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Cognitive Construct Instructional Theories 1

Running Head: Cognitive Construct Instructional Theories

COGNITIVE CONSTRUCT INSTRUCTIONAL THEORIES

M. Öztürk AKCAOĞLU & Serap İLASLAN

Prof.Dr. Meral AKSU

Theories of Instruction (EDS 544)

November 03, 2009


Contents

1. Definition and Foundation of Cognitive Theory ........................................................................ 4

1.1. Defining Cognition and Cognitive Theory .......................................................................... 4

1.2 Information Processing Theory............................................................................................. 5

1.3. Behaviorist Theories vs. Cognitive Theories ....................................................................... 6

2. Jean Piaget .................................................................................................................................. 7

2.1. Piaget‘s Major Theoretical Concepts ................................................................................... 7

2.1.1. Schema. ......................................................................................................................... 7

2.1.2. Assimilation. ................................................................................................................. 8

2.1.3. Accommodation. ........................................................................................................... 9

2.1.4. Equilibrium. .................................................................................................................. 9

2.2. Piaget‘s Stages of Cognitive Development........................................................................ 10

2.2.1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 Years). ................................................................................. 10

2.2.2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 Years). ............................................................................... 11

2.2.3. The Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years) ............................................................. 12

2.2.4. Formal Operations Stage (11-15 years) ...................................................................... 13

2.3 Implications of Piaget Theory of Cognitive Development ................................................. 15

2.4. Limitations of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development ............................................... 16

3. Jerome Bruner ........................................................................................................................... 17

3.1. Learning theory of Bruner ................................................................................................. 18

3.2. Bruner‘s Theory of Cognitive Development ..................................................................... 19

3.3. Bruner‘s Theory of Instruction .......................................................................................... 21

3.4. Discovery Learning ............................................................................................................ 22

3.5. Spiral Curriculum............................................................................................................... 24

3.6. The Nature of a Theory of Instruction (Bruner‘s Criteria) ................................................ 25


4. David P. Ausubel ...................................................................................................................... 27

4.1. Principles of Subsumption Theory..................................................................................... 27

4.2. Meaningful Learning vs. Rote Learning ............................................................................ 27

4.3. Reception vs. Discovery Learning and Expository Teaching ............................................ 28

4.5. Concept Maps .................................................................................................................... 30

4.6.1. How to build concept maps......................................................................................... 30

4.6. Ausubel‘s Model of Learning ............................................................................................ 31

4.7. Ausubel‘s Expository Teaching ......................................................................................... 32

5. REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 34


1. Definition and Foundation of Cognitive Theory

How does learning take place? Grider states that within the framework of psychology,

cognitive learning theories have, perhaps, contained the broadest set of methodologies (1993).

From philosophical roots to evolving constructs and proponents, cognitive strategies provide a

divergent yet distinct emphasis on the mental processes that enable individuals to learn and to

use knowledge (Grider, 1993).

The term cognition refers to a faculty for the processing of information, applying

knowledge, and changing preferences. Cognition, or cognitive processes, can be natural or

artificial, conscious or unconscious. Within psychology or philosophy, the concept of cognition

is closely related to abstract concepts such as mind, reasoning, perception, intelligence, learning,

and many others that describe capabilities of the mind and expected properties of an artificial or

synthetic ―mind‖. Cognition is considered an abstract property of advanced living organisms and

is studied as a direct property of a brain (or of an abstract mind) on at the factual and symbolic

levels. Therefore, cognition is used to refer to the mental functions, mental processes (thoughts)

and states of intelligent entities (humans, human organizations, highly autonomous machines). In

particular, the field focuses toward the study of specific mental processes such as

comprehension, inference, decision-making, planning and learning. Recently, advanced

cognitive research has been especially focused on the capacities of abstraction, generalization,

concretization, specialization and meta-reasoning. This involves such concepts as beliefs,

knowledge, desires, preferences and intentions of intelligent individuals, objects, agents or

systems (Internet, 2009a).

Cognitive theory is based on the idea of cognition. The prevailing points of view of

cognitive theory embody the interaction between mental components and the information that is

processed through this complex network (Neisser, 1967). The active creation of cognitive

structures that decides on the concepts of self and the environment takes place as individuals

learn. In addition, the specific process of learning is not the primary area of concern in cognitive

research; instead, learning is viewed as only one of the many processes comprised by the human

mind (Anderson, 2000). Although all cognitive theorists examine these functions to discover

more about human learning, and behavior they often differ regarding emphasis. Some

approaches deal with detailed analyses of information-processing skills, while others focus on

1.1. Defining Cognition and Cognitive Theory


mental models or cognitive growth and development (Mayer, 1981). Therefore, cognitive

psychologists do not stick to a single set of rules or methodologies in their research (Grider,

1993).

Broadly, cognitive theory is interested in how people understand material, and thus the

theory is interested in aptitude and capacity to learn and learning styles. It is also the basis of the

educational approach known as constructivism, which emphasizes the role of the learner in

constructing his own view or model of the material, and what helps with that (Atherton, 2009).

As mentioned, cognitive theories and models of learning are focused on mental processes

involved in learning. Cognitive psychologists assert that learning is related to less with behaviors

– what learners do – and more with what learners know and how they acquire this knowledge.

They also believe that the changes in the behavior of the learner are indirect rather than direct

outcomes of learning (Koohang & Harman, 2007).

On the other hand, learning, according to cognitive science, is reorganizing the

knowledge structures of the brain achieved by the execution of internal cognitive processes

(thinking, remembering and so on). Therefore, attention is paid to: Knowledge representation,

the relationship between prior knowledge and new knowledge, cognitive skills, active

participation, and development of skills (Koohang & Harman, 2007).

Cognitive psychology developed around the late 1950s at a time when technology was

developing computers capable of manipulating large amounts of data more and more rapidly.

The group of information processing theorists which came out of cognitive psychology research

used the computer as a model for the way humans think. This branch of cognitive psychology

looks at the way people take in, process and act on information focusing on attention, perception

and memory. Effective use of these cognitive processes depends on our understanding of the

information processing model.

Like a computer, the human mind takes information, organizes it, stores it for later use

and then retrieves it when necessary. There three main concepts related to the theory:

Sensory memory (STSS). Sensory memory is related to the change from one energy

from to another. The environment makes available a variety of sources of information (light,

sound, smell, heat, cold, etc.), but the brain only understands electrical energy. The body has

special sensory receptor cells that transduce (change from one form of energy to another) this

1.2 Information Processing Theory


external energy to something the brain can understand. In the process of transduction, a memory

is created. This memory is very short (less than 1/2 second for vision; about 3 seconds for

hearing).

It is absolutely critical that the learner attend to the information at this initial stage in order to

transfer it to the next one. There are two major concepts for getting information into STM:

First, individuals are more likely to pay attention to a stimulus if it has an interesting

feature. We are more likely to get an orienting response if this is present.

Second, individuals are more likely to pay attention if the stimulus activates a known

pattern. To the extent we have students call to mind relevant prior learning before we begin our

presentations, we can take advantage of this principle.

