civilsocietyapgov2007

8/14/2019 CivilsocietyapGOV2007

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CIVIL SOCIETY ANDGOVERNANCE:

A Contextual andConceptual

Background


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Civil Societyencompasses major

groups, that is farmers, women, the

scientific and technological community,

children and youth, indigenous peoples

and their communities, workers and tradeunions, business and industry, non-

governmental organizations as well as

local authorities..

.


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Many authors view themain source ofsocial

capital as residing in therealm ofcivil society


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Civil society commonlyembraces a diversity of

spaces, actors andinstitutional forms, varying in

their degree of formality,

autonomy and power.


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A deeply rooted network oforganizations and institutions th

at mediate between the citizen a

nd the State: the connective tissue of a democratic culture.

ALSO KNOWN AS THE THIRD SECTOR


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Civil societys three

(3)main functions:

(a) Promoting voluntarism,(b) building social capital,(c) creating an enabling

environment for policyinput.


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Voluntarism is a

key aspect ofcivil society.


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Robin Guthrie (1994) defines Civil

Society as:It is what citizens do together in their ownright at the bidding of no higher authority, forthe common good, and apart, generally

speaking, from direct party political affiliationor alignment.

The civil society is not concerned primarily

with power, although it may be rangedagainst the excessive concentration or abuseof power in any quarter.


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Civil societies are often populated

by organizations such as registeredcharities, development non-

governmental organizations,

community groups, women'sorganizations, faith-based

organizations, professional

associations, trades unions, self-help groups, social movements,

business associations, coalitions

and advocacy groups.


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Examples of civil society institutions:non-governmental organizations (NGOs)private voluntary organizations (PVOs)

peoples' organizationscommunity-based organizationscivic clubstrade unionsgender, cultural, and religious groupscharitiessocial and sports clubscooperativesenvironmental groupsprofessional associationsacademiapolicy institutionsconsumers/consumer organizationsthe mediacitizens' militiaorganized religion


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Such organizations are seen as servingseveral essential functions:Providing a means for expressing and activelyaddressing the varied and complex needs of societyMotivating individuals to act as citizens in all aspects of

society rather than bowing to or depending on state

power and beneficencePromoting pluralism and diversity in society, such as

protecting and strengthening cultural, ethnic, religious,

linguistic and other identitiesCreating an alternative to centralized state agencies for

providing services with greater independence andflexibilityEstablishing the mechanisms by which governments

and the market can be held accountable by the public


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The majority of theseorganizations are referred to as

non-governmental organizations

(NGOs) for the purpose of definingthe primary operational target

group


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As catalysts forachieving local and

global sustainable

development


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Promoting the triplebottom-line

Economic viability

Social equityEnvironmental integrity


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THE CHALLENGES

Globalisation,

which re-shapes patterns of global poverty, accentuates inequalities, and promot

es new levels of insecurity in the world.


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The reform of internationalco-operationto deal with these

developments, moving away fromforeign aid to embrace a broaderfocus on rules, standards and

interventions to protect the mostvulnerable.


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Complex political

emergencies",which are characteristic of the post-Cold War d

isorder as state authority erodesand people take refuge in ethnicity and religion.


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NEEDED:

new forms of

solidarity - or new"social contracts"


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Between citizens ofdifferent polities and ne

w structures ofauthority at different lev

els of the world system


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New relationships

-

expressed through partnerships, alliances and other for

ms of collaboration


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BECAUSE:

Nation-states and their

governments cannot

manage development and

reforms on their own


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Social capitalis generally

referred to as the set of trust,institutions, social norms, social

networks, and organizations thatshape the interactions of actorswithin a society and are an asset for

the individual and collectiveproduction of well-being.


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At the macro level, social

capital can affect the

economic performance and

the processes of economicgrowth and development.


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Social capitalis a socio-economic concept with a variety

of inter-related definitions, basedon the value of social networks.


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In The Forms of Capital(1986)

Pierre Bourdieu defines socialcapital as "the aggregate of theactual or potential resources

which are linked to possessionof a durable network of more or

less institutionalizedrelationships of mutualacquaintance and recognition."


