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Chronological Table
Social history by its very nature is concerned more with processes than events. Thus the enclosure movement and the building of canals, turnpike roads and railways proceeded over long years within the period 1760-1850s. But specific dates and events provide important signposts along the route of these broader changes.
Date Contemporary events Publications
1759 The Bridgewater Canal constructed. Over the next 60 years 2200 miles of still water and 2000 miles of river navigation opened
1768 Arthur Young, A Six Weeks' Tour through the Southern Counties
1769 Arthur Young, A Six Months' Tour through the North of England
1770 Oliver Goldsmith, The Deserted Village; Arthur Young, Rural Economy; or Essays on the Practical Parts of Husbandry
1776 Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations
c.1776-77 First annual sheep-shearing fair at Holkham (Norfolk); Thomas Coke of Holkham practised the 'Norfolk System' of large farms, long leases and crop rotations
1777 Foundation of the Bath and West Agricultural Society
1780 c.40% of labour force engaged in agriculture
1781 James Watt patented the rotary steam-engine
169
170 Life and Labour in Rural England, 1760-1850
Date Contemporary events Publications
1782 Gilbert's Act (permitting parishes to use workhouses merely for the aged, poor and infirm and not as a place of punishment). By 1830 only about 1000 out of 15 000 parishes had availed themselves of this power
1783 Lancelot ('Capability') Brown died
George Crabbe, The Village
1785 Meikle's threshing machine William Cowper, The Task
1787 Wilberforce began William Marshall, The parliamentary campaign Rural Economy of Norfolk against the slave trade
1791 London Veterinary College established
1793 Outbreak of war with France; lasted with one short break until1815. Accelerated Enclosure Movement (2000 Acts in this period). Board of Agriculture founded; it lasted until1822
1795 Bad harvests and food riots; David Davies, The Case of Speenhamland system of Poor Labourers in Husbandry Relief
1798 The Smithfield Club T.R. Malthus, Essay on the inaugurated Principle of Population; Sir
Frederic Eden, The State of the Poor
1799 First patent for a reaping machine issued to Joseph Bryce of London
1800 Robert Bloomfield, The Farmer's Boy
1801 First General Enclosure Act; first decennial Census of England and Wales (population 9 million - 18 million in 1851)
1803 Ellenborough's Act (poachers Humphry Repton, The offering armed resistance to Theory and Practice of lawful arrest might be hanged) Landscape Gardening
Chronological Table 171
Date Contemporary events Publications
1806 Humphry Repton, An Inquiry into the Changes of Taste in Landscape Gardening
1807 George Crabbe, The Parish Register
1810 c.33% of labour force engaged George Crabbe, The in agriculture Borough
1811 The National Society (for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the Established Church) founded
1814 The British and Foreign School Jane Austen, Mansfield Society formed to provide Park education for Protestant children of all denominations
1815 Battle of Waterloo; end of Jane Austen, Emma Napoleonic Wars; Corn Law passed restricting sale of foreign grain until domestic price had reached a particular level (wheat 80s. a quarter). Ineffective and controversial. Amended in 1820s
1816 Game Law passed (possession of poaching equipment by night subject to seven years' transportation); agricultural riots in East Anglia
1817-19 Economic recession; poor relief at £8 million per annum (1783 -less than £2m; 1815-16 £5.7m)
1819 Peterloo 'Massacre'
1820 John Clare, Poems Descriptive of Rural Life
1821 Report from the Committee on John Clare, The Village the Depressed State of Minstrel and other poems; Agriculture in the United Kingdom, Parl. Papers, 1821,
William Cobbett began Rural Rides
Vol. 9 (average wages 9-10s. per week-in 181412-15s.)
