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CIVIL SOCIETY ANDGOVERNANCE:
A Contextual andConceptual
Background
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Civil Societyencompasses major
groups, that is farmers, women, the
scientific and technological community,
children and youth, indigenous peoples
and their communities, workers and tradeunions, business and industry, non-
governmental organizations as well as
local authorities..
.
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Many authors view themain source ofsocial
capital as residing in therealm ofcivil society
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Civil society commonlyembraces a diversity of
spaces, actors andinstitutional forms, varying in
their degree of formality,
autonomy and power.
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A deeply rooted network oforganizations and institutions th
at mediate between the citizen a
nd the State: the connective tissue of a democratic culture.
ALSO KNOWN AS THE THIRD SECTOR
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Civil societys three
(3)main functions:
(a) Promoting voluntarism,(b) building social capital,(c) creating an enabling
environment for policyinput.
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Voluntarism is a
key aspect ofcivil society.
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Robin Guthrie (1994) defines Civil
Society as:It is what citizens do together in their ownright at the bidding of no higher authority, forthe common good, and apart, generally
speaking, from direct party political affiliationor alignment.
The civil society is not concerned primarily
with power, although it may be rangedagainst the excessive concentration or abuseof power in any quarter.
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Civil societies are often populated
by organizations such as registeredcharities, development non-
governmental organizations,
community groups, women'sorganizations, faith-based
organizations, professional
associations, trades unions, self-help groups, social movements,
business associations, coalitions
and advocacy groups.
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Examples of civil society institutions:non-governmental organizations (NGOs)private voluntary organizations (PVOs)
peoples' organizationscommunity-based organizationscivic clubstrade unionsgender, cultural, and religious groupscharitiessocial and sports clubscooperativesenvironmental groupsprofessional associationsacademiapolicy institutionsconsumers/consumer organizationsthe mediacitizens' militiaorganized religion
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Such organizations are seen as servingseveral essential functions:Providing a means for expressing and activelyaddressing the varied and complex needs of societyMotivating individuals to act as citizens in all aspects of
society rather than bowing to or depending on state
power and beneficencePromoting pluralism and diversity in society, such as
protecting and strengthening cultural, ethnic, religious,
linguistic and other identitiesCreating an alternative to centralized state agencies for
providing services with greater independence andflexibilityEstablishing the mechanisms by which governments
and the market can be held accountable by the public
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The majority of theseorganizations are referred to as
non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) for the purpose of definingthe primary operational target
group
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As catalysts forachieving local and
global sustainable
development
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Promoting the triplebottom-line
Economic viability
Social equityEnvironmental integrity
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THE CHALLENGES
Globalisation,
which re-shapes patterns of global poverty, accentuates inequalities, and promot
es new levels of insecurity in the world.
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The reform of internationalco-operationto deal with these
developments, moving away fromforeign aid to embrace a broaderfocus on rules, standards and
interventions to protect the mostvulnerable.
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Complex political
emergencies",which are characteristic of the post-Cold War d
isorder as state authority erodesand people take refuge in ethnicity and religion.
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NEEDED:
new forms of
solidarity - or new"social contracts"
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Between citizens ofdifferent polities and ne
w structures ofauthority at different lev
els of the world system
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New relationships
-
expressed through partnerships, alliances and other for
ms of collaboration
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BECAUSE:
Nation-states and their
governments cannot
manage development and
reforms on their own
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Social capitalis generally
referred to as the set of trust,institutions, social norms, social
networks, and organizations thatshape the interactions of actorswithin a society and are an asset for
the individual and collectiveproduction of well-being.
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At the macro level, social
capital can affect the
economic performance and
the processes of economicgrowth and development.
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Social capitalis a socio-economic concept with a variety
of inter-related definitions, basedon the value of social networks.
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In The Forms of Capital(1986)
Pierre Bourdieu defines socialcapital as "the aggregate of theactual or potential resources
which are linked to possessionof a durable network of more or
less institutionalizedrelationships of mutualacquaintance and recognition."