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Social capital "refers to the

collective value of all'social networks' and the

inclinations that arise fromthese networks to do

things for each other,"according to Robert

Putnam


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Francis Fukuyama described

"Social capital simply as theexistence of a certain set of

informal values or norms

shared among members of a

group that permit cooperation

among them."

TYPES OF SOCIAL


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TYPES OF SOCIALCAPITAL


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BRIDGINGIt is inclusive and cutsacross such social

boundaries as thoseconstituted by

language, race,ethnicity or religion.


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BONDING

exclusive and primarilyassociated with strong

enforceable ruleswithin a group whereindividuals know each

other, but allow for adifferent standard when

dealing with outsiders


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BINDINGwhich we see asbringing people

together, for example,into inter-ethnic or

trans-religiousorganizations withoutbecoming bridging in


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BLINDINGIt arises in modern societieswhere exclusivist groupsemerge, not as a result of

race or ethnicity, but belief in acause, i.e. something thatserves to mobilize individualsinto an organization wheremembership is determined byideological commitment and


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Social network theory views

social relationships in terms ofnodes and ties.

In its most simple form, a

social network is a map of all

of the relevant ties between thenodes being studied.


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Nodes are the individual

actors within the networks,and ties are the relationships

between the actors.

There can be many kinds of

ties between the nodes.


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The network can also beused to determine the

social capital ofindividual actors.


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These concepts are often

displayed in a socialnetwork diagram, where

nodes are the points andties are the lines.


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The shape of the

social network helpsdetermine a

network's usefulness

to its individuals.


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Smaller, tighter networks

can be less useful to theirmembers than networkswith lots of looseconnections (weak ties) toindividuals outside the

main network.


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A group of individuals

with connections toother social worlds is

likely to have access toa wider range of

information.


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It is better for

individual successto have connections

to a variety ofnetworks rather

than manyconnections within


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More "open" networks, with

many weak ties and socialconnections, are more likely

to introduce new ideas andopportunities to their

members than closed

networks with many

redundant ties.


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In other words, agroup of friendswho only do thingswith each otheralready share thesame knowledge

and opportunities


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NGOs, STATE,

BUSINESS, CIVILSOCIETY

RELATIONSHIPS


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3 ROLES

FOR NGOs


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NGO IN THE 21ST CENTURY

NEEDS

PROBLEMSOPPORTUNITIES


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NGOs as the:

Third FORCE

ALTERNATIVE

LEADER

LINK


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ROLES OF NGOs

ADVOCACY (Policy)BRIDGE (Network)

CATALYST (Change agent)DOLE-OUT (Provider)EMPOWERMENT (Equipper)


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ATTRIBUTES OF NGOs

RELEVANCERELIABILITY

RESOURCEFULNESSRESPONSIBILITYRESILIENCERESEARCH-ORIENTEDRELATIONAL

The voluntary sector can influence main


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The voluntary sector can influence main-stream development in the following ways(Clark 1991):

1.encouraging official aid agencies and

government ministries to adopt

successful approaches developedwithin the voluntary sector;

2. educating and sensitizing the public as

to their rights and entitlements under

state programs;


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3. attuning official programs to

public needs by acting as aconduit for public opinion and

local experience;

4. operational collaboration with

official bodies;


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5. influencing local development

policies of national and internationalinstitutions; and

6. helping government and donorsfashion a more effective

development strategy through

strengthening institutions, stafftraining and improving management

capacity.


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Second, because of their style of

work.

Many NGOs have demonstrated an ability to

reach poor people, work in inaccessible areas,innovate, or in other ways achieve thingswhich are difficult for official agencies (Tendler1982).


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Third, many of them represent

poorer people.

Many NGOs have close links with poor

communities. Some are membershiporganizations of poor or vulnerable

people. Others are skilled at participatory

approaches (Bratton 1988 and 1990).

Th NGO tt ib t it d b h


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The NGO attributes cited above havebecome increasingly important in

recent years as:

a. Official aid agencies and many governments

seek to give greater attention to assistingwomen, the food insecure, indigenous peoples,

AIDS sufferers/orphans and other vulnerable

groups, which NGOs are better able to reach

(Bebbington and Farrington 1992a and 1992b).


