer. A pharmacist in your town, after years of research, A pharmacist in your town, after years of research,

has discovered a drug that will cure the cancer, and is has discovered a drug that will cure the cancer, and is charging 10 times the amount it takes to manufacture charging 10 times the amount it takes to manufacture it.it.

After borrowing from everyone you can, you have After borrowing from everyone you can, you have gathered only half the purchase price.gathered only half the purchase price.

You go to the pharmacist, who refuses to sell the drug You go to the pharmacist, who refuses to sell the drug to you for half-off, declaring that he discovered the to you for half-off, declaring that he discovered the drug and is entitled to make as much as he can from drug and is entitled to make as much as he can from his discovery.his discovery.

Should you steal the drug?Should you steal the drug?

Ethical Relativism Ethical Relativism versus Ethical versus Ethical

ObjectivismObjectivism

Ethical Relativism vs. ObjectivismEthical Relativism vs. ObjectivismTerminologyTerminology

Are there universal moral principles that apply to all Are there universal moral principles that apply to all people, regardless of the time or place that they live?people, regardless of the time or place that they live? 1. 1. Yes:Yes: Ethical Objectivism Ethical Objectivism andand Ethical Absolutism Ethical Absolutism 2. 2. No:No: Ethical RelativismEthical Relativism

Conventional Ethical Relativism (Conventionalism):Conventional Ethical Relativism (Conventionalism): Moral Moral principles and truths are purely a product of the culture.principles and truths are purely a product of the culture.

Subjective Ethical Relativism (Subjectivism):Subjective Ethical Relativism (Subjectivism): Moral principles Moral principles and truths depend on the individual. “Morality is in the eye of the and truths depend on the individual. “Morality is in the eye of the beholder.”beholder.”

3. 3. No:No: Ethical NihilismEthical Nihilism.. There are no ethical or moral truths.There are no ethical or moral truths.

Ethical Relativism vs. ObjectivismEthical Relativism vs. ObjectivismCulture Relativism vs. Ethical RelativismCulture Relativism vs. Ethical Relativism

Ethical ObjectivismEthical Objectivism and and Ethical AbsolutismEthical Absolutism do not deny that there is do not deny that there is Cultural RelativismCultural Relativism:: Cultures vary widely and have different moral Cultures vary widely and have different moral

codes which may:codes which may: Include some ethical principles that are unique to the Include some ethical principles that are unique to the

culture and which are not universal, culture and which are not universal, Apply universal ethical principles in ways unique to the Apply universal ethical principles in ways unique to the

culture.culture.

Ethical RelativismEthical Relativism goes beyond goes beyond Cultural Cultural RelativismRelativism by insisting that there are by insisting that there are nono universal moral principles or truths at all.universal moral principles or truths at all.

Ethical Relativism vs. ObjectivismEthical Relativism vs. ObjectivismCulture Relativism vs. Ethical RelativismCulture Relativism vs. Ethical Relativism

Ethical RelativismEthical Relativism – that moral principles or – that moral principles or truths are relative, purely a product of the truths are relative, purely a product of the culture -- would insist, for example, that:culture -- would insist, for example, that: Western society has no basis to condemn the Western society has no basis to condemn the

practice of female circumcision in Northern Africa practice of female circumcision in Northern Africa (cutting off the external genitalia)(cutting off the external genitalia)

Estimate: 4 to 5 million women suffer this each year.Estimate: 4 to 5 million women suffer this each year.

Ethical Relativism vs. ObjectivismEthical Relativism vs. ObjectivismChristian EthicsChristian Ethics

All systems of Christian Ethics start by All systems of Christian Ethics start by declaring there declaring there areare universal moral principles universal moral principles or truths that we can use to judge the rightness or truths that we can use to judge the rightness or wrongness of an action, whatever the or wrongness of an action, whatever the culture, place, or time.culture, place, or time.

What Are the Universal What Are the Universal Moral Principles?Moral Principles?

Universal Moral PrinciplesUniversal Moral PrinciplesHow Many Principles?How Many Principles?