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Social capital "refers to the
collective value of all'social networks' and the
inclinations that arise fromthese networks to do
things for each other,"according to Robert
Putnam
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Francis Fukuyama described
"Social capital simply as theexistence of a certain set of
informal values or norms
shared among members of a
group that permit cooperation
among them."
TYPES OF SOCIAL
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TYPES OF SOCIALCAPITAL
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BRIDGINGIt is inclusive and cutsacross such social
boundaries as thoseconstituted by
language, race,ethnicity or religion.
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BONDING
exclusive and primarilyassociated with strong
enforceable ruleswithin a group whereindividuals know each
other, but allow for adifferent standard when
dealing with outsiders
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BINDINGwhich we see asbringing people
together, for example,into inter-ethnic or
trans-religiousorganizations withoutbecoming bridging in
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BLINDINGIt arises in modern societieswhere exclusivist groupsemerge, not as a result of
race or ethnicity, but belief in acause, i.e. something thatserves to mobilize individualsinto an organization wheremembership is determined byideological commitment and
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Social network theory views
social relationships in terms ofnodes and ties.
In its most simple form, a
social network is a map of all
of the relevant ties between thenodes being studied.
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Nodes are the individual
actors within the networks,and ties are the relationships
between the actors.
There can be many kinds of
ties between the nodes.
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The network can also beused to determine the
social capital ofindividual actors.
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These concepts are often
displayed in a socialnetwork diagram, where
nodes are the points andties are the lines.
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The shape of the
social network helpsdetermine a
network's usefulness
to its individuals.
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Smaller, tighter networks
can be less useful to theirmembers than networkswith lots of looseconnections (weak ties) toindividuals outside the
main network.
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A group of individuals
with connections toother social worlds is
likely to have access toa wider range of
information.
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It is better for
individual successto have connections
to a variety ofnetworks rather
than manyconnections within
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More "open" networks, with
many weak ties and socialconnections, are more likely
to introduce new ideas andopportunities to their
members than closed
networks with many
redundant ties.
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In other words, agroup of friendswho only do thingswith each otheralready share thesame knowledge
and opportunities
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NGOs, STATE,
BUSINESS, CIVILSOCIETY
RELATIONSHIPS
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3 ROLES
FOR NGOs
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NGO IN THE 21ST CENTURY
NEEDS
PROBLEMSOPPORTUNITIES
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NGOs as the:
Third FORCE
ALTERNATIVE
LEADER
LINK
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ROLES OF NGOs
ADVOCACY (Policy)BRIDGE (Network)
CATALYST (Change agent)DOLE-OUT (Provider)EMPOWERMENT (Equipper)
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ATTRIBUTES OF NGOs
RELEVANCERELIABILITY
RESOURCEFULNESSRESPONSIBILITYRESILIENCERESEARCH-ORIENTEDRELATIONAL
The voluntary sector can influence main
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The voluntary sector can influence main-stream development in the following ways(Clark 1991):
1.encouraging official aid agencies and
government ministries to adopt
successful approaches developedwithin the voluntary sector;
2. educating and sensitizing the public as
to their rights and entitlements under
state programs;
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3. attuning official programs to
public needs by acting as aconduit for public opinion and
local experience;
4. operational collaboration with
official bodies;
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5. influencing local development
policies of national and internationalinstitutions; and
6. helping government and donorsfashion a more effective
development strategy through
strengthening institutions, stafftraining and improving management
capacity.
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Second, because of their style of
work.
Many NGOs have demonstrated an ability to
reach poor people, work in inaccessible areas,innovate, or in other ways achieve thingswhich are difficult for official agencies (Tendler1982).
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Third, many of them represent
poorer people.
Many NGOs have close links with poor
communities. Some are membershiporganizations of poor or vulnerable
people. Others are skilled at participatory
approaches (Bratton 1988 and 1990).
Th NGO tt ib t it d b h
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The NGO attributes cited above havebecome increasingly important in
recent years as:
a. Official aid agencies and many governments
seek to give greater attention to assistingwomen, the food insecure, indigenous peoples,
AIDS sufferers/orphans and other vulnerable
groups, which NGOs are better able to reach
(Bebbington and Farrington 1992a and 1992b).