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c. There is a more clearlyrecognized need for pluralism

and prominent citizens' voices innational development planning.

NGOs can contribute to this inmany ways including, at thelocal level, by the promotion ofgrassroots mobilization forsocial change (Clark 1991) orparticipatory development


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d. There is increasing

realization of the need to"roll back the State" in

many countries where ithas become over-extended.

This gives greater

rominence to the rivate


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e. The rapid growth in

numbers of NGOs many highly-specialized or localized whichgives donors a wide choice of

partners and considerableinfluence over those partnersin many countries.

This proliferation is highlycountry-specific.


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A Healthy State-NGO

Relationship

Share common objectives

A degree of financial autonomy ofthe NGO sector is necessary to ensu

re their independence.


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Inviting NGO leaders to serve on

government commissions or by holding public consultations in which grassroots organiz

ation are able to voice their concern and exp

erience

Consultation can be a surprisingly

productive process and reduce tensions.


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Genuine partnership between

NGOs and the government to

work on a problem facing the

country or a region... based onmutual respect, acceptance of

autonomy, independence, and

pluralism of NGO opinions and

positions.


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When both parties see that

their solutions are not competing alternatives but are comple

mentary contributions, the possibility for a genuine collaborat

ion is opened.


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Official aid agencies are able to influence

the State-NGO relationship and to enhanc

e the political will necessary for constructi

ve engagement.

NOTE: The health of the State-NGOrelationship (and the features

determining the quality of that

relationship) is sector-specific.

Barriers to a Healthy State


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Barriers to a Healthy State-

NGO Relationship

a.A highly political policy environment.

NGOs often fall in the opposition campand the government or ruling party maysee itself as the sole legitimate voice of

the people. The root cause of suchpolitical polarization warrants study.

b NGOs preference for isolation hence


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b. NGOs preference for isolation hence

unwillingness to dialogue with

government, and poor coordinationwith one another. Some NGOs preferto keep well separated from the government

orbit to avoid drawing attention, and

therefore outside control, to their activities.

c. Jealousy of civil servants towards

the NGOs' access to resources.


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d.Pressure on successfulNGOs from major donors

to receive more funds,leading to a decline in

performance.


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e. The NGOs constituency.

If as frequently is the case it is a narrow

constituency (such as one kinship group, or

even just the poorest farmers) the governmentmay consider it too selective since it must

consider the common good. Similarly, NGOs

have the "luxury" to pick one or two issueswhich dominate their attention, while

governments must juggle with a multitude of

concerns.


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f. NGOs capacity.

NGO projects may not be as effective as

claimed, the professional skill of NGO

staff, the accountability of NGOs to the

grassroots, and strategic planning poorly

developed.

g. The public sector's capacity.


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g.The public sector s capacity.

The government's commitment toimproving services, eradicatingdiscrimination and poverty may be weak;

there may be a shortage of competent staffespecially at local level; corruption andnepotism may be rife.

In countries driven by strife there is often alegitimacy issue when much of the countryis not under government control.


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h. Political jealousy.Governments may not want to foster a healthierNGO sector for fear of bolstering the political

opposition. How NGOs survive and operate in

an adverse policy environment is an importantissue for study. In some countries they have

been crushed, but elsewhere they have thrived

on controversy.

i D d f i d


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i. Dependence on foreign donors.A government might be more suspicious of

NGOs which are highly dependent on foreignfunds and therefore might impugn theirmotives as "guided by a foreign hand."Conversely, an NGO which derives a

considerable proportion of its funding fromits members has maximum authenticity.When the NGO sector is dominated byforeign or international NGOs as has been

documented by Edwards (1991 ) and Hanlon(1990), there can be problems between the government and the NGOs.


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Fostering an Enabling

Environment

How can governments constructa policy environment conduciveto the strengthening of the NGO

sector?

This ill depend significantl on the initial


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This will depend significantly on the initialrelationship between the two sectors, as described byTandon (1991).