Any Christian ethical system is a Any Christian ethical system is a ethical ethical objectivismobjectivism system, claiming that there are system, claiming that there are universal moral principles that apply to all universal moral principles that apply to all time and all places.time and all places.

But what are the universal moral principles? But what are the universal moral principles? How many are there?How many are there?

Universal Moral PrinciplesUniversal Moral PrinciplesOne PrincipleOne Principle

Some systems claim Some systems claim one and only oneone and only one universal principle. Examples:universal principle. Examples: Immanuel KantImmanuel Kant: the “categorical imperative”: the “categorical imperative” Christian Ethics of Joseph Fletcher and Paul Christian Ethics of Joseph Fletcher and Paul

Ramsey: Act out of love. Do the loving thing.Ramsey: Act out of love. Do the loving thing. UltilitarianismUltilitarianism: Act so to bring about the greatest : Act so to bring about the greatest

balance of good over evil for the greatest number balance of good over evil for the greatest number of people.of people.

Ethical Egotism:Ethical Egotism: Act so to bring about the Act so to bring about the greatest balance of good over evil for oneself.greatest balance of good over evil for oneself.

Universal Moral PrinciplesUniversal Moral PrinciplesMultiple PrinciplesMultiple Principles

Other systems claim multiple universal Other systems claim multiple universal principles. Examples:principles. Examples: Christian ethical systems based on the Ten Christian ethical systems based on the Ten

Commandments and the Sermon on the MountCommandments and the Sermon on the Mount The Moral Theology of the Roman Catholic The Moral Theology of the Roman Catholic

Church, based on:Church, based on: Divine LawDivine Law Natural LawNatural Law

Universal Moral PrinciplesUniversal Moral PrinciplesMultiple PrinciplesMultiple Principles

When a system has multiple principles, there When a system has multiple principles, there may a potential for conflict between the may a potential for conflict between the principles. How do you resolve such conflicts?principles. How do you resolve such conflicts?

The Medieval Scholastics proposed the The Medieval Scholastics proposed the Doctrine of Double EffectDoctrine of Double Effect to decide how to to decide how to act when some action would have both “good act when some action would have both “good effects” and “bad effects.”effects” and “bad effects.” This doctrine is often used in Roman Catholic This doctrine is often used in Roman Catholic

ethical arguments, and is part of “Just War” ethical arguments, and is part of “Just War” Theory.Theory.

Universal Moral PrinciplesUniversal Moral PrinciplesDoctrine of Double EffectDoctrine of Double Effect

Four conditions must be satisfied for an act to be Four conditions must be satisfied for an act to be morally permissible:morally permissible: 1. 1. The Nature-of-the-Act ConditionThe Nature-of-the-Act Condition. The action must be . The action must be

morally good, or indifferent.morally good, or indifferent. 2. 2. The Means-Ends Condition.The Means-Ends Condition. The bad effect must not The bad effect must not

be the means by which one achieves the good effect.be the means by which one achieves the good effect. The Stoics “Let justice be done, though the heavens fall.”The Stoics “Let justice be done, though the heavens fall.”

3. 3. The Right-Intention Condition.The Right-Intention Condition. The intention should The intention should only be to achieve the good effect. The bad effect, while only be to achieve the good effect. The bad effect, while foreseen, must be an unintended side effect.foreseen, must be an unintended side effect.

4. 4. The Proportionality ConditionThe Proportionality Condition. The good effect must . The good effect must be at least equivalent in importance to the bad effect.be at least equivalent in importance to the bad effect.


By the By the Doctrine of Double EffectDoctrine of Double Effect, if you are , if you are attacked by an assailant, you can defend attacked by an assailant, you can defend yourself, even if it causes the death of the yourself, even if it causes the death of the assailant.assailant. You may not intend the death of the assailant; it You may not intend the death of the assailant; it

must be an unintended side effect (3. The Right-must be an unintended side effect (3. The Right-Intention Condition).Intention Condition).

You may not use disproportionate force (4. The You may not use disproportionate force (4. The Proportionality Condition).Proportionality Condition).