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c. There is a more clearlyrecognized need for pluralism
and prominent citizens' voices innational development planning.
NGOs can contribute to this inmany ways including, at thelocal level, by the promotion ofgrassroots mobilization forsocial change (Clark 1991) orparticipatory development
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d. There is increasing
realization of the need to"roll back the State" in
many countries where ithas become over-extended.
This gives greater
rominence to the rivate
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e. The rapid growth in
numbers of NGOs many highly-specialized or localized whichgives donors a wide choice of
partners and considerableinfluence over those partnersin many countries.
This proliferation is highlycountry-specific.
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A Healthy State-NGO
Relationship
Share common objectives
A degree of financial autonomy ofthe NGO sector is necessary to ensu
re their independence.
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Inviting NGO leaders to serve on
government commissions or by holding public consultations in which grassroots organiz
ation are able to voice their concern and exp
erience
Consultation can be a surprisingly
productive process and reduce tensions.
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Genuine partnership between
NGOs and the government to
work on a problem facing the
country or a region... based onmutual respect, acceptance of
autonomy, independence, and
pluralism of NGO opinions and
positions.
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When both parties see that
their solutions are not competing alternatives but are comple
mentary contributions, the possibility for a genuine collaborat
ion is opened.
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Official aid agencies are able to influence
the State-NGO relationship and to enhanc
e the political will necessary for constructi
ve engagement.
NOTE: The health of the State-NGOrelationship (and the features
determining the quality of that
relationship) is sector-specific.
Barriers to a Healthy State
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Barriers to a Healthy State-
NGO Relationship
a.A highly political policy environment.
NGOs often fall in the opposition campand the government or ruling party maysee itself as the sole legitimate voice of
the people. The root cause of suchpolitical polarization warrants study.
b NGOs preference for isolation hence
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b. NGOs preference for isolation hence
unwillingness to dialogue with
government, and poor coordinationwith one another. Some NGOs preferto keep well separated from the government
orbit to avoid drawing attention, and
therefore outside control, to their activities.
c. Jealousy of civil servants towards
the NGOs' access to resources.
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d.Pressure on successfulNGOs from major donors
to receive more funds,leading to a decline in
performance.
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e. The NGOs constituency.
If as frequently is the case it is a narrow
constituency (such as one kinship group, or
even just the poorest farmers) the governmentmay consider it too selective since it must
consider the common good. Similarly, NGOs
have the "luxury" to pick one or two issueswhich dominate their attention, while
governments must juggle with a multitude of
concerns.
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f. NGOs capacity.
NGO projects may not be as effective as
claimed, the professional skill of NGO
staff, the accountability of NGOs to the
grassroots, and strategic planning poorly
developed.
g. The public sector's capacity.
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g.The public sector s capacity.
The government's commitment toimproving services, eradicatingdiscrimination and poverty may be weak;
there may be a shortage of competent staffespecially at local level; corruption andnepotism may be rife.
In countries driven by strife there is often alegitimacy issue when much of the countryis not under government control.
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h. Political jealousy.Governments may not want to foster a healthierNGO sector for fear of bolstering the political
opposition. How NGOs survive and operate in
an adverse policy environment is an importantissue for study. In some countries they have
been crushed, but elsewhere they have thrived
on controversy.
i D d f i d
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i. Dependence on foreign donors.A government might be more suspicious of
NGOs which are highly dependent on foreignfunds and therefore might impugn theirmotives as "guided by a foreign hand."Conversely, an NGO which derives a
considerable proportion of its funding fromits members has maximum authenticity.When the NGO sector is dominated byforeign or international NGOs as has been
documented by Edwards (1991 ) and Hanlon(1990), there can be problems between the government and the NGOs.
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Fostering an Enabling
Environment
How can governments constructa policy environment conduciveto the strengthening of the NGO
sector?
This ill depend significantl on the initial
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This will depend significantly on the initialrelationship between the two sectors, as described byTandon (1991).