The first form of relationship is where

NGOs are in a dependent-client

position vis-a-vis the government; inwhich NGOs implement state-prepare

d programs and/or receive funding thr

ough the State (a dependency of money, ideas and resources).


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Thesecond type of relationship isadversarialin which there are no com

mon starting points and no wish from

either side to search out areas of agreement.


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The third and most constructive

relationship emerging in certainliberal democracies is a

collaborationist one; a genuine

partnership to tackle mutually

agreed problems, coupled with

energetic but constructivedebate on areas of

disagreement

The State has various instruments


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The State has various instruments

it can use, for good or ill, to influen

ce the health of the NGO sector (Brown 1990).

The level of response can be non-interventionist, active encouragement, partnership, co-option or control

.

The policy instruments used can be:


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a.Factors of governance (encouragingpublic debate and consultation, and the

right to organize interest groups);

b. NGO regulations and the legal

framework (for example, regarding

registration and reporting, auditing and

accounting requirements);


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c. NGO incentives (including

taxation policies on incomeor local fund-raising, dutieson imports, subsidies for

NGOs, etc.);

d. Collaboration (use ofNGOs in program/projectimplementation);

e. Involvement in policy-making (serving on

itt i ti ith bli lt ti )


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committees, assisting with public consultations);

f. Public disclosure of information (NGOsserving as a conduit to inform the public about

development schemes which effect them);

g. Coordination requirements within the NGO

sector; and

h. Direct expenditure, including official support

(grants, contracts, etc.), and research benefiting

the NGO sector.

Conclusions The Major


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Conclusions - The Major

Policy Issues

"Good Governance".How can civil society be strengthened to help the

government be better attuned to popular concerns, to

develop public accountability of state institutions and toimprove efficiency? Of relevance are issues of plurality

(rights of association, rights to organize interest groups) and

information (public access to information about development

programs). Governments might reduce implementation

problems and enhance public support for their programs byeasing access to information and allowing affected

communities the opportunity to voice their concerns. NGOs

can play an important role as interlocutors and facilitators of

public


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The Legal Framework Regulating NGOs.Do registration and reporting requirements hinder NGO growth?

How might they become less restrictive while guarding against corruption and other malpractices within the sector?

Taxation Policies.Do these stifle NGO initiative or provide incentives? Do they

make it difficult for NGOs to receive foreign funds and donated

goods? Do they hamper or encourage local philanthropy or

income generating activities of NGOs? Is there a perceived

arbitrariness or bias in the awarding of these incentives? Are

there tax exemptions for NGOs operating in priority sectors?

Might tax exemptions increase the risk of corruption?

Collaboration.


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In what sectors/projects does the government collaborate with NGOs?

What is the attitude of the relevant central and local government officials to

such collaboration? What is the attitude of the major NGOs to

collaboration? How much encouragement, guidance and training isprovided for such collaboration? How are the NGO partners selected? At

what stage is collaboration sought (e.g. with projects: at identification,

design, appraisal, implementation, service delivery, monitoring, or

evaluation stages)? What different types of collaboration are practiced?

How does collaboration influence changes within government structures

(e.g. greater openness to the opinion of local communities, increasedpreparedness to share information)? How does collaboration influence

changes within the NGOs (e.g. more attention to strategic planning,

deflection from their traditional constituencies and purpose, altering the

relative sizes and strengths)? When NGOs are engaged to make

development programs participatory, are they able to represent a broad

cross section of stake-holders or only certain interest groups? Asgovernments move towards contracting out services that were previously

provided by public employees, it is important to learn from experience

what has worked and where pitfalls lie. What are the public sector

management implications of expanded NGO collaboration, if both the NGO

and public sectors are to avoid damage?

Public Information, Education and


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Consultation.Does the government use NGOs for these purposes,

encourage, permit, or resist such activities? In whichsectors is the informational and educational work of

NGOs most valuable (e.g. AIDS prevention;

environmental awareness; combating

gender/ethnic/caste bias; promoting family planning;

adult literacy)? In which sectors/projects have NGOs

played an important role in public consultations (e.g.

environmental assessments, assessing social impact

of projects, identifying needs for resettlement and

rehabilitation)? In which policy areas have NGOsplayed a significant role (public consultation,

information, or implementation)? Do NGOs serve on

government commissions or other official bodies? In

what capacity do they serve?


