S u s a n Bl a c ka by

CLEOPATRAEgypt’s Last and Greatest Queen

For Emily and Chris, with thanks

STERLING and the distinctive Sterling logo are registered trademarks of Sterling Publishing Co., Inc.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Blackaby, Susan.Cleopatra : Egypt’s last and greatest queen / by Susan Blackaby.

p. cm. — (Sterling biographies)Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-4027-5710-5 (pbk.) — ISBN 978-1-4027-6540-7 (hardcover)1. Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, d. 30 B.C.—Juvenile literature. 2. Egypt—History—332-30 B.C.—Juvenile literature. 3. Queens—Egypt—Biography—Juvenile literature. I. Title. DT92.7.B58 2009932'.021092—dc22[B]

2008030146

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Contents

INTRODUCTION: Playing to Win . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CHAPTER 1: Birth of a Queen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

CHAPTER 2: Power and Exile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

CHAPTER 3: Appealing to Caesar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

CHAPTER 4: Fighting for Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

CHAPTER 5: Devotion and Disaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

CHAPTER 6: Growing Conspiracies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

CHAPTER 7: Passion and Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

CHAPTER 8: Carefree and Careless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

CHAPTER 9: Republican Unrest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

CHAPTER 10: Reunion and Renewal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

CHAPTER 11: The Parthian Campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

CHAPTER 12: Triumphs, Titles, and Tensions . . . . . . . . . . . 82

CHAPTER 13: Gathering Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

CHAPTER 14: The Battle of Actium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

CHAPTER 15: Death in Alexandria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

SOURCE NOTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

IMAGE CREDITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

ABOUT THE AUTHOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

69 BCE

30 BCE

Winter 69 BCECleopatra VII is born in Alexandria to

Ptolemy XII and Cleopatra V. Cleopatra VIand Berenice are her older sisters;

Arsinoë is her younger sister and is bornabout three years later.

61 BCECleopatra’s brother Ptolemy XIII is born.

41 BCEMark Antony and Cleopatra meet

in Tarsus and spend the winter in Alexandria.

44 BCECaesar is murdered at the Senate inRome on March 15. Cleopatra, PtolemyXIV, and Caesarion return to Alexandria.Ptolemy XIV dies, and Caesarion isnamed co-regent.

October 40 BCEMark Antony marries Octavia in Rome.Cleopatra gives birth to twins, AlexanderHelios and Cleopatra Selene.

Fall 36 BCECleopatra gives birth to PtolemyPhiladelphus. Mark Antony launches theParthian campaign and is defeated.

Fall 37 BCEMark Antony and Cleopatra are reunited

and spend the winter of 37–36 in Antioch.

32 BCEMark Antony divorces Octavia.

Octavian declares war on Cleopatraon behalf of Rome.

Spring 30 BCEOctavian attacks Egypt.

August 1, 30 BCEMark Antony is defeated by Octavian.

Mark Antony commits suicide.

58 BCEPtolemy XII is forced to flee Alexandria.

Cleopatra VI and Berenice seize control,but Cleopatra VI dies.

September 2, 31 BCEOctavian defeats Cleopatra and MarkAntony at the Battle of Actium. MarkAntony deserts his troops to followCleopatra to Alexandria.

August 12, 30 BCECleopatra dies. The Ptolemaic dynasty,founded in 305 BCE, comes to an end.

June 23, 47 BCECleopatra gives birth to her firstson, Ptolemy XV Caesar, who iscalled Caesarion.

48 BCEJulius Caesar arrives in Egypt; his rival,Pompey, is murdered. Cleopatra returns toAlexandria. The Alexandrian War begins.

Spring 47 BCEPtolemy XIII dies in battle, and the

Alexandrian War ends. Caesar namesCleopatra and her brother-husband,

Ptolemy XIV, co-regents. Cleopatra andCaesar travel on the Nile.

Spring 55 BCEPtolemy XII is restored to power;Berenice dies.

59 BCECleopatra’s youngest brother,Ptolemy XIV, is born.

September 46 BCECaesar’s triumph is held in Rome;

Cleopatra, Ptolemy XIV, andCaesarion join him there.