172 Life and Labour in Rural England, 1760-1850
Date Contemporary events Publications
1822 Machine-breaking in Norfolk
1824 Mary Russell Mitford had first volume of Our Village published
1827 Mantraps and spring guns prohibited for use in preserving game
1828 Night Poaching Act passed (maximum sentence 3 months' hard labour with subsequent personal surety of £10 and two others of £5 each: transport-ation only for a third offence)
1830 'Swing' riots in southern and William Cobbett completed south-midland counties among Rural Rides destitute agricultural labourers; first steam-engine for drainage purposes (installed at West on Zoyland); opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway
1831 Archaic qualifications to shoot game abolished; penalties for poaching relaxed
1832 Reform Act passed 1833 First government grant for
elementary education (£20 000)
1834 Poor Law Amendment Act; 'Tolpuddle Martyrs'- 6 Dorset labourers sentenced to transportation for administering unlawful oaths in connection with illegal societies (allowed to return to England after c.3 years)
1835 Introduction of guano as John Clare, The Rural fertiliser from Peru Muse
1836 Tithe Commutation Act (cash system replaced payment in kind)
Chronological Table 173
Date Contemporary events Publications
1838 Foundation of the English R.S. Surtees,jorrocks' Agricultural Society (in 1840 jaunts and jollities the Royal Agricultural Society (originally in New Sporting of England); Anti-Corn-Law Magazine, 1831-34) League established to agitate for free trade
1839 First Royal Agricultural Society Show; use of mobile steam-engines in agriculture; County Police Act permitted magistrates at quarter sessions to establish a police force in county areas. Only about half the counties of England and Wales had adopted the measure before county forces were made obligatory in 1856
1842 Superphosphate factory at Charles Apperley Deptford; Lawes and Gilbert's ('Nimrod'), The Life of a experiments at Rothamsted led Sportsman to use of inorganic fertilisers
1843 Select Committee on R.S. Surtees, Handley Cross Allotments (expanded, 1854)
1844 The Royal College of William Barnes, Poems of Veterinary Surgeons founded Rural Life in the Dorset
Dialect
1845 The Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, established
1845-47 'Railway mania' (2440 miles of track in 1845; 6080 in 1850) made possible the large-scale movement of livestock for the first time, other than on foot
1846 Repeal of the Corn Laws
1851 Census: 1 788 000 men and Charles Kingsley, Yeast; 229 000 women in agriculture, James Caird, English horticulture and forestry Agriculture in 1850-51 (21.5% of labour force); The Great Exhibition at Crystal Palace (Hussey's and
174 Life and Labour in Rural England, 1760-1850
Date
1851 - contd
1851-56
1853
1856
1859
Contemporary events
McCormick's American reapers shown to the British public at the Exhibition; forerunners of a new era of harvesting technology); Fowler's drainage apparatus for pipe-laying utilised Development of steampowered cultivators
Fowler's patent for ploughing with two traction engines
Publications
R.S. Surtees, Mr. Sponge's Sporting Tour
George Eliot, Adam Bede
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175
176 Life and Labour in Rural England, 1760-1850
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E.D. Cuming (London, 1926) 'Paston, George' [Emily M. Symonds], Sidelights on the Georgian
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(Harmondsworth, 197 4) Roberts, William, Memoirs of the Life and Correspondence of Mrs.
Hannah More, 2nd edn, 4 vols (London, 1834) Saint-Fond, B. Faujas, Travels in England, Scotland and the
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178 Life and Labour in Rural England, 1760-1850
Shelley, Percy Bysshe, Selected Poems, World's Classics (London, 1960)
Skinner, John, journal of a Somerset Rector 1803-1834, eds Howard and Peter Coombs (London and New York, 1984)
Surtees, R.S., Ask Mamma, Folio Society ed. 1954 --,Handley Cross (London, 1930) --,Mr. Sponge's Sporting Tour, World's Classics (London, 1958) Tennyson, Alfred, The Poems of Tennyson, ed. Christopher Ricks
(London, 1969) Thirsk, Joan and lmray, Jean (eds), Suffolk Farming in the
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Wesley, John, The journal of, ed. Nehemiah Curnock, 8 vols (London, 1909)
White, Gilbert, The Natural History ofSelborne (1789), Everyman's Library (London, 1949)
Woodforde, James, The Diary of a Country Parson 1758-1802, ed. John Beresford, World's Classics (London, 1967)
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--,The Prelude in The Poetical Works of William Wordsworth, ed. Thos Hutchinson (London, 1904)
Wrekington Hiring in Collection of Broadsides, etc. at British Library, 1875. d.13
Young, Arthur, A Six Weeks' Tour Through the Southern Counties of England and Wales (London, 1768)
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Secondary Sources
The following list includes a selection of books on the economic, social and literary history of the later Georgian and early Victorian period. For the most part, these are general surveys only, designed to
Bibliography 179
amplify or explain the broad theme of the book, rather than detailed studies of specialised topics within the period covered.