The first form of relationship is where
NGOs are in a dependent-client
position vis-a-vis the government; inwhich NGOs implement state-prepare
d programs and/or receive funding thr
ough the State (a dependency of money, ideas and resources).
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Thesecond type of relationship isadversarialin which there are no com
mon starting points and no wish from
either side to search out areas of agreement.
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The third and most constructive
relationship emerging in certainliberal democracies is a
collaborationist one; a genuine
partnership to tackle mutually
agreed problems, coupled with
energetic but constructivedebate on areas of
disagreement
The State has various instruments
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The State has various instruments
it can use, for good or ill, to influen
ce the health of the NGO sector (Brown 1990).
The level of response can be non-interventionist, active encouragement, partnership, co-option or control
.
The policy instruments used can be:
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a.Factors of governance (encouragingpublic debate and consultation, and the
right to organize interest groups);
b. NGO regulations and the legal
framework (for example, regarding
registration and reporting, auditing and
accounting requirements);
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c. NGO incentives (including
taxation policies on incomeor local fund-raising, dutieson imports, subsidies for
NGOs, etc.);
d. Collaboration (use ofNGOs in program/projectimplementation);
e. Involvement in policy-making (serving on
itt i ti ith bli lt ti )
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committees, assisting with public consultations);
f. Public disclosure of information (NGOsserving as a conduit to inform the public about
development schemes which effect them);
g. Coordination requirements within the NGO
sector; and
h. Direct expenditure, including official support
(grants, contracts, etc.), and research benefiting
the NGO sector.
Conclusions The Major
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Conclusions - The Major
Policy Issues
"Good Governance".How can civil society be strengthened to help the
government be better attuned to popular concerns, to
develop public accountability of state institutions and toimprove efficiency? Of relevance are issues of plurality
(rights of association, rights to organize interest groups) and
information (public access to information about development
programs). Governments might reduce implementation
problems and enhance public support for their programs byeasing access to information and allowing affected
communities the opportunity to voice their concerns. NGOs
can play an important role as interlocutors and facilitators of
public
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The Legal Framework Regulating NGOs.Do registration and reporting requirements hinder NGO growth?
How might they become less restrictive while guarding against corruption and other malpractices within the sector?
Taxation Policies.Do these stifle NGO initiative or provide incentives? Do they
make it difficult for NGOs to receive foreign funds and donated
goods? Do they hamper or encourage local philanthropy or
income generating activities of NGOs? Is there a perceived
arbitrariness or bias in the awarding of these incentives? Are
there tax exemptions for NGOs operating in priority sectors?
Might tax exemptions increase the risk of corruption?
Collaboration.
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In what sectors/projects does the government collaborate with NGOs?
What is the attitude of the relevant central and local government officials to
such collaboration? What is the attitude of the major NGOs to
collaboration? How much encouragement, guidance and training isprovided for such collaboration? How are the NGO partners selected? At
what stage is collaboration sought (e.g. with projects: at identification,
design, appraisal, implementation, service delivery, monitoring, or
evaluation stages)? What different types of collaboration are practiced?
How does collaboration influence changes within government structures
(e.g. greater openness to the opinion of local communities, increasedpreparedness to share information)? How does collaboration influence
changes within the NGOs (e.g. more attention to strategic planning,
deflection from their traditional constituencies and purpose, altering the
relative sizes and strengths)? When NGOs are engaged to make
development programs participatory, are they able to represent a broad
cross section of stake-holders or only certain interest groups? Asgovernments move towards contracting out services that were previously
provided by public employees, it is important to learn from experience
what has worked and where pitfalls lie. What are the public sector
management implications of expanded NGO collaboration, if both the NGO
and public sectors are to avoid damage?
Public Information, Education and
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Consultation.Does the government use NGOs for these purposes,
encourage, permit, or resist such activities? In whichsectors is the informational and educational work of
NGOs most valuable (e.g. AIDS prevention;
environmental awareness; combating
gender/ethnic/caste bias; promoting family planning;
adult literacy)? In which sectors/projects have NGOs
played an important role in public consultations (e.g.
environmental assessments, assessing social impact
of projects, identifying needs for resettlement and
rehabilitation)? In which policy areas have NGOsplayed a significant role (public consultation,
information, or implementation)? Do NGOs serve on
government commissions or other official bodies? In
what capacity do they serve?