49 BCECleopatra is forced into exile.

51 BCEPtolemy XII dies. Cleopatra VII and her

brother-husband Ptolemy XIII arenamed co-regents. Cleopatra travels on

the Nile to install the Buchis bull.

Events in the Life of Cleopatra

INTRODUCTION

P l ay i n g t o Wi nWhatever Cleopatra dictated was done, withoutregard for the laws of man or nature.

—Appian

According to legend, Mark Antony hosted a magnificent

feast for Cleopatra and waited for praise from Egypt’s

powerful queen. After all, had the Roman general not met

her superior standards of luxury and extravagance? In the

candlelight, Cleopatra’s jewels sparkled. Her dark eyes

flashed. Mark Antony may have spared no expense, but

Cleopatra could not be outdone. She dismissed his efforts,

saying that she could spend an amount equal to 60,000

pounds of gold on a single meal. Mark Antony challenged

her to prove it.

The next night Cleopatra hosted a superb banquet,

but Mark Antony must have felt confident. Nothing gracing

the table or passing their lips came close to meeting her

impressive claim. However, the meal was not yet finished.

Cleopatra’s servant brought her a goblet of vinegar.

The queen removed an earring. The pearl dangling from the

gold clasp—one of the two largest pearls in the world—was

worth an astronomical sum. Cleopatra dropped the earring

into the drink and swirled it until the pearl dissolved.

Without hesitation, she drank the mixture and then flashed

Mark Antony a victorious smile.

At that moment, Mark Antony learned a valuable lesson.

Cleopatra—daring, clever, smart, rich, determined, and

rash—intended to win at any cost.

CHAPTER 1

B i r t h o f a Q u e e nEgypt has three hundred cities, plus three thousand,plus three times ten thousand, plus two times three,plus three times nine, and king Ptolemy rules them all.

—Theocritus

In the winter of 69 BCE, Egypt’s ruler welcomed a third

baby girl into the royal family. King Ptolemy XII named

his daughter Cleopatra, which in Greek means “her father’s

glory.” She joined a dynasty that had ruled Egypt for more

than 250 years.

The Ptolemy FamilyThe Ptolemy family came originally from Macedonia,

a kingdom located in the northern region of ancient

Greece. They rose to power after the

death of Alexander the Great, a

brilliant military leader who

had established an empire

that extended eastward

from Greece to India.

He conquered Egypt in

This seventeenth-century coppermedallion shows Cleopatra’s father,Ptolemy Auletes, holding Poseidon’strident and wearing Helios’s crown—symbols that link him to Greek gods.

331 BCE and mapped out the plan for a new capital city that

would bear his name. When Alexander died in 323 BCE, his

close circle of advisers divided the empire into three regions—

Macedon, Syria, and Egypt. In the division, Alexander’s trusted

general and childhood friend, Ptolemy, claimed Egypt for himself.

He knew about Alexander’s dream to build the most remarkable

city in the world and saw to it that this dream was fulfilled.

The kingdoms that had been part of Alexander’s empire

maintained strong cultural ties to Greece. However, from the

beginning of their reign, the Ptolemies combined their Greek

heritage with Egyptian customs that could be traced back

thousands of years. King Ptolemy I called himself the pharaoh, in

keeping with the Egyptian kings and queens who ruled before him.

Using the Egyptian title of pharaoh linked Ptolemy to Egyptian

history and to the power of the Egyptian gods. Nevertheless,

Ptolemy did not entirely give up his Greek ways. He still dressed

in the woolen robes that citizens of Athens wore. He spoke Greek.

He worshipped the Greek gods. Ptolemy passed this legacy down

through the ages. Generations later, Cleopatra inherited the

Ptolemaic traits and traditions. She was an Egyptian citizen,

but Greek blood flowed in her veins.

Cleopatra’s father, Ptolemy XII, was called Auletes, which

means “the flute player.” He was known far and wide for hosting

huge parties and fancy banquets. The

identity of her mother is uncertain, but it

is likely that she was Ptolemy XII’s sister,

Cleopatra V. The pharaohs had long

practiced brother-sister marriage. In

doing so, they copied the lives of the gods and goddesses they

worshipped. The Greek myths favored by the Ptolemies featured

similar relationships. For example, the Greek god Zeus was

3

She was an Egyptian

citizen, but Greek blood

flowed in her veins.