Ashton, T.S., An Economic History of England: The 18th Century (London, 1972)
Bettey, J.H., Rural Life in Wessex 1500-1900 (Bradford-on-Avon, 1977)
Bohstedt,John, Riots and Community Politics in England and Wales 1790-1810 (Cambridge, Mass., 1983)
Bovill, E.W., English Country Life 1780-1830 (London, 1962) --,The England of Nimrod and Surtees 1815-1854 (London, 1959) Chambers, J.D. and Mingay, G.E., The Agricultural Revolution
1750-1880 (London, 1966) Deane, Phyllis and Cole, W.A., British Economic Growth 1688-1959
(Cambridge, 1964) Duckworth, Alistair M., The Improvement of the Estate: A Study of
jane Austen's Novels (Baltimore and London, 1971) Fuller, Margaret, West Country Friendly Societies (Reading, 1964) Hammond, J.L. and Barbara, The Village Labourer, Guild Books,
2 vols (London, 1948) Hay, Douglas, Linebaugh, Peter, and Thompson, E.P. (eds),
Albion's Fatal Tree (London, 1975) Hobsbawm, E.J. and Rude, George, Captain Swing (London, 1969) Holderness, B.A.,' "Open" and "Close" Parishes in England in the
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Horn, Pamela, The Rural World 1780-1850 (London, 1980) Jones, E.L., The Development of English Agriculture 1815-1873
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180 Life and Labour in Rural England, 1760-1850
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Index
Agricultural depression 18, 19, 20, 64-73, 81-104, 139, 144, 171
Agricultural employment 9, 20, 24, 47, 165-7, 169, 171
Agricultural implements & machinery 36-7, 45, 81-3, 156, 159, 170, 172, 173, 174
Agriculture 1, 3, 4, 26, 36, 47, 73, 74
Andrews, C. Bruyn 41, 60, 63, 110, 121
Arch, Joseph 143 Argyll, Duke of 31-3 Arson 82, 86, 92 Austen, Jane 19, 29, 33, 37, 38, 40,
44, 60, 61, 171
Barnes, Rev. William 130, 145, 148, 173
Bath 10, 11, 35, 108 Beaufort, Duke of 108, 150 Bedford, Duke of 31, 36, 147, 150,
151 Bedfordshire 52, 53, 141 Bergonzi, Bernard 25 Berkshire 18, 19, 51, 84, 85, 90,
102, 141, 162 Birth rate 8, 9 Blomfield, Alfred 152, 153 Bloomfield, Robert 14, 56-8, 170 Borrow, George 22 Brighton 35 Bristol 6, 7 Britton, John 14, 106, 107, 108 Bronte, Charlotte 2, 3, 125 Bronte, Emily 27 Brown, Lancelot ('Capability') 38,
170 Buckingham, Duke of 150, 151 Buckinghamshire 50, 71, 72, 100,
141
Buckmaster, John 100-1 Byng, Col. John 40, 42, 59, 62,
107, 109, 121 Byron, Lord 66, 67
Caird,James 155, 156, 157, 162, 173
Cambridgeshire 5, 6, 47, 62, 102, 150
'Captain Swing' 82, 83-6, 88, 89, 121, 172
Cardiff 6 Cawdor, Earl 98 Chadwick, Owen 116, 152 Checkland, S.G. 90, 91 Cheshire 4, 5, 9, 26, 47, 73 Child bearing, see Birth rate Child labour 9, 56, 77, 78, 122,
126, 127, 163--4 Child welfare 75, 78, 163 Church of England 29-30, 112-19,
122, 123, 147, 149, 160 Clare, John 48, 61, 62, 80, 81, 83,
118-19, 121, 171, 172 Clergy 29-30, 34, 51, 96, 106,
112-19,124,144, 149,152--4 'Close' parishes 44, 148-9 Cobbett, William x, 19, 21, 22, 25,
69, 70, 74, 79, 82, 83, 171, 172 Coke, Thomas 169 Corn Laws 66, 67, 83, 100-1, 102,
103--4, 167, 171, 173 Cottage industries, see Rural crafts Country estates 30--44 Country life 1, 13, 16, 23-5, 108-
110 Cowper, William 12, 40, 170 Crabbe, Rev. George 25, 42, 43,
89, 114, 115, 116, 122, 140, 141, 170, 171