By the By the Doctrine of Double EffectDoctrine of Double Effect, in war:, in war: You may bomb a munitions factory to destroy the enemies You may bomb a munitions factory to destroy the enemies

weapons even though you foresee that innocents around the weapons even though you foresee that innocents around the factory may be killed.factory may be killed.

You may not intend however to kill the innocents (3. The Right-You may not intend however to kill the innocents (3. The Right-Intention Condition).Intention Condition).

You may not use more force than necessary to accomplish You may not use more force than necessary to accomplish your mission (4. The Proportionality Condition).your mission (4. The Proportionality Condition).

By the Doctrine of Double Effect, the carpet bombing of German By the Doctrine of Double Effect, the carpet bombing of German cities in WWII, and the use of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and cities in WWII, and the use of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, were of questionable morality, because a strong case can Nagasaki, were of questionable morality, because a strong case can be made the violated Condition 4. The Proportionality Condition)be made the violated Condition 4. The Proportionality Condition)


The Roman Catholic church has use the The Roman Catholic church has use the Doctrine of Double Effect to argue doing an Doctrine of Double Effect to argue doing an abortion is wrong to save the life of the abortion is wrong to save the life of the mother, because, it violates:mother, because, it violates: Condition 1. The Nature-of-the-Act Condition. Condition 1. The Nature-of-the-Act Condition.

The act of killing the fetus is not a moral or The act of killing the fetus is not a moral or indifferent act.indifferent act.

Condition 2. The Mean-Ends Condition. The bad Condition 2. The Mean-Ends Condition. The bad effect must not be the means by which the good effect must not be the means by which the good effect is achieved.effect is achieved.


However, removing a cancerous uterus in a pregnant However, removing a cancerous uterus in a pregnant women is acceptable, because:women is acceptable, because: Condition 1, the Nature-of-the-Act Condition, and Condition 1, the Nature-of-the-Act Condition, and

Condition 2, the Mean-Ends Condition, are satisfied. The Condition 2, the Mean-Ends Condition, are satisfied. The actact is removing the cancerous uterus, morally indifferent. is removing the cancerous uterus, morally indifferent.

Condition 3, the Right-Intention Condition, is satisfied. Condition 3, the Right-Intention Condition, is satisfied. The intention is to remove the cancer; the death of the fetus The intention is to remove the cancer; the death of the fetus is an unintended side-effect.is an unintended side-effect.

Condition 4, the Proportionality Condition, is satisfied. The Condition 4, the Proportionality Condition, is satisfied. The good effect (removing the cancerous uterus and saving the good effect (removing the cancerous uterus and saving the mother’s life, is proportional to the bad effect, killing the mother’s life, is proportional to the bad effect, killing the fetus.)fetus.)


The Trolley Problem. Turning to the side spur The Trolley Problem. Turning to the side spur and killing the child violates Condition 2 of and killing the child violates Condition 2 of the Doctrine of Double Effect, the Mean-Ends the Doctrine of Double Effect, the Mean-Ends Condition (= The bad effect must not be the Condition (= The bad effect must not be the means by which one achieves the good effect.)means by which one achieves the good effect.)

Deontological Ethics Deontological Ethics versus Teleological versus Teleological

EthicsEthics

Deontological v. Teleological Deontological v. Teleological EthicsEthics

A fundamental distinction between ethical A fundamental distinction between ethical systems is whether they are systems is whether they are deontologicaldeontological or or teleologicalteleological ethical systems ethical systems 1. 1. Teleological EthicsTeleological Ethics. The morality of an act is . The morality of an act is

based on the outcome or consequence of the act based on the outcome or consequence of the act (Also called Consequentialist Ethics).(Also called Consequentialist Ethics).

2. 2. Deontological EthicsDeontological Ethics. The morality of an act is . The morality of an act is based in the act itself (Also called based in the act itself (Also called Nonconsequentialist Ethics)Nonconsequentialist Ethics)


For example: lying:For example: lying: In In teleological teleological systems (= consequentialist ethics), the systems (= consequentialist ethics), the

morality of lying would depend on the morality of lying would depend on the consequenceconsequence or or outcomeoutcome of the lie. of the lie.