4

Rulers and Gods

The word pharaoh comes from the Egyptian phrase per-ao,meaning “great house.” Over time, it came to refer to the kingor queen living in the great house, a divine ruler who wasconsidered a god.

In Egypt, government and religion were two parts of awhole. The strength of Egypt as a nation and its endurance as a society can be traced to the key role the pharaoh played as a direct link to the gods. In dynasty after dynasty, the peoplemay have objected to the policies of one ruler or another.Nevertheless, the pharaoh commanded great respect andsupport due to his or her close relationship to the gods.

This mural, created c. 1200–1085 BCE, depicts the pharaoh,Ramses III, and his sonmaking offerings in theunderworld to Apis, thesacred bull that stood for the god Osiris.

married to his sister, Hera. Together they ruled over the rest of the

Greek gods and goddesses. It is therefore not so surprising that

the Ptolemies chose to continue this ancient marriage custom

between members of the Egyptian royal family.

Cleopatra—historically known as Cleopatra VII—grew up

with five sisters and brothers at the palace in Alexandria. Two

sisters—Cleopatra VI and Berenice—were older. Another sister,

Arsinoë, was born about three years after Cleopatra. Later came

two boys. Ptolemy XIII was born in 61 BCE, and Ptolemy XIV

was born in 59 BCE. All of the children were raised to carry on

the dynasty. According to the Egyptian law that the Ptolemies

followed, women were allowed to take the throne and rule in

their own right or as equal partners alongside the men. Cleopatra

and her sisters received the same education as their brothers to

prepare them for the responsibilities of ruling an empire.

AlexandriaWhen Alexander laid out the grid for the port city of

Alexandria, the site he chose was a quiet coastal village west of

the Nile Delta. By the time Cleopatra was born, Alexandria had

become the largest and grandest city in the world. Its population

had grown to 300,000 citizens made up of different groups. The

powerful Greek community, which was the ruling class, lived in

the center of the city. The Jewish community, mostly scholars

and tradesmen, lived on the east side. The Egyptians, who were

considered second-class citizens, lived in the old part of the city

5

Alexandria’s lively elegance is shown in this illustration of the waterfront.

on the west side. Cleopatra herself lived in the royal district called

the Bruchion, a cluster of palaces overlooking the Mediterranean

Sea on the northeast side of the city.

The city proper swarmed with people from all walks of life.

Merchants, sailors, artisans, government workers, and soldiers

lived crowded together. Even so, city life was comfortable

and pleasant, thanks to the wide streets, parks, gardens, and

extensive system of canals. The river and nearby Lake Mareotis,

located south of the city, provided a steady supply of fresh water;

and sea breezes kept the air circulating.

The location of Alexandria on the Mediterranean made it a

major trade center. Two harbors flanked a causeway connecting

the island of Pharos to the mainland. The causeway extended

for about three-quarters of a mile. The magnificent Pharos

lighthouse guided ships into the Great Harbor on the east side

6

Alexandria’s location made it a lively trade center for goods coming to North Africafrom Rome and goods carried over the Silk Road from Asia.

of the causeway and the Harbor of Good Return on the west. Each

harbor was big enough to hold 1,200 vessels at one time. Goods

from Africa, Asia, Greece, and Italy arrived by sea and by overland

routes. The historian named Strabo declared the marketplace in

Alexandria to be “the greatest emporium in the inhabited world.”

Cleopatra would have been exposed to all sorts of tastes and

treasures sold in the shops and stalls lining the streets.

7

The Pharos Lighthouse

The Pharos lighthouse was one of the Seven Wonders of theancient world. The marble structure was ordered by Ptolemy Iand designed by Sostrates in 290 BCE. Built in three sections, ithad a square base and an octagonal midsection. A giant statueof Zeus stood on the round chamber at the top. The tower roseto an overall height of 423 feet, making it the tallest building inthe world at that time. While the other world wonders werepurely decorative or ceremonial, the lighthouse was used toguide ships into port. In the top chamber, a huge curved mirrormade of polished bronze reflected sunlight during the day. Atnight, it reflected light from a burning flame. The beacon couldbe seen from more than thirty miles out at sea.