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Official Support
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Official Support.
Does the government finance NGO activities directly, andif so, what mechanisms does it use? What impact does
this have on the work, constituency and autonomy of the
NGO sector? Are NGO representatives involved in such
funding decisions? Similarly does the government offercontracts directly to NGOs? Does the government seek
to control the funding of NGOs by official aid agencies or
Northern NGOs? What is the role of donors in improving
or worsening the State-NGO relationship. Donors can
over-fund indigenous NGOs, or cause international NGOsto start operations and eclipse indigenous ones.
I ll f th th i t ti l f
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In all of these areas there is potential for
conflict: conflict between NGOs and the
government, between different NGOs(because in most countries they are farfrom a homogenous group) and even
within an individual NGO.
Official support for NGOs involved in
service delivery may be resented by those
actively seeking reforms in government
policies and practice.
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NGO-BUSINESS RELATIONSHIP
Risks of Partnerships and Engagement
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Risks of Partnerships and Engagement
The Nordic report also sees several dangers whencompanies and NGOs get into bed with each other.
NGOs risk jeopardizing their
legitimacy.
Businesses risk wasting resources.
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But there are also risks for the
partnership -- that the business simply
reaps the reputational reward without
making serious efforts to achieve
progress.
That could backfire on both partners, the reportsays: for business, it is undeniable that
partnering with NGOs has positive effects ontheir image.
However if this benefit is
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However, if this benefit is
misused and not underscored by
a willingness to actually work
with NGOs towards shared
goals, it will quickly lose itsvalue, as NGOs credibility
diminishes, along with that of
business.
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NGO-BUSINESSRELATIONSHIP
SustainAbility identified somekey success factors:
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The company must be
serious about changing itsbehavior, and should be able
to drive change in its ownsector and across the
business community more
generally.
The NGO must be able to
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The NGO must be able to
maintain clear accountability to
its own key stakeholders, andmust maintain its independence
from the business partner.
Each partner needs to benefit
directly, and to understand theother benefits.
The rules of engagement need
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e u es o e gage e t eed
to be clearly agreed at the
outset.
Individual participants must
be sufficiently senior to have
their organization mandate and
be able to take difficultdecisions without constantly
having to refer back.
The people involved must trust
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p p
each other.
The difficulty of achieving all those conditionsexplains why effective partnerships are few andfar between. But if it works, companies
prepared to take the risk can benefit in moreways than simply enhancing their reputationsas good corporate citizens. They can also learnin ways which help them avoid or reduce risks,seize new market opportunities, and stimulateinnovation.
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IMPLICATIONS OFTHE CHANGING
GLOBAL CONTEXTFOR NGOs
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GLOBALIZATION
SOCIALCAPITAL
SOCIALNETWORKS
CIVILSOCIETY
NGO/NPO
SUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT
GOVERNANCE
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HOW TO MOBILIZE AGENUINELY-INCLUSIVECIVIL SOCIETY AT
EVERY LEVEL OF THEWORLD SYSTEM?
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HOW TO HOLD OTHERINSTITUTIONSACCOUNTABLE FOR THEIR
ACTIONS AND ENSURETHEY RESPOND TO
SOCIAL ANDENVIRONMENTAL NEEDS?
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HOW TO ENSURE THAT
GAINS MADE AT THEGLOBAL LEVEL ARE
TRANSLATED INTOCONCRETE BENEFITS ATTHE GRASSROOTS AND
VICE VERSA.
REQUIRED ORGANIZATIONAL
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REQUIRED ORGANIZATIONALCHANGES FOR NGOs
RolesRelationshipsCapacities
Legitimacy andAccountability
SUMMARY QUESTIONS:
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SUMMARY QUESTIONS:
WHY are NGOs importantACTORS of governance in
the pursuit of sustainabledevelopment?
Are NGOs still relevant inthe next 15 20 years?