Crime 21, 22, 83-8, 121, 139--42
182 Index
Cumberland, Duke of 106 Cumbria 13, 26, 47, 97, 145, 150,
157-9, 162
Dairying 4, 24, 47, 75, 76 Davies, Rev. David 51, 170 Derbyshire 5 Devon 54, 68, 76, 77 Devonshire, Duke of 31, 35, 147 Dickinson, William 157-9 Diet 21, 23-4, 31-3, 52, 166 Disraeli, Benjamin 15, 92, 93, 97 Dorset 4, 76, 77, 145, 161, 172 Drunkenness 11, 24, 101, 128,
165-7 Durham 97 Dyer, John 48, 49
Eden, Sir F.M. 17, 18 Education 56, 78, 121-7, 148, 166,
168, 171 Eliot, George 23-4, 28, 75, 107,
160--1, 174 Enclosure 15, 17, 44, 46--51, 144,
157, 158, 161, 170 Essex 4, 44, 84, 150
Fairs & markets 4-5, 53, 70, 82, 119, 132
Family life x, 45, 78, 79, 80--1, 158-9
Farmers 8, 19, 20, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 35, 40, 44, 50, 57, 59, 64, 65, 67-8, 70, 71, 73, 87, 88, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 135, 142, 144, 149, 154-9, 161, 165, 166, 167
Farming methods 4, 40, 41, 46, 47, 48, 57, 73, 74, 75, 76, 81, 117, 133, 147, 154, 155-9, 169, 172, 173
Feasts & festivals 16, 30, 35, 78, 128, 129-34
Flint 54 Food shortages 52-4, 64 Foxhunting 69, 108, 109, 110,
134-8 Fremantle, Anne 35
French wars 18, 19, 48, 58-63, 81, 162, 170, 171
Friendly societies 128-31 Fuel, supplies of 28, 41, 79, 81 Fuller, Margaret 128
Gamekeepers 78, 137, 139, 140, 141
Game preservation 110, 134, 137-43, 172
Gaskell, Elizabeth C. 2, 3, 4, 145-6
Gentleman's Magazine, The 37, 119, 120, 153
George III 36 Girling, Elizabeth 60 Gloucestershire 5, 166 Glyde, John, Jr 95 Goldsmith, Oliver 15-17, 18, 30,
48, 109, 169 Graham, Sir James 98, 150, 154,
167 Greville, Charles 95-6 Gunning Henry 4, 6 Gypsies 22
Hampshire 9, 79, 84, 85 Hardy, Mary 55, 56 Harvest failures 52-3, 170 Herefordshire 166 Hertfordshire 138, 141, 150 Hood, Thomas 94 Horn, Pamela 72, 73, 134, 148 Housing 9, 20, 21, 27, 28, 41, 45,
51, 80--1, 111, 148, 159, 164-5 Howitt, William 104-5, 111, 112,
130 Huntingdonshire 41
Improvements 36, 37, 38-40, 41, 49, 73, 111-12, 147, 150, 154, 158, 173, 174
Industrialisation 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 11, 17, 64, 162, 169
Keith, W.J. 1, 13 Kent 4, 74, 83, 84
Kent, Nathaniel 36, 38 Kingsley, Rev. Charles 25, 78,
163, 164, 173
Labourers, agricultural 20, 21, 23-4,26,27, 34, 35,41, 53, 54, 56-8, 70, 79, 80, 83, 89, 94, 128, 145, 148, 149, 159, 161, 163, 164-7
Lancashire 26, 162 Landed society 17, 26, 30-44, 59,
65,69,96-105,106,107,109, 110, 111, 134-43, 144-51, 167, 168
Law enforcement 54-5, 81, 82, 83-8, 106, 119, 120, 139-43, 147, 172, 173
Leicestershire 5, 47, 150 Leisure interests 5-6, 30, 31, 32-3,
37,68,69, 106,107-8,128, 129-43, 150, 154, 159
Lincolnshire 47, 48, 83, 99, 145, 150
Livestock farming 4, 6, 26, 48, 64, 73
London 4, 5, 6, 33, 37, 61, 108, 110, 164
Lucas papers 52-3
Magistracy 44, 54, 55, 67, 70, 72, 82, 83,84-6,87, 88,96, 106, 142, 173
Marketing methods 4-6, 7, 53, 120, 159, 160-1
Markets, see Fairs & markets Marlborough, Duke of 109 Marriage 8, 9, 107, 132, 150-1 Marshall, William 44, 49, 50, 170 Mathias, Peter 47 Mayett, Joseph 71-2 Migration 8, 17, 72-3, 74, 81, 92,
107, 163 Militia & yeomanry 59-60, 62-3,
71 Mingay, G.E. 26, 28, 34 Mitford, Mary R. 18, 19, 21, 22,
25, 84-6, 124, 172 Monck, Sir Charles 99-100