Short-term memory (STM). Short-term memory is also called working memory and

relates to what we are thinking about at any given moment in time. It is created by our paying

attention to an external stimulus, an internal thought, or both. It will initially last somewhere

around 15 to 20 seconds unless it is repeated (called maintenance rehearsal) at which point it

may be available for up to 20 minutes. For example, you are processing the words you read on

the screen in your frontal lobes. However, if I ask, "What is your telephone number?" your brain

immediately calls that from long-term memory and replaces what was previously there.

Long-term memory (LTM). Long-term memory is also called preconscious and

unconscious memory in Freudian terms. Preconscious means that the information is relatively

easily recalled (although it may take several minutes or even hours) while unconscious refers to

data that is not available during normal consciousness. It is preconscious memory that is the

focus of cognitive psychology as it relates to long-term memory. The levels-of-processing

theory, however, has provided some research that attests to the fact that we "know" more than we

can easily recall. The two processes most likely to move information into long-term memory are

elaboration and distributed practice (Huitt, 2003).

"Cognitive" refers to mental processes such as the memory, judgment, and reasoning,

whereas "behavior" refers to the action, and activities of an organism. The cognitive approach to

learning implies that students actively discover knowledge, gain insight into learning.

1.3. Behaviorist Theories vs. Cognitive Theories


In the behavioral approach to educating, on the other hand, students' specific behaviors

(academically and socially) are observed, measured, and analyzed in order to bring about more

appropriate behavioral responses.

Cognitive Theory views learning as an acquisition of knowledge and cognitive structures

due to information processing, focusing on the brain processing such as the memory and

expectation. Behavior Theory views learning as a change in the form or frequency of behavior as

the consequence of environmental events, focusing on the way in which the stimulus-response

relationship is formed (Inoue, 2000, p. 2).

2. Jean Piaget

Piaget‘s former works and training as a biologist influences his system for

conceptualizing cognitive development. Functioning as a biologist, he became vividly aware of

and impressed by the interaction of mollusks with their environment because of the constant

adaptation the environmental conditions. The two important concepts have their roots in this

early work, since Piaget came to believe that biological acts are acts of adaptation to the physical

environment and organizations of the environment. This led him to conceptualize intellectual

development in much the same way. Cognitive acts are seen as acts of organization of and

adaptation to the perceived environment.

To understand the processes of intellectual organization and adaptation as they are

viewed by Piaget, four basic concepts are required. These are the concepts of schema,

assimilation, accommodation, and equilibrium. These concepts are used to explain how and why

mental development occurs (Wadsworth, 1972).

2.1.1. Schema.

Schemata are the cognitive structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and

organize the environment. Schemata are structures that are the mental counterparts of biological

means of adapting. The stomach is a biological structure that animals use successfully to adapt to

their environment. In much the same way, schemata are equivalent structures that adapt and

change with mental development. These structures are inferred to exist.

Schemata can be simplistically thought of as concepts or categories. Another analogy

might be an index file in which each index card represents a schema. Adults have many cards or

2.1. Piaget‟s Major Theoretical Concepts


schemata. They are used to process and identify incoming stimuli. In this way the organism is

able to differentiate between stimulus events and to generalize. When a child is born, it has few

schemata (cards on file). As the child develops, his schemata gradually broaden (become more

generalized), become-more differentiated, and progressively more "adult." Schemata never stop

changing or becoming more refined.' As the child develops, more cards are necessary to contain

the changing classifications. In Piaget's terms, we would say that the child has a number of

schemata.

Since schemata are structures of cognitive development that do change, allowance must

be made for their growth and development. Adults have different concepts from children.

Concepts (schemata—their structural counterparts) change. The cognitive schemata of the adult

are derived from the sensori-motor schema of the child. The processes responsible for the change

are assimilation and accommodation (Wadsworth, 1972).

2.1.2. Assimilation.

Assimilation is the cognitive process by which the person integrates new perceptual

matter or stimulus events into existing schemata or patterns of behavior. One might say that the

child has experiences: It sees new things (cows) or sees old things in new ways, and hears things.

What the child tries to do is to fit these new events or stimuli into the schemata he has at the

time. Suppose, a child is walking down the country road with his father, and the father points to

a cow in the field and says, "What is that?" The child looks at the cow (stimulus) and says,

"That's a dog." What has happened? The child, seeing the object in the field (cow), sifted through

his collection of schemata until he found one that seemed appropriate and that could include the

object. To the child, the object (cow) had all the characteristics of a dog-it fit in his dog schema-

so the child concluded that the object was a dog. The stimulus (cow) was assimilated into the dog

schema. Thus assimilation can be viewed as the cognitive process of placing new stimulus events

into existing schemata.

Assimilation goes on all the time. It would be extreme oversimplification to suggest that

a person processes one stimulus at a time. The human must continually process an increasing

number of stimuli.

The process of assimilation allows for growth of schemata. This does not account for

change (development) of schemata. We know schemata change-adult schemata are different


SOMETIMES YOU JUST HAVE TO ACCOMMODATE '.

from children's. Piaget accounts for the change of schemata with accommodation (Wadsworth,

1972).

2.1.3. Accommodation.

Upon being confronted with a new stimulus, the child tries to assimilate it into existing

schemata. Sometimes this is not possible. Sometimes a stimulus cannot be placed or assimilated

into a schema because there are no schemata into which it fits. The characteristics of the stimulus

do not approximate those required in any of the child's available schemata. What does the child

do? Essentially he can do one of two things: He can create a new schema into which he can place

the stimulus, or he can modify an existing schema so that the stimulus will fit into it; both of

these are forms of accommodation. Thus, accommodation is the creation of new schemata or the

modification of old schemata. Both of these actions result in a change in or development of

cognitive structures (schemata).

Once accommodation has taken place, the child can try again to assimilate the stimulus.

Since the structure has changed, the stimulus is readily assimilated. Assimilation is always the

end-product that the child actively seeks.

It can be seen that in assimilation, the person imposes his available structure on the

stimuli being processed. That is, the stimuli are "forced" to fit the person's structure. In

accommodation, the reverse is true. The person is "forced" to change his schema to fit the new

stimuli (Wadsworth, 1972).

2.1.4. Equilibrium.

A "balance" between assimilation and accommodation is as necessary as the processes

themselves. The "balance" between assimilation and accommodation is referred to by Piaget as

equilibrium. It is necessary to ensure an efficient interaction of the developing child with the

environment.


Equilibrium is a balance between assimilation and accommodation. Disequilibrium is an

imbalance between assimilation and accommodation. When disequilibrium occurs, cognitively, it

provides motivation for the child to seek equilibrium—to further assimilate or accommodate.

Equilibrium is seen as a necessary condition toward which the organism constantly strives. The

organism ultimately assimilates all stimuli (or stimulus events) with or without accommodation.

This results in equilibrium. Thus, equilibrium can be viewed as a state of cognitive "balance"

that is reached at assimilation. Obviously, equilibrium relevant to any particular stimulus may be

a very temporary affair, but it is nonetheless important.