Artists use historicdescriptions to imaginewhat the Pharoslighthouse looked like.Johann BernhardFischer von Eriachcreated this etching in 1721.

8

Besides being

a trading hub,

Alexandria also had

a long history as a

center for culture

and learning. Great

thinkers, teachers, writers, dramatists, and artists shaped its

colorful past. Ptolemy I founded the Museum, which became a

center for scientific study. Ptolemy II established the Library and

vowed to collect one copy of every manuscript in existence.

Thanks to these patrons, Cleopatra had access to an enormous

body of knowledge for reading and research.

Learning to RuleThe details of Cleopatra’s childhood are unknown, but there

is no doubt that she was extremely well educated. The pharaohs

of Egypt had a long-standing program to educate their daughters

to prepare them to rule, and this was one of the traditions that the

Ptolemies followed, too. They even extended education for girls to

the daughters of wealthy Greeks who were part of the ruling class.

Schools set up across Egypt trained the leaders and administrators

of the future.

Records show that Cleopatra studied subjects based on Greek

literature. Greek works considered the masterpieces of the day

were collected into a set of textbooks for her. Cleopatra read

Homer’s epics, The Iliad and The Odyssey; poetry by Hesiod and

This illustration showsscholars studying papyrusscrolls stored in the librarythat Cleopatra used inAlexandria.

Pindar; and plays by Euripides and Menander. She studied history

written by Herodotus and Thucydides, which included political

and military events of the past,

and memorized the speeches of

Demosthenes to learn the fine points

of public speaking and debate.

In addition to literature,

Cleopatra studied science and

math. Subjects included arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and

medicine. To round out her education, Cleopatra studied art

and music, and for recreation, she sailed and rode horses. In

every aspect, her education prepared her morally, mentally, and

physically to step into her role as queen.

Cleopatra seems to have been a curious and eager student.

While it is certain that she was extremely bright, she was truly

exceptional when it came to learning foreign languages. Reports

that she knew as many as nine languages fluently and could

move from one to another without effort may be exaggerated.

Nevertheless, it is true that she was the only Ptolemy ever to

learn to speak Egyptian, and she was one of the few members of

her family able to converse with neighboring dignitaries in their

own tongue. Her language skills made her useful in political

discussions. It also earned her the respect and affection of the

Egyptian people living outside the Greek influence of Alexandria.

Support from RomeAlthough Egypt was isolated by the surrounding desert and

maintained its political independence, the Ptolemies had come to

rely on the vast power of the Roman Republic to provide support

and to help keep order. The Ptolemies paid Rome to protect them

from uprisings by native Egyptians and occasional threats from

9

Records show that

Cleopatra studied subjects

based on Greek literature.

10

The Roman Republic

In the centuries after Alexander’s death, marking the end of hisempire, Rome rose to the level of a superpower. Roman generalsused military might to extend their territory. In some cases the generals shared leadership of the annexed territories withlocal officials. In other cases they put Roman governors andrepresentatives in place to rule newly acquired regions. Everyoneanswered to the Senate in Rome. By the time Cleopatra wasborn, the Roman Republic stretched across Europe, extendedeast to the Euphrates River, and included parts of North Africa.

tribes to the east. Cleopatra’s father continued this policy, making

sure that Egypt stayed on Rome’s good side at any cost.

Ptolemy XII could be weak, harsh, and unpredictable. He

thought nothing of bankrupting his own people to buy Rome’s

protection. At the same time, he did anything he could to

strengthen his own authority and granted favors to anyone who

would assist in this effort. Cleopatra saw for herself the power

plays, secret pacts, broken promises, bribes, and betrayals that

marked her father’s rule.

On the other hand, Cleopatra could look all around her

and see the glories of the Ptolemaic dynasty as well. Marble

monuments graced the wide streets of Alexandria. Gilded temples,

restored to their former grandeur, gleamed in the desert sun.

Murals depicted her ancestors as powerful god-rulers who

presided over a rich land. The tombs of the pharaohs and of

Alexander the Great himself served as constant reminders of the

heights she could hope to achieve.