In In deontological deontological systems (= nonconsequentialist ethics), systems (= nonconsequentialist ethics), the very act of lying is seen as intrinsically wrong.the very act of lying is seen as intrinsically wrong.

If the Nazis ask if you have Jewish refugees in your If the Nazis ask if you have Jewish refugees in your house:house: In a teleological approach, it is okay to lie to try to save the In a teleological approach, it is okay to lie to try to save the

refugees.refugees. In a very strict deontological system (such as Immanuel In a very strict deontological system (such as Immanuel

Kant’s), the moral act is to tell the truth, because lying is an Kant’s), the moral act is to tell the truth, because lying is an intrinsic evil.intrinsic evil.


The most common system of teleological The most common system of teleological ethics is ethics is UtilitarianismUtilitarianism: always act to bring : always act to bring about the greatest amount of good and the least about the greatest amount of good and the least amount of evil the greatest number of people.amount of evil the greatest number of people.

Utilitarians would say:Utilitarians would say: In the Trolley Problem:In the Trolley Problem: turn down the side spur to turn down the side spur to

save 10 lives, even though the child will be killed.save 10 lives, even though the child will be killed. In the Costal Spelunkers Problem:In the Costal Spelunkers Problem: blast Fred away blast Fred away

if it is the only means to save the other 19.if it is the only means to save the other 19.

Ethics of Being versus Ethics of Being versus an Ethics of Doingan Ethics of Doing

Ethics of Being vs. DoingEthics of Being vs. Doing

Thus far we have been talking about Thus far we have been talking about Ethics of Ethics of DoingDoing (= (= Action-based EthicsAction-based Ethics = = Ethics of Ethics of ConductConduct), emphasizing the morality of ), emphasizing the morality of actionsactions..

Another approach to ethics is an Another approach to ethics is an Ethics of Ethics of BeingBeing = = Virtue-based EthicsVirtue-based Ethics = = AretaicAretaic (Greek (Greek arete, arete, meaning virtue) meaning virtue) EthicsEthics..

Virtue-based ethics says that what is Virtue-based ethics says that what is fundamental to ethics is the kind of person we fundamental to ethics is the kind of person we are, our character and motivations.are, our character and motivations.

Ethics of Being vs. DoingEthics of Being vs. Doing There is clearly a relationship between our character / There is clearly a relationship between our character /

personal virtues, and our actions / conduct. Three personal virtues, and our actions / conduct. Three views of that relationship can be described as:views of that relationship can be described as: Ethics of Being (= Virtue based Ethics):Ethics of Being (= Virtue based Ethics): virtues are what virtues are what

is essential in ethics and have intrinsic value. Universal is essential in ethics and have intrinsic value. Universal Principles are derived from virtue.Principles are derived from virtue.

Ethics of Doing (= Action based Ethics):Ethics of Doing (= Action based Ethics): Action-guiding Action-guiding principles are what is essential in ethics. These principles principles are what is essential in ethics. These principles build character and virtue.build character and virtue.

Complementarity Ethics or Pluralistic Ethics:Complementarity Ethics or Pluralistic Ethics: Virtue- Virtue-based ethics and action-based ethical systems are based ethics and action-based ethical systems are complementary and both are necessary for a complete complementary and both are necessary for a complete ethical system.ethical system.

ReferencesReferences

How Should We Live? An Introduction to How Should We Live? An Introduction to Ethics,Ethics, Louis P. Pojman, Wadsworth Louis P. Pojman, Wadsworth Publishing, 2004. ISBN: 0-534-55657-4Publishing, 2004. ISBN: 0-534-55657-4

Basic Moral Philosophy, Third Edition, Basic Moral Philosophy, Third Edition, Robert L. Holmes. Thomson Wadsworth, Robert L. Holmes. Thomson Wadsworth, 2003. ISBN 0-534-58477-2 2003. ISBN 0-534-58477-2

The Moral Quest: Foundations of Christian The Moral Quest: Foundations of Christian Ethics,Ethics, Stanley J. Grenz. InterVarsity Press, Stanley J. Grenz. InterVarsity Press, 2000. ISBN: 0-830-81568-62000. ISBN: 0-830-81568-6

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