It can be said that the child, upon experiencing a new stimulus (or an old one again), tries

to assimilate the stimulus into an existing schema. If he is successful, equilibrium is attained for

the moment, relevant to the particular stimulus event. If the child cannot assimilate the stimulus,

he then attempts to accommodate by modifying a schema or creating a new one. When this is

done, assimilation of the stimulus proceeds and equilibrium is reached (Wadsworth, 1972).

2.2.1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 Years).

In the sensorimotor stage, an infant‘s mental and cognitive attributes develop from birth

until the appearance of language. This stage is characterized by the progressive acquisition of

object permanence in which the child becomes able to find objects after they have been

displaced, even if the objects have been taken out of his field of vision. For example, Piaget‘s

experiments at this stage include hiding an object under a pillow to see if the baby finds the

object. An additional characteristic of children at this stage is their ability to link numbers to

objects (Piaget, 1977) (e.g., one dog, two cats, three pigs, four hippos). To develop the

mathematical capability of a child in this stage, the child‘s ability might be enhanced if he is

allowed ample opportunity to act on the environment in unrestricted (but safe) ways in order to

start building concepts (Martin, 2000). Evidence suggests that children at the sensorimotor stage

have some understanding of the concepts of numbers and counting (Fuson, 1988). Educators of

children in this stage of development should lay a solid mathematical foundation by providing

activities that incorporate counting and thus enhance children‘s conceptual development of

number. For example, teachers and parents can help children count their fingers, toys, and

candies. Questions such as ―Who has more?‖ or ―Are there enough?‖ could be a part of the daily

lives of children as young as two or three years of age.

2.2. Piaget‟s Stages of Cognitive Development


Piaget described the sensorimotor stage as a series of six substages: Substage 1: Reflexes

(Birth to 1 Month), substage 2: Primary Circular Reactions (1–4 Months), Substage 3: Secondary

Circular Reactions (4–8 Months), Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8–

12 Months), Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions (12–18 Months), Substage 6: Mental

Representation (18–24 Months).

2.2.2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 Years).

In this stage, children improve their ability to use language and think in symbolic forms.

For example, they can make sense of an object through words, pictures, signs without having the

actual object around. Their communication with others through words allow them establish more

elaborate schemes of knowledge. However, they still have difficulty in remembering the past,

keeping track of information and planning (Woolfolk, 1993). They cannot perform an action

mentally as they do physically. Mental actions do not follow a pattern of logic and operations are

still independent from each other. For example, it is possible to observe the child at this stage

interested in many things and getting bored with objects in a short period of time.

Piaget uses the term "operation" in terms of undertaking actions or thinking in a logical

or planned way. In his view, children are not able to operate logically until the age of seven due

to several problematic characteristics in their cognitive ability: perceptual centration,

irreversibility and egocentricism. (Biehler And Snowman, 1993).

Perceptual centration is the tendency to focus only one dimension of an action or issue

and ignoring other dimensions related to it. Perceptual centration prevents the child from

perceiving different aspects of a problem and reach wrong conclusions about it. Piaget's famous

experiment with water in containers with similar and different shapes. In this experiment, the

child is first asked to compare the amount of water in two short and wide containers with the

same shape which were actually equal. The child confirms that the amount of water is the same

in both containers. In the second phase of the experiment, the water in one of the containers is

poured into a taller and thinner container and the child is asked again to compare the amount of

water in the two containers. This time the child states that the water in the taller container is

more than the one in shorter and wider container. This experiment shows that the child can focus

only one aspect of a problem, the height of the container, at a time. He cannot compensate the

height of the container with the width of the other, showing that his/her lack of ability in

comparing and thinking about two features at a time.


Irreversibility refers to lack of ability in thinking backwards or in making use of actions

or knowledge from the past. In the experiment above, the child cannot mentally pour back the

water from the tall container into the wide one. As the child starts making use of knowledge or

experience from the past to solve a problem, the impact of irreversibility on thinking gets

decreased.

Egocentricism is seeing everything from one's own perspective, and thinking that

everyone shares that perspective. In preoperational stage, the child is not able to grasp the idea

that every human being has a way of thinking which might be different from each other. Since

the child assumes that everyone thinks the same way, s/he gets confused when someone brings a

different explanation from his/her own. It is possible to see children with strange looks when

adults try to explain something quite different from their way of seeing the world. Many of us

have seen children talking to themselves as if they are interacting with someone. Piaget calls this

"coolective monologue" which is also a sign of egocentricism. The child does not care whether

anyone is listening to him. S/he uses his/her language ability to motivate or guide his/her actions.

Education of the child at this stage requires special attention and planning appropriate for the

developmental characteristics. Verbal instruction and warnings are not very useful because the

child is not able to make sense of them easily. Symbolic thinking is still not advanced in children

at this stage. Rather, showing actually, demonstrating, and asking the child do it helps the child

more than saying or shouting (Woolfolk, 1993).

2.2.3. The Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)

Normally, the child in this stage is less influenced by the impediments of perceptual

centration, irreversibility and egocentricism. S/he is able to think backwards, plan and

understand others' point of views. S/he can mentally pour back the water from the tall container

to the wide one and understand the rule that change in shape does not mean change in the

amount. Piaget calls this "conservation" rule. The child at this stage is also able to plan things

(several mental actions at a time) mentally without depending too much on concrete objects. The

child understands that everyone has own point of view which might be different from his/her

own.

The child is able to solve concrete problems in a logical way. But s/he is still unable to

think hypothetically, which is more abstract form of thinking. The thinking focuses on describing

what an object is but not on what an object might be. His/her thinking has to depend on concrete


objects, that is, the symbols in his/her mind have equivalences in the concrete form. But when

the child is asked to think about something that has no concrete equivalence, like the concepts of

democracy, values, s/he has trouble in operating on them. Some past experience with physical

objects is needed for imagination. The child can think of several alternative ways of arranging

books in his/her library, but s/he has difficulty in arranging books in a library which s/he has not

seen before. So imagination is tied to physical reality.

Classification abilities develop at the concrete operational period. The development in the

ability in classifying objects is due to the child's resolution of perceptual centration and

irreversibility problems. Since the child is able to focus on more than one dimension at a time

and reverse actions mentally, his ability to classify increases dramatically. With a number of

objects with different colors and shapes, the concrete operational child can come up with many

ways of classifying using size, shape, color and other characteristics while the preoperational

child is able to produce only one of few alternative ways of classification since s/he has

perceptual centration problem. The same is true with classification ability. The concrete

operational child can order objects using sequential relationships among them.

Education of the concrete operational child requires still the use of concrete objects,

examples, pictures and hands-on practices to help him/her understand certain concepts. For

example, s/he might have difficulty in understanding the concept of industry with definitions and

descriptions. However, if s/he is taken to several places representing certain industries, or shown

films, the child is able to make sense of that concept. Therefore education at this level uses many

examples, pictures, field trips, hands on practices to teach certain concepts.

Much of the development in this stage is due to education and maturation. The perceptual

schemes are larger and more extensive in nature allowing the child develop greater

understanding of the environment. As the child learns about new concepts without the actual

object being around, s/he gradully develops the ability to think in abstract terms, an ability to

help him/her move into the next stage.

2.2.4. Formal Operations Stage (11-15 years)

In this stage, the child is capable of mental tasks involving abstract thinking.