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Official Support


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Official Support.

Does the government finance NGO activities directly, andif so, what mechanisms does it use? What impact does

this have on the work, constituency and autonomy of the

NGO sector? Are NGO representatives involved in such

funding decisions? Similarly does the government offercontracts directly to NGOs? Does the government seek

to control the funding of NGOs by official aid agencies or

Northern NGOs? What is the role of donors in improving

or worsening the State-NGO relationship. Donors can

over-fund indigenous NGOs, or cause international NGOsto start operations and eclipse indigenous ones.

I ll f th th i t ti l f


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In all of these areas there is potential for

conflict: conflict between NGOs and the

government, between different NGOs(because in most countries they are farfrom a homogenous group) and even

within an individual NGO.

Official support for NGOs involved in

service delivery may be resented by those

actively seeking reforms in government

policies and practice.


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NGO-BUSINESS RELATIONSHIP

Risks of Partnerships and Engagement


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Risks of Partnerships and Engagement

The Nordic report also sees several dangers whencompanies and NGOs get into bed with each other.

NGOs risk jeopardizing their

legitimacy.

Businesses risk wasting resources.


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But there are also risks for the

partnership -- that the business simply

reaps the reputational reward without

making serious efforts to achieve

progress.

That could backfire on both partners, the reportsays: for business, it is undeniable that

partnering with NGOs has positive effects ontheir image.

However if this benefit is


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However, if this benefit is

misused and not underscored by

a willingness to actually work

with NGOs towards shared

goals, it will quickly lose itsvalue, as NGOs credibility

diminishes, along with that of

business.


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NGO-BUSINESSRELATIONSHIP

SustainAbility identified somekey success factors:


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The company must be

serious about changing itsbehavior, and should be able

to drive change in its ownsector and across the

business community more

generally.

The NGO must be able to


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The NGO must be able to

maintain clear accountability to

its own key stakeholders, andmust maintain its independence

from the business partner.

Each partner needs to benefit

directly, and to understand theother benefits.

The rules of engagement need


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e u es o e gage e t eed

to be clearly agreed at the

outset.

Individual participants must

be sufficiently senior to have

their organization mandate and

be able to take difficultdecisions without constantly

having to refer back.

The people involved must trust


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p p

each other.

The difficulty of achieving all those conditionsexplains why effective partnerships are few andfar between. But if it works, companies

prepared to take the risk can benefit in moreways than simply enhancing their reputationsas good corporate citizens. They can also learnin ways which help them avoid or reduce risks,seize new market opportunities, and stimulateinnovation.


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IMPLICATIONS OFTHE CHANGING

GLOBAL CONTEXTFOR NGOs


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GLOBALIZATION

SOCIALCAPITAL

SOCIALNETWORKS

CIVILSOCIETY

NGO/NPO

SUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT

GOVERNANCE


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HOW TO MOBILIZE AGENUINELY-INCLUSIVECIVIL SOCIETY AT

EVERY LEVEL OF THEWORLD SYSTEM?


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HOW TO HOLD OTHERINSTITUTIONSACCOUNTABLE FOR THEIR

ACTIONS AND ENSURETHEY RESPOND TO

SOCIAL ANDENVIRONMENTAL NEEDS?


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HOW TO ENSURE THAT

GAINS MADE AT THEGLOBAL LEVEL ARE

TRANSLATED INTOCONCRETE BENEFITS ATTHE GRASSROOTS AND

VICE VERSA.

REQUIRED ORGANIZATIONAL


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REQUIRED ORGANIZATIONALCHANGES FOR NGOs

RolesRelationshipsCapacities

Legitimacy andAccountability

SUMMARY QUESTIONS:


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SUMMARY QUESTIONS:

WHY are NGOs importantACTORS of governance in

the pursuit of sustainabledevelopment?

Are NGOs still relevant inthe next 15 20 years?

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