Classical Ethical Theories

Note:

• Ethical Theories show us that morality exists • Distinguish Good from Evil• These Theories are normative.• Thus create moral disagreements

among people.

• Each classical ethical theory has its view about the reality of morality.• Each theory gives important

truths a bout moral life.• None of the theories can claim

to possess the whole truth

• Each theory checks the excesses‘ of the other,• Thereby showing the limits of each

theory . • Some theories are consequential in

Nature,• While others are non-consequential.

Moral Absolutism

• Claims that there are absolute standards against which morality can be judged.•We can strive to attain higher

norms that apply to all human beings.

Moral absolutism cont’d

• Certain actions are right or wrong irrespective of the context of the act.• Nothing is relative; a crime is a

crime regardless of the circumstances.

Moral Absolutism Cont’d• Therefore right and wrong are

universal truths ( ethical standards are applicable to every body everywhere.

Analysis:• From an egoistic view, moral

absolutism condones fundamentalism. This can break down society.• This would imply that all people

should have the same ethical codes.

Cont’d

• positively:, it allows us to judge the actions of others.

Moral Relativism

• There are no universal moral standards; Nothing is good or bad absolutely.• Therefore the truth/ moral

principles vary from time to time, group to group place to place

Moral Relativism Cont’d

• Every one should be contented with the morality of their time and place

•

Two Forms of Relativism

1.Subjectivism: Each individual must act according to what he/she considers appropriate for each situation

Forms of Relativism Cont’d

2. Cultural Relativism: Good and Bad depends on the ethical values prevailing in the given culture/community.

Analysis

• No responsibility, No blame every body/groups have their own moral standards.• Can not Judge others• Laws become impossible to

implement

Consequentialism

• Actions are judged according to the end / completion / effect.• Sum total good in actions must

exceed the evil

Forms of Consequentialism

1.Ethical Egoism2.Utilitarianism/altruism3.Pragmatism4. Feminist Consequentialism

Forms Cont’d

Ethical Egoism:•What is ethical is that which

produces good consequences to the actor.( hedonists/ Thomas Hobbes)

Analysis

• Is it possible to avoid pain?• Foregoing sensual pleasure to

enjoy higher pleasure; postpone the enjoyment of pleasure• Pleasure generalized; sacrifice,

duty, generosity.. Etc

Utilitarianism; Jeremy Bentham & Stuart Mill

• Using the principle of utility,(Maximizing the Good) Bentham found pain and pleasure to be the only intrinsic values in the world.

Utilitarianism Cont’d

• Man is governed naturally by pain and pleasure.• Actions and policies should be

evaluated on the basis of the benefits and costs they have on society.

Utilitarianism Cont’d

•Correct actions produce greatest net benefits or lowest net costs.•Greatest happiness/good

for the greatest number.

Utilitarianism Cont’d

• People affected by actions are stakeholders of the action; therefore businesses should consider all people affected by their businesses as stakeholders in the business.

Utilitarianism Cont’d

• Essentials of Utility • Maximizing good • Theory of value: standard of goodness:

intrinsic values- satisfaction of desires- attainment of autonomy-achievement of deep personal relationships

• Consequentialism; produce the best utilitarian outcome

Utilitarianism Cont’d

• Impartiality/ Universalism

Analysis

• Is it possible to determine pleasure for others?• Is morality for the majority

always right?

Analysis cont’d

• Can lead to radical actions, infanticide, exterminate sufferers .. Assisted suicide( euthanasia)

Pragmatism

• There is no room for absolutism; ethical standards change according to their usefulness or practicability and their ability to produce good effect.

Pragmatism Cont’d

• Good actions are those that work, profitable, or have practical consequences, help solve a problem, and produce positive results.

Analysis

• No common Morality • One can not be certain of the

consequences.

Feminist Consequentilism Caro Gilligan/ Ethics of Care

•Men use logic and rules/ laws to arrive at moral decisions. They generalize morality while Women see morality as being entailed in communication and relationships. Morality is particular

Ethics of Care Cont’d

•Men see themselves as guilty for doing something wrong while women hold themselves responsible for not doing something to prevent the hurt.

Ethics of Care Cont’d

•Women change rules in order to preserve relationships while men abide by rules and see relationships as replaceable.

Ethics of Care Cont’d

• Therefore actions that are right are those that do not break up relationships, hurt other peoples feelings; and vise versa.

Non-Consequential Theories

• Kantian Ethics• Deontology• Virtue Ethics

Deontological Theories

• Greek word “ Deon” and “logos” meaning duty or obligation.

• Acting in accordance to one’s duty is right.• What are duties?• Hugo Grotius ( 1583-1635) and Samuel

Pufendorf ( 1632-1694)• Duties towards God • Towards one’s self

Duties Cont’d

• Duty towards others. Family, friends, general social obligations etc

• W.D ROSS DUTIES ( 1817-1971)• Fidelity • Gratitude• Justice• Beneficence• Self improvement and Non- maleficence.

Kantian Ethics/Theory

• Immanuel Kant : 1724-1804• He is a critique of the Utilitarian's, hedonists,

pragmatists, who never care a bout the motives of actors/agents.

• Actions are duty based ( motive)• Right actions are those that are done when the

agent possesses good will( a person recognizes that they ought to do these actions)

• Categorical Imperative ( unconditional/ command- / essential)

Kant Cont’d

• “ Act only to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law” Universalism

• Key Issues:• Duty and Good will• Universalism• Treating Human Beings as an “ End” not

“Means”

Virtue ethics

• Virtue is a habitual and firm disposition to do the good.

• Virtues allow a person not only to perform good acts to give the best of himself/herself in every thing.

• A good person directs his/herself towards the good with all

his/her sensory and spiritual powers.

Virtues cont’d

• A virtuous person stands firm in trying moments

• The choice of good acts produces virtue and virtues itself is the source of choosing to do good acts.

• Good habits make virtues and bad habits make the vices. ( Virtues= good; Vice= bad)

Virtues Cont’d

• Virtues are therefore necessary for a moral life.

• Virtues govern actions, give one a firm and good attitude, perfect the intellect, control passions, and generally make it easy for one to enjoy leading a morally good life.

• Virtues are acquired by human effort ( they are the seed and fruit of morally good acts)

Virtues Cont’d

• Classifications of Virtues.1. Cardinal Virtues/ moral virtues: Main/Major

all other virtues originate from them. Prudence: Right reason-ability to discern true

good from every circumstance. Justice: Fairness; promote equity. Fortitude: Firmness in difficulty-constant

pursuit of good

Virtues Cont’d

• Resistance to temptations• Ability to overcome obstacles.Temperance: Moderates attraction of pleasures.2. Super natural : Charity, Hope and Faith3. Intellectual: wisdom, science, art

Natural Law Tradition

• Laws of nature govern the activities of the universe, instruct emotions common to man, like love of offspring, self preservation etc ; Therefore

• All rational persons know what kind of actions morality prohibits, requires, discourages and encourages. It is reason which makes us act morally.

• What is natural is right/good and vice versa.[

Divine Command Theory

• Good actions commanded by God

Communitarianism

• Common good • Social Goals• Co-operative Virtues• Community Values• Solidarity: community makes the individual

and Vice versa• Society assigns roles. Therefore what is in line

with the common good is right and vice versa.

• Elements to evaluate an ethical act• Object /act• End/intention• Circumstances• Evaluation of acts with a double effect• Responsibility for other peoples actions• Responsibility for cooperating in other peoples actions• Restrictions to proper use of the intellect.•

Ethics Deontological Right Action Duty RightsTeleological/conquentialism