Mathematical problems based on numbers and signs, for example, can be solved without needing

mental examples or representations. When they are explained through a book or a teacher,

abstract concepts like democracy, religion, inflation make sense to the child.


Hypothetical thinking is possible in this stage. The child can react to a story, manipulate

conditions in it and reason about what would happen. S/he can provide reasons and alternatives

to a problem which s/he has no experience with. For example, if the child is asked what would

happen if there was no paper in the world to write on, s/he can produce some alternatives to

paper. The teacher would give different kinds of homework, carry out verbal exams, use films or

field trips to explain things, etc. Without any physical experience, s/he can work on imaginative

problems.

The child can manipulate and coordinate a number of variables mentally. For example,

when presented a classification problem, the child can have more complex forms of

combinations considering different characteristics of objects.

Piaget says not everyone reaches at this level of cognitive development. Some stay at the

concrete operations level for their whole life. The formal operations stage is the highest stage

human beings can reach and it represents adult thinking.

Piaget suggests that the child at this period should be provided with many opportunities

to think about hypothetical problems to develop their hypothetical reasoning skills. Since they

can learn abstract concepts in this stage, they should be taught abstract concepts and practice

with them through exchanging and comparing ideas in the classroom (Internet, 2009b).

Stage Approximate

Ages Characteristics

Sensorimotor 0-2 years

Using senses and motor activities to make sense of the

outside world

Object permanence develops

Some goal directed actions develop

Simple words and symbols are used to communicate

Preoperational 2-7 years

Gradual development in language ability

Logical thinking is not possible due to three reasons:

perceptual centration, irreversibility and egocentricty in

thinking

Concrete

Operational 7-11 years

Able focus on more than one dimension of objects

(perceptual centration problems is over)


Can reverse actions mentally

Can see others' point of view

Can solve problems logically

Thinking is based on physical experience

Formal Operations 11-15 years

Able to think hypothetically and abstractly

Able to think about different variables in a logical fashion

More complex forms of combinations and coordinations

Upon reading the works of Piaget, one can easily comprehend that there is a useful

framework to understand children's cognitive development and that the teachers should adjust

the level of teaching according to the characteristics of each period. For instance, it is suggested

the focus should be on abstract concepts at the age of 11 because this is the time approximately

when the child is ready cognitively. Matching the teaching strategies and knowledge to the

operational level of the children is the major contribution of Piaget's theory.

In addition, some new concepts were coined to understand cognitive development of the

children. The concepts like perceptual centration, organization, assimilation and accommodation

are useful in thinking about these cognitive processes.

Another suggestion made by Piaget is that observing students' behaviors is an effective

guide to understanding their cognitive development level. Since any information about the

mistakes can provide us some crucial information about children's operation level cognitively

and help us adjust the way of teaching. When a mistake is observed, an instructor should

carefully think about those mistakes and try to understand the reasoning behind them.

Another important implication might be talking to children about their experiences. When

a question is answered, right or wrong, the instructor should talk to the students about their

reasoning process. This can help children be aware of their cognitive processes and may also

help the teacher to understand the logic utilized by the students. According to Piaget children are

the best sources of the information. So the teacher should observe, talk to them, and try to

understand them.

As mentioned above, in order to learn effectively, students should be able to incorporate

the new information into their existing schemes of knowledge. If that does not happen, then

2.3 Implications of Piaget Theory of Cognitive Development


learning does not occur. The teacher should be a facilitator in helping the child incorporate the

new information into their knowledge patterns through examples, demonstrations and field trips.

Finally, Piaget's theory suggests that children should be more active in their learning processes.

Since his theory depends more on biological nature of individuals, children should be provided

with activities and the context to explore the world themselves not through the eyes of others.

One implication of these points is that the instruction should be child-based rather than teacher

based. The child should be provided with opportunities for active engagement in the activities in

the learning process. Furthermore, the child should be the one who will decide on what to learn

and when to learn because s/he may not be ready to receive the knowledge that someone else

wants to teach. The child is the best source of decision in these instructional matters (Internet,

2009b).

Piaget's model of cognitive development is criticized for two basic reasons. First, the

model underestimates young children's abilities and overestimates older children's abilities. In

Piaget's model, children have limitations in logical thinking until the age of seven due to

"perceptual centration," "irreversibility" and "egocentricism." However, critics say many

children are able to overcome these limitations at the age of five or six. So this generalization

may not fit all children. Again critics say there are many children who are not able to think

abstractly and hypothetically during the period of 11-15. Particularly, the age of 11 is too early to

start complex mental operations.

Second, the model overemphasizes biological influence on cognitive development.

According to the model, every child goes through similar stages of cognitive development and

environment and education have little influence on these stages. An important implication of this

assumption is that education's contribution is not so powerful on cognitive development. In

addition, Piaget's model implicates that the teaching process should be student-centered, that is,

the student should be main source of information in the educational process. The major task of

the teacher is to design an environment that is conducive to active involvement and learning, but

not transmitting knowledge to the student directly. The teacher is a facilitator only. The child

will actively explore the outside world and try to make sense based on his/her cognitive level of

operation. An imposition on him/her will confuse the child especially if those impositions are not

parallel to his level. This position brings out an implication about the role of schools and teachers

2.4. Limitations of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development


in child's learning: a passive one. This implication is criticized by many educators since it

underestimates children's learning abilities and the influence of schooling on child's cognitive

development (Internet, 2009b).

3. Jerome Bruner

“It is surely the case that schooling is only one small part of how a culture inducts the

young into its canonical ways. Indeed, schooling may even be at odds with a culture's other

ways of inducting the young into the requirements of communal living.... What has become

increasingly clear... is that education is not just about conventional school matters like

curriculum or standards or testing. What we resolve to do in school only makes sense when

considered in the broader context of what the society intends to accomplish through its

educational investment in the young. How one conceives of education, we have finally come to

recognize, is a function of how one conceives of culture and its aims, professed and

otherwise”.(Bruner, Austin, & Goodnow, 1956, p. 8)

Jerome Bruner, who is regarded as one of the best known and influential psychologists of

the twentieth century, has made a profound contribution to the process of education and to the

development of curriculum theory. He is considered as one of the key figures in the so called

'cognitive revolution'. Nonetheless, it is the field of education that his influence has been

particularly existed. He asserted, 'How one conceives of education is a function of how one

conceives of the culture and its aims, professed and otherwise' (Bruner, et al., 1956, pp. 9-10)

Early in the 1940s, Jerome Bruner worked on how ―needs, motivations, and expectations (or

'mental sets') impact on perception. Moreover, he explored perception from a functional

orientation (as against a process to separate from the world around it). In addition to this work,

Bruner began to look at the role of strategies in the process of human categorization, and the

development of human cognition. This concern with cognitive psychology gave rise to a

particular interest in the cognitive development of children (and their modes of representation)

and what the appropriate forms of education might be.

Bruner was instrumental in the transition from behaviorism to cognitivism in 1950s and

1960s mainstream psychology. For the past 45 years, Bruner has been a leader in the

establishment of cognitive psychology as an alternative to the behaviorist theories that dominated

psychology in the first half of the 20th

century. Bruner contended that people remember things


“with a view towards meaning and signification, not toward the end of somehow „preserving‟ the

facts themselves.”