Monmouthshire 166 More, Hannah 123
Index 183
Nonconformity 82,113-14,115, 116, 118, 160
Norfolk 4, 55, 60, 116, 119, 150, 152
Northamptonshire 48, 61, 91, 119 Northumberland 99 Northumberland, Duke of 31, 37
Olmsted, Frederick L. 165-6 'Open' parishes 44, 148, 149-50 Oxfordshire 84, 91, 141
Parliament 34, 46 'Paston, George' 60 Peacock, Thomas L. 121, 142 Pinchbeck, Ivy 75 Poaching 46, 88, 106, 134, 137,
139-43, 170, 171, 172 Politics 15, 26, 31, 34, 82, 93, 96-
105, 153, 161, 172 Poor Law Amendment Act, 1834
75, 90-2, 95, 127, 128, 172 Poor relief 52-3, 54, 67, 71-2, 73,
75, 82, 88-96, 170, 171 Population, size of 1, 8-10, 17, 73,
81, 92, 107, 163, 169, 170, 171, 173
Portland, Duke of 138 Poverty 16-17,20-1,41,42,50-1,
65-73, 76, 77, 78, 83, 90-6, 140, 141, 171
Prices 6, 7, 19, 34, 52, 53, 54, 64, 65-6,67,71, 72, 73,90,104
Piickler-Muskau, Prince 96-7, 136
Radnor 4 Rentals 66-7, 69, 70, 73, 97, 98,
100, 104, 142, 156 Repton, Humphry 38, 39, 170,
171 Richmond, Duke of 103-4 Riots 53-6, 64, 65, 81, 82, 83-6,
88, 89, 170, 172 Romantic movement 1, 12, 13, 14,
56-8
184 Index
Royal Agricultural Society of England 154, 173
Rural crafts & cottage industries x, 2, 9, 27-8, 45, 56, 77, 128, 129, 149, 151, 158-61
Rural sports 31, 36, 69-70, 108, 110, 111, 131, 132, 134-43, 148, 150, 154
Rutland 141 Rutland, Duke of 95-6
Saint-Fond, B. Faujas 31-3 Sales, Roger 13, 84 Schools, see Education Schools, H.M. Inspectors of 125,
126 Selborne 9, 10, 19 Servants 20, 31, 35, 42, 43, 57,
123, 124, 125, 151, 159, 160 Shelley, Percy Bysshe 65 Sickness 8, 76, 89, 152 Skinner,John 117 Smith, Rev. Sydney 10 Social behaviour & manners 11,
14, 16, 17,20-1,23-4,29,30, 31-3,34,43-4,46,48,65, 70, 78, 89,92,93, 115,122, 12~ 132, 149, 152-4, 158-9, 160, 163-4, 165-6
Social distinctions 17, 29-37, 43, 66, 70, 78, 122, 123, 125, 144, 149, 160, 167
Somerset 46, 76, 117, 123 Speenhamland system 90, 170 Spring, David 147, 167 Stone, Lawrence 38, 168 Stubbs, George 36, 139 Suffolk 4, 44, 47, 56, 65, 67, 75,
81, 84, 94, 95, 162 Superstition 112, 118-21 Surrey x, 4, 19, 74 Surtees, R.S. 7, 11, 69, 109, 110,
135, 136, 137, 155-6, 173, 174 Sussex 4, 74, 75, 83, 84, 162
Taine, Hippolyte A. 144, 164, 165 Tennyson, Alfred 1, 74, 157 Textile workers x, 2, 9, 64, 75
Thirsk, Joan 134 Thompson, F.M.L. 64, 97, 142 Tithes 68, 116-18, 172 Transport:
railways 7, 110, 112, 163, 172, 173
road 7, 10, 11, 28, 108 water 6, 7, 10, 169
Trollope, Anthony 97, 98, 103, 113, 135, 146, 147, 148, 149
Trollope, Mrs Frances 93
Urbanisation 1, 11, 12-13, 25
Village community 9, 11, 12, 16-17,18-19,23-4,29-30,42, 106-12, 145
Wages 20-1, 34, 64, 72, 75, 76-7, 79, 82, 83, 90, 91, 162, 164, 165, 166
Wales 6, 7, 26, 44, 75 Walpole, Horace 106 Warton, Joseph 11 Warwickshire 23 Watson, Frederick 11 Wellington, Duke of 150-1 Wesley,John 113-14, 116 Westmorland 33, 44 White, Rev. Gilbert 9, 10, 19 Wiltshire 4, 76, 84, 106, 128, 141,
162, 166 Witchcraft 119-20 Women workers:
cottage industries x, 9, 56, 75-9, 157-9
education 122, 124-5 land 9, 24, 57, 58, 75-9, 157-9
Woodforde, Rev. James 34 Worcestershire 4, 87 Wordsworth, William 12, 13, 25,
44, 45, 131
Young, Arthur 6, 7, 34, 50, 59, 144, 169
Yorkshire 2, 4, 5, 26, 44, 47, 52, 72, 150, 162