Bruner has exerted a great impact upon cognitive learning theory. Built onto the idea of

categorization, Bruner's theory suggests, "Perceiving is to categorize, to conceptualize is to

categorize, to learn is to form categories, to make decisions is to categorize." He claimed that

people interpret the world in terms of its similarities and differences which are identified among

objects and events. Objects that are viewed as similar are put in the same category. The primary

variable in his theory of learning is the coding system into which the learner organizes these

categories. The act of categorizing is assumed to be involved in information processing and

decision making. Hence, he suggested a coding system in which people have a hierarchical

arrangement of related categories. Bruner's theory of cognitive learning emphasizes the

formation of these coding systems. He believed that the systems facilitate transfer, enhance

retention and increase problem solving and motivation. He advocated the discovery oriented

learning methods in schools which he believed helped students discover the relationships

between categories.

A major theme in this theory is that "learning is an active process in which learners

construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current or past knowledge" (Kearsely, 1994).

The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions,

relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structures including schema, mental models

are used to provide meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to go

beyond the information given. That is to say, instruction can be made more efficient by

providing a careful sequencing of materials to allow learners to build upon what they already

know and go beyond the information they have been given to discover the key principles by

themselves.

Bruner contends that the instructor should try and encourage students to construct

hypotheses, makes decisions, and discover principles by themselves (Kearsley, 1994). The

instructor and student should take part in an active dialogue (i.e., Socratic learning). The

instructor's task is to "translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's

current state of understanding". Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner "so that the

student continually builds upon what they have already learned."

3.1. Learning theory of Bruner


Bruner argued that we should teach the ‗structure‘ of subjects. He advocated the introduction of

the real process of a particular discipline to students. For example, when learning history,

students should become involved in genuine historical enquiry. This might involve examining a

bridge, a building, or even a head stone in a cemetery, then using the information acquired to

trace records of various kinds in order to answer the questions generated about the origins,

purposes, and history of that structure, or the life of the person concerned.

Jerome Bruner had crucial impact on the cognitive approach to instruction. He was

particularly interested in the cognitive processes of children and how they mentally represented

the concepts they were learning in school. Bruner believes that people go through three stages of

cognitive development: the enactive stage, the iconic stage, and the symbolic stage. The detailed

information about these three stages is as follows:

1. Enactive Stage (birth-3): Infants belong to the enactive stage, which is highly similar

to Piaget's sensorimotor stage. Infants obtain knowledge by actively engaging in activities.

Young children need several opportunities to engage in "hands-on" activities with a variety of

objects so as to learn effectively. In other words, children need to experience the concrete

(manipulating objects in their hands, touching a real dog) in order to understand.

2. Iconic Stage (3-8): First of all, the word icon means "picture". At this stage, learning

occurs through using models and pictures. That is, children learn through visual stimuli. At this

stage, more or less a reminder of the preoperational stage of Piaget's theory, children rely on

visual representations to aid their thinking. Students' visual perceptions determine how they

understand the world. Teachers of students in the early grades should use many pictures and

visual aids to promote learning. For example, in a lesson on animals, pictures of different species

can be used in order to illustrate the differences among them. In a lesson on different countries,

pictures of people in different countries might be shown so as to illustrate differences in styles of

dress or appearance. This mode deals with the internal imagery, where the knowledge is

characterized by a set of images representing the concept. In brief, the iconic representation is

based on visual or other sensory association and is primarily defined by perceptual organization

and techniques for economically transforming perceptions into meaning for the individual.

3. Symbolic Stage (8-adulthood): This stage refers to the capacity to think in abstract

terms. In the symbolic stage, children can understand symbols, including words and

3.2. Bruner‟s Theory of Cognitive Development


mathematical and scientific notations. Bruner's symbolic stage overlaps Piaget's stages of

concrete and formal operations. Once students have reached the symbolic stage, they are able to

take in large amounts and varied types of information. Symbolic material includes written

passages, scientific and mathematical formulas, and abstract charts. If students at this stage are

studying a particular country, you could show a bar graph illustrating the pattern of population

growth or a pie chart showing the religious or ethnic distribution of the population. It allows one

to deal with what might be and what might not, and is a major tool in reflective thinking. To

sum up, symbolic- students are able to use logic, higher order thinking skills and symbol

systems.

Taking the information given above into consideration, it can be summarized that

Bruner's underlying principle for teaching and learning is that a combination of concrete,

pictorial and symbolic activities will result in more effective learning. The progression is: start

with a concrete experience and then move to pictures and finally use symbolic representation.

The first, the enactive level, is where the child manipulates materials directly. Then, he proceeds

to the iconic level, where he deals with mental images of objects but does not manipulate them

directly. Lastly, he moves on to the symbolic level, where he is manipulating symbols and no

longer mental images or objects. The optimum learning process should according to Bruner go

through these stages:

Mode Definition Implication for Instruction

Enactive Representing one's understanding

through motor responses

Use manipulative and tactile instructional

strategies with young children to teach

concepts with which learners have no prior

experience.

Iconic

Using images to represent

understanding

Accompany instruction with diagrams and

other strategies that appeal to the imagination.

Symbolic

Using symbols such as language,

musical notation, and mathematical

notation to represent understanding

Use familiar symbol systems when teaching

new concepts in a subject when the learner

already has prior experience.


Bruner (1966) points out that a theory of instruction should involve four central aspects:

(1) predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured

so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner, (3) the most effective sequences in which to

present material, and (4) the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments. Good methods for

structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing

the manipulation of information.

1. Predisposition to learning: Bruner stated that experiences should be designed in a

way that will help the student to be willing and able to learn. Bruner believed that the desire to

learn and to undertake problem solving could be activated by devising problem activities in

which students would explore alternative solutions. The major condition for the exploration of

alternatives was "the presence of some optimal level of uncertainty". This related directly to the

student's curiosity to resolve uncertainty and ambiguity. According to this idea, the teacher

would design various activities that would arouse the students' curiosity. For example, the

teacher might fill a glass with water and ask the students how many pennies they think can be put

in the jar without any water spilling. Since most students think that only a few pennies can be put

in the glass, their curiosity is aroused when the teacher is able to put between 25 - 50 pennies in

before any water spills. This activity then leads to an exploration of displacement, surface

tension, variables such as the size of the jar, how full the glass is, and so forth. In this activity,

the students would be encouraged to explore various alternatives to the solution of the problem

by conducting their own experiments with jars of water and pennies.

2. Structure of Knowledge: Bruner expressed this component by proposing that the

curriculum specialist and teacher must specify the ways in which a body of knowledge should be

structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner. Any idea or problem or body of

knowledge can be presented in a form simple enough so that any particular learner can

understand it in a recognizable form. During the presentation of the material, the cognitive level

needs to be taken into consideration.

3. Sequencing: The most effective sequences of instruction should be specified.

According to Bruner (1971), instruction should lead the learner through the content in order to

increase the student's ability to "grasp, transform and transfer" what is learned. In general

sequencing should move from enactive (hands-on, concrete), to iconic (visual), to symbolic

3.3. Bruner‟s Theory of Instruction


(descriptions in words or mathematical symbols). However, this sequence will be dependent on

the student's symbolic system and learning style.

4. Motivation (Form and pacing of reinforcement): The last aspect of Bruner's theory

is that the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments should be specified. Bruner suggests

that movement from extrinsic rewards, such as teacher's praise, toward intrinsic rewards inherent

in solving problems or understanding the concepts is desirable. To Bruner, learning depends

upon knowledge of results when it can be used for correction. Feedback to the learner is critical

to the development of knowledge. The teacher can provide a vital link to the learner in providing

feedback at first, as well as helping the learner develop techniques for obtaining feedback on his

or her own.

Bruner’s theory can be applied to instruction by applying the following principles:

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing

and able to learn (readiness).

2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral

organization).

3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond

the information given) by stimulating cognitive skills required for application.

Jerome Bruner was influential in defining discovery learning, which employs cognitive

psychology as a base. Discovery learning is "an approach to instruction through which students

interact with their environment-by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions

and controversies, or performing experiments" (Ormrod, 1995, p. 442) The idea is that students

are more likely to remember concepts they discover on their own. Discovery learning encourages

students to ask questions and formulate their own tentative answers, and to deduce general

principles from practical examples or experience. The discovery learning requires that instead of

being 'told' the content by the teacher, it is expected that the student will have to explore

examples and from them 'discover' the principles or concepts which are to be learned. Teachers

have found that discovery learning is most successful when students have prerequisite

knowledge and undergo some structured experiences (Roblyer, Edwards & Havriluk, 1997, p.

68).

3.4. Discovery Learning


Students learn best by discovery (Bruner, 1966), that is, when they have the "aha!"

experience of suddenly understanding something. Teachers should encourage students to

discover the structure of the material they are learning by focusing on ideas and their

relationships to one another, not on specific details. Students learn best when they grasp the

structure of material instead of memorizing details.

To foster the discovery of structures, students need to be supported to make intelligent

guesses based on available evidence by creating an accepting atmosphere so that students will

risk making guesses even though they may be wrong. Teachers should ensure that students

understand that wrong answers are not bad and that intellectual gambles are worth taking.

Example: Suppose that you have already taught about nouns, verbs, and adjectives, and your

present lesson concerns adverbs. One way to approach this lesson is to say, "Adverbs modify

verbs, similar to the way adjectives modify nouns. Here are some examples: "The doctor

strongly recommended that the patient- see a specialist." "The wind quickly shifted to the west,

spreading the fire." "The defendant slowly turned to face the jury." You could also present the

examples first. You might say, "As you read these three sentences, ask yourself what the

function of the underlined word is." The students then read "The doctor strongly recommended

that the patient see a specialist." "The wind quickly shifted to the west, spreading the fire." "The

defendant slowly turned to face the jury."

Advantages of discovery learning:

Supports active engagement of the learner in the learning process

Fosters curiosity

Enables the development of life long learning skills

Personalizes the learning experience

Highly motivating as it allows individuals the opportunity to experiment and discover

something for themselves

Builds on learner's prior knowledge and understanding

Disadvantages of discovery learning:

Potential to confuse the learner if no initial framework is available

It requires close monitoring on account of the fact that students do not hesitate risking

making mistakes


Learners have different pace of learning; thus, the pace of teaching will be affected

accordingly.

Discovery learning may not be applicable to each and every topic

The steps in a discovery type of lesson:

Present both examples and no examples of the concepts you are teaching.

In teaching about mammals, include people, kangaroos, whales, cats, dolphins,

and camels as examples. Chickens, fish, alligators, frogs, and penguins as nonexamples.

Ask students for additional examples and nonexamples.

Help students see connections among concepts.

Ask questions such as these: 'What else could you call this apple?' (Fruit). 'What

do we do with fruit?' (Eat). 'What do we call things we eat?' (Food).

Use diagrams, outlines, and summaries to point out conclusions.

Pose a question and let students try to find the answer.

Encourage students to make intuitive guesses.

1. Instead of giving a word's definition, say, "Let's guess what it might mean by looking at the

words around it."

2. Give students a map of ancient Greece and ask where they think the major cities were.

3. Don't comment after the first few guesses. Wait for several ideas before giving the answer.

4. Use guiding questions to focus students when their discovery has led them too far astray.

In 1960, Bruner proposed a ―spiral curriculum‖ concept to facilitate structuring a

curriculum ´around the great issues, principles, and values that a society deems worthy of the

continual concern of its members´ (Bruner, 1977). The next decades many school system

educators attempted to implement this concept into their curriculum. Bruner (1975) described

the principles behind the spiral curriculum in the following way:

“…I was struck by the fact that successful efforts to teach highly structured bodies of

knowledge like mathematics, physical sciences, and even the field of history often took the form

of metaphoric spiral in which at some simple level a set of ideas or operations were introduced

in a rather intuitive way and, once mastered in that spirit, were then revisited and reconstrued in

a more formal or operational way, then being connected with other knowledge, the mastery at

this stage then being carried one step higher to a new level of formal or operational rigour and

3.5. Spiral Curriculum


to a broader level of abstraction and comprehensiveness. The end stage of this process was

eventual mastery of the structure of a large body of knowledge” (p. 3-4).

Bruner (1971) also advocates the use of a spiral curriculum in which learners return

periodically to a previously covered topic to study it within the context of information they have

learned in the meantime. That is to say, one could start with fundamental notions about a subject

and expand to greater detail, even to abstract descriptions. This building blocks approach revisits

basic ideas over and over again, building upon them until the student fully grasps the complete

process. To cite an example, a social studies teacher might begin a unit by identifying the oceans

and explaining how oceans differ from rivers and seas. The teacher might return to the topic of

during a unit on transportation, integrating knowledge about transportation by water with

knowledge of oceans and again during a unit on preventing pollution. Each return provides an

opportunity to link new knowledge with existing knowledge.

A theory of instruction is prescriptive in the sense that it sets forth rules concerning the

most effective way of achieving knowledge or skill. By the same token, it provides a yardstick

for criticizing or evaluating any particular way of teaching or learning.

A theory of instruction is a normative theory. It sets up criteria and states the conditions

for meeting them. The criteria must have a high degree of generality: for example, a theory of

instruction should not specify in ad hoc fashion the conditions for efficient learning of third-

grade arithmetic; such conditions should be derivable from a more general view of mathematics

learning.

One might ask why a theory of instruction is needed, since psychology already contains

theories of learning and of development. But theories of learning and of development are

descriptive rather than prescriptive. They tell us what happened after the fact: for example, that

most children of six do not yet possess the notion of reversibility. A theory of instruction, on the

other hand, might attempt to set forth the best means of leading the child toward the notion of

reversibility. A theory of instruction, in short, is concerned with how what one wishes to teach

can best be learned, with improving rather than describing learning.

This is not to say that learning and developmental theories are irrelevant to a theory of

instruction. In fact, a theory of instruction must be concerned with both learning and develop-

3.6. The Nature of a Theory of Instruction (Bruner‟s Criteria)


ment and must be congruent with those theories of learning and development to which it

subscribes.

A theory of instruction has four major features.

First, a theory of instruction should specify the experiences which most effectively

implant in the individual a predisposition toward learning—learning in general or a particular

type of learning. For example, what sorts of relationships with people and things in the preschool

environment will tend to make the child willing and able to learn when he enters school?

Second, a theory of instruction must specify the ways in which a body of knowledge

should be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner. "Optimal structure"

refers to a set of propositions from which a larger body of knowledge can be generated, and it is

characteristic that the formulation of such structure depends upon the state of advance of a

particular field of knowledge. The nature of différent optimal structures will be considered in

more detail shortly. Here it suffices to say that since the merit of a structure depends upon its

power for simplifying information, for generating new propositions, and for increasing the

manipulability of a body of knowledge, structure must always be related to the status and gifts of

the learner. Viewed in this way, the optimal structure of a body of knowledge is not absolute but

relative.

Third, a theory of instruction should specify the most effective sequences in which to

present the materials to be learned. Given, for example, that one wishes to teach the structure of

modern physical theory, how does one proceed? Docs one present concrete materials first in such

a way as to elicit questions about recurrent regularities? Or does one begin with a formalized

mathematical notation that makes it simpler to represent regularities later encountered? What

results arc in fact produced by each method? And how describe the ideal mix? The question of

sequence will be treated in more detail later.

Finally, a theory of instruction should specify the nature and pacing of rewards and

punishments in the process of learning and teaching. Intuitively it seems quite clear that as

learning progresses there is a point at which it is better to shift away from extrinsic rewards, such

as a teacher's praise, toward the intrinsic rewards inherent in solving a complex problem for

oneself. So, too, there is a point at which immediate reward for performance should be replaced

by deferred reward. The timing of the shift from extrinsic to intrinsic and from immediate to

deferred reward is poorly understood and obviously important. Is it the case, for example, that


wherever learning involves the integration of a long sequence of acts, the shift should be made as

early as possible from immediate to deferred reward and from extrinsic to intrinsic reward?

(Bruner, 1966, pp. 40-41).

4. David P. Ausubel

―The learner‟s acquisition of a clear, stable, and organized body of knowledge…is the

most significant independent variable influencing the learner‟s capacity for acquiring more new

knowledge in the same field.”

David P. Ausubel is a psychologist who advocates making use of cognitive learning

research and theory while formulating instructional principles. As well as being an active

researcher, he has written several books and papers. He strongly criticizes the use of behavioral

psychology principles and advocates meaningful verbal learning. He believes in the central role

of cognitive processes in the planning of instruction. Ausubel's Subsumption Theory has

common points with Gestalt theories and the ones which involve schema as a central principle.

There are also similarities with Bruner's "spiral learning" model , although Ausubel emphasizes

that subsumption involves reorganization of existing cognitive structures not the development of

new structures as constructivist theories suggest. Ausubel was apparently influenced by the work

of Piaget on cognitive development. It can be useful to explain his theory under the key concepts

that he provided us.

The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then progressively

differentiated in terms of detail and specificity.

Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented

information through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.

One of the major concepts that of Ausubel's theory focus on is meaningful learning. As

Ausubel (1966) stated it is necessary to consider meaningful learning as ―a process, and the

relationship of the meaningful learning process to the nature of its product, namely, to the nature

of meaning itself.‖ To learn meaningfully, individuals must relate new knowledge to relevant

concepts they already know. New knowledge must interact with the learner's knowledge

structure. Meaningful learning can be contrasted with rote learning which also can incorporate

4.1. Principles of Subsumption Theory

4.2. Meaningful Learning vs. Rote Learning


new information into the knowledge structure but without interaction. Rote memory is fine for

remembering sequences of objects (i.e. lists of structures) but does not help the learner with

understanding the relationships between the objects. Meaningful learning, therefore, is personal,

idiosyncratic and involves recognition of the links between concepts.

4.3. Meaningful Learning Contrasted with Rote Learning

Type of Learning Characteristics

Meaningful

Learning

Non-arbitrary, non-verbatim, substantive incorporation of new

knowledge into cognitive structure.

Deliberate effort to link new knowledge with higher order concepts in

cognitive structure

Learning related to experiences with events or objects.

Affective commitment to relate new knowledge to prior learning.

Rote Learning Arbitrary, verbatim, non-substantive incorporation of new knowledge

into cognitive structure.

No effort to integrate new knowledge with existing concepts in

cognitive structure.

Learning not related to experience with events or objects.

No affective commitment to relate new knowledge to prior learning.

In reception learning what is to be learned is presented to the learner in more or less final

form and the learning doesn‘t involve discovery in this part. What is expected from the learner is

to internalize the material presented for reproduction or using when needed another time.

However in the discovery learning what is to be learned is not given to the student as it must be

discovered by the learner before he can internalize it. The major difference here is the task itself,

discovering something.

Ausubel's receptive learning/expository teaching says that the job of a teacher is to select

what is to be learned, structure the environment to promote learning, use materials that are

appropriate to the students' levels, content-specific, and presented in an organized manner. There

are three phases of receptive learning: presentation of an advance organizer; presentation of

4.3. Reception vs. Discovery Learning and Expository Teaching


learning tasks/materials; and tying information to existing information via questions, feedback...

Expository teaching requires that you also present information from general to specific

(deductive teaching; "top-to-bottom") and that you use brief class discussions before presenting

materials so students can share relevant background information (Ausubel, 1960).

4.4. Advance Organizers

According to Ausubel to help students adopt a meaningful learning set , teachers could

construct and provide advance organizers. An advance organizer is introductory material that is

more abstract, more general, and more inclusive than the material that is to be learned. It is an

organizing structure that helps students relate new ideas to existing knowledge schemes. "These

organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also presented at a higher level of

abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since the substantive content of a given organizer

or series of organizers is selected on the basis of its suitability for explaining, integrating, and

interrelating the material they precede, this strategy simultaneously satisfies the substantive as

well as the programming criteria for enhancing the organization strength of cognitive structure."

(1963, p. 81).

These advance organizers facilitate learning and retention of meaningfully learned

information in three ways. Firstly, they call attention to and build on those relevant anchoring

ideas which the learner already has in his cognitive structure. Second they provide a kind of

scaffolding the new material by encompassing the areas to be covered and by delineating the

fundamental ideas under which the rest of the information can be subsumed. And lastly, this kind

of stable and clear organization essentially renders unnecessary having the student learn the

material by rote memorization. (1971)

Some examples for Advance Organizers:

An OHT with a list of the topics and sub-topics on it, which you can return to at intervals

during the session in order to mark how far you have got, and show how the new material fits in

with established knowledge.

A useful variation on this is to use a concept- or mind-map: you can put it on a

whiteboard, and start with the major branches identified and add sub-branches as you get further

into each topic. This also permits linkages between topics.

Even better, of course, is for students to build their own mind-maps, because those will

almost necessarily establish linkages in terms of their prior learning.


Or a poster on the wall which is permanently there to refer to.

A handout with the same kind of information on it, perhaps laid out with lots of white

space so that students can fill in their own notes under each heading—again, linking back to

what they already know. It could contain more information, of course, as a gapped handout.

On a larger scale, a study guide to the course, or a handbook, can locate all the different

bits: encourage students to keep it with them and to use it by making frequent reference to it.

And don't forget the humble story or anecdote which may be memorable in its own right, but

also serves to relate the abstract material to a more-or-less familiar situation in the students' own

world.

The main idea of his theory is that newly learned material isn‘t independent of what is

already known. In other words, construction of knowledge begins with our observation and

recognition of events and objects through concepts we already possess. We learn by constructing

a network of concepts and adding to them. The concept map is an instructional tool which serves

to clarify links between new and old knowledge by forcing the learner to externalize those links.

They are useful devices as they help the learners to be aware of their own learning structures as

well as teaching them how to learn.

4.6.1. How to build concept maps.

Identify the key concepts in a paragraph, research report, or chapter, or simply think of

the concepts of a subject area and list them. Some people find it helpful to write the concept

labels on separate cards or small pieces of paper, so that they can be moved around.

Rank the concepts by placing the broadest and most inclusive idea at the top of the map.

It is sometimes difficult to identify the broadest, most inclusive concept. It is helpful to be aware

of the context of the concepts we are dealing with or to have some idea of the situation for which

these concepts are arranged.

Work down the paper and add more specific concepts. Try not to have more than three

concepts linked under any other concept.

Connect the concept labels by lines. Label the lines with one or a few linking words. The

linking words (connection) should define the relationship between the two concepts so that it

reads as a true statement, or proposition. The connection creates meaning between the concepts.

4.5. Concept Maps


When you can hold together a large number of related ideas, you can see the structure of

meaning for a given subject area.

Look for "crosslink connections" between concepts in different sections of the map and

label these lines.

Specific examples of concepts can be attached to the concept labels (e.g., golden retriever

is a specific example of a dog breed).

We can‘t say that there is only one strict way of drawing a concept map as the

understanding of relationships between concepts changes from one person to other. They can be

made in many forms. To make them efficient, pupil need practice in producing maps begin with

a simple topic, using a small number of concepts work through example(s) with the whole class,

modifying the map where necessary - cut-outs on OHPTs can help this process - to develop

confidence

emphasize importance of thinking about all possible links

emphasize importance of writing down the nature of the links

emphasize that there is no single 'correct' answer; often more than one appropriate link

emphasize importance of using arrows and their direction in describing the proposition

for the restructured maps, the initial choice of words could have a profound effect on

pupil performance and can restrict levels of attainment

The chart below can be used to summarize the theory and its implications to teaching and

learning.

Phase One: Advance Organizer Phase Two: Presentation of Learning

Task or Material

Phase three: Strengthening

Cognitive Organization

Clarify aim of the lesson

Present the organizer

Relate organizer to students'

knowledge

Make the organization of the new

material explicit.

Make logical order of learning

material explicit.

Present material and engage students

in meaningful learning activities.

Relate new information to

advance organizer

Promote active reception

learning

4.6. Ausubel‟s Model of Learning


Expository teaching is probably the most commonly used teaching method in the schools

today. Ausubel is one of the strongest proponents of expository teaching. Expository teaching is

teacher centered in which the teacher is major provider of information. The abstraction is stated

by the teacher before examples are given, and then the examples are provided to help illustrate

the abstraction .

There are some reasons that expository teaching is widely used:

Teachers are thought to be persons who have knowledge and whose job is to pass this

knowledge to students,

Expository teaching is the easiest type of teaching; giving lecture is easier than using

other types of teaching,

It has the potential for being a very efficient means of teaching facts and abstraction,

It minimizes misconceptions,

It is very efficient in terms of time.

For expository teaching to be meaningful to learner, new information is related to the

knowledge already posed by the learner. Thus, an expository lesson should begin with

some form of advance organizer.

What teachers should do in an expository lesson is:

Set definite learning objectives,

Plan what, when and how to teach,

Use structured and sequential learning materials,

Begin lesson with an advance organizer,

Present new information in an organized way (step by step and deductively)

Define concept clearly and clarify terms,

Use both positive and negative examples when presenting new concept,

Encourage student thinking,

Encourage student involvement and interaction in class,

Monitor and check student progress toward the objectives and provide them with a

corrective feedback,

Allow learners reflect at the conclusion of the lesson.

4.7. Ausubel‟s Expository Teaching


Advantages of Expository Teaching:

Expository teaching is the easiest type of teaching,

Misconceptions are minimized,

It is very efficient in terms of time,

It is useful for large number of students,

Lesson summaries and closures are best accomplished.

Disadvantages of Expository Teaching:

It is difficult to have the attention of all children,

It makes learners passive,

It is highly dependent on the skills of the teacher,

It is not suitable for all age levels,

It reduces the ability to use the material and thinking processes outside the classroom.

Expository Teaching and Discovery Teaching

Discovery Teaching Expository Teaching

Student centered Teacher centered

Teacher‘s role is as a facilitator Teacher gives information directly

Needs more time Needs less time

Students may have misconceptions Misconceptions are minimized

More motivational for students Less motivational for students


5. REFERENCES

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Worth Publishers.

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Ausubel, D. (1960). The use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of meaningful

verbal material. Journal of educational psychology, 51(5), 267-272.

Ausubel, D. (1963). Cognitive structure and the facilitation of meaningful verbal learning.

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Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge: Belknap Pr.

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Inoue, Y. (2000). Learning and Cognitive Theory Applied to Education.

Internet. (2009a). Cognition. Retrieved 21.10, 2009, from

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition

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http://guide.ceit.metu.edu.tr/efnt1/cemali/egitim/piaget.htm

Koohang, A., & Harman, K. (2007). Learning objects and instructional design: Informing

Science.

Martin, D. (2000). Elementary science methods: A constructivist approach (2 ed.). Belmont, CA:

Wadsworth.

Mayer, R. (1981). The promise of cognitive psychology: WH Freeman.

Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive psychology: Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Piaget, J. (1977). Epistemology and psychology of functions. Dordrecht, Netherlands: D. Reidel

Publishing Company.

Wadsworth, B. (1972). Piaget's theory ofcognitive development.

Woolfolk, A. E. (1993). Educational psychology (5 ed.): Allyn and Bacon.

http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/cognitive.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition

http://guide.ceit.metu.edu.tr/efnt1/cemali/egitim/piaget.htm


Web Pages

http://www.flaguide.org/cat/minutepapers/conmap5.htm

http://mercury.sfsu.edu/~ching/personal/Learning/theorists/bruner.html

http://expert.cc.purdue.edu/~yangyc/index/theory/basic/basic_cognitivism.html#Jerome%20S.%

20Bruner

http://www.flaguide.org/cat/minutepapers/conmap5.htm

http://mercury.sfsu.edu/~ching/personal/Learning/theorists/bruner.html

http://expert.cc.purdue.edu/~yangyc/index/theory/basic/basic_cognitivism.html#Jerome%20S.%20Bruner

http://expert.cc.purdue.edu/~yangyc/index/theory/basic/basic_cognitivism.html#Jerome%20S.%20Bruner

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