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Milgram experiment 1

Milgram experiment

The experimenter (E) orders the teacher (T), the subject

of the experiment, to give what the latter believes are

painful electric shocks to a learner (L), who is actually

an actor and confederate. The subject believes that for

each wrong answer, the learner was receiving actual

electric shocks, though in reality there were no such

punishments. Being separated from the subject, the

confederate set up a tape recorder integrated with the

electro-shock generator, which played pre-recordedsounds for each shock level.

[1]

The Milgram experiment on obedience to authority figures was

a series of notable social psychology experiments conducted by

Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram, which measured

the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure

who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their

personal conscience. Milgram first described his research in 1963

in an article published in the Journal of Abnormal and Social

Psychology,[1]

and later discussed his findings in greater depth in

his 1974 book, Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View.[2]

The experiments began in July 1961, three months after the start of

the trial of German Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann in

Jerusalem. Milgram devised his psychological study to answer the

question: "Was it that Eichmann and his accomplices in theHolocaust had mutual intent, in at least with regard to the goals of

the Holocaust?" In other words, "Was there a mutual sense of

morality among those involved?" Milgram's testing suggested that

it could have been that the millions of accomplices were merely

following orders, despite violating their deepest moral beliefs. The

experiments have been repeated many times, with consistent

results within societies, but different percentages across the

globe.[3]

The experiments were also controversial, and considered

by some scientists to be unethical, physically or psychologically

abusive, motivating more thorough review boards or committeereviews for working with human subjects.
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The experiment

Milgram Experiment advertisement

The volunteer subject was given the role of teacher, and

the confederate, the role of learner. The participants drew

slips of paper to determine their roles, but unknown to the

subject, both slips said "teacher", and the actor claimed to

have the slip that read "learner", thus guaranteeing that the

participant would always be the "teacher". At this point,

the "teacher" and "learner" were separated into different

rooms where they could communicate but not see each

other. In one version of the experiment, the confederate

was sure to mention to the participant that he had a heart

condition.[1]

The "teacher" was given an electric shock from the

electro-shock generator as a sample of the shock that the

"learner" would supposedly receive during the experiment.The "teacher" was then given a list of word pairs which he

was to teach the learner. The teacher began by reading the

list of word pairs to the learner. The teacher would then

read the first word of each pair and read four possible

answers. The learner would press a button to indicate his

response. If the answer was incorrect, the teacher would

administer a shock to the learner, with the voltage

increasing in 15-volt increments for each wrong answer. If

correct, the teacher would read the next word pair.[1]

The subjects believed that for each wrong answer, the

learner was receiving actual shocks. In reality, there were no shocks. After the confederate was separated from the

subject, the confederate set up a tape recorder integrated with the electro-shock generator, which played pre-recorded

sounds for each shock level. After a number of voltage level increases, the actor started to bang on the wall that

separated him from the subject. After several times banging on the wall and complaining about his heart condition,

all responses by the learner would cease.[1]

At this point, many people indicated their desire to stop the experiment and check on the learner. Some test subjects

paused at 135 volts and began to question the purpose of the experiment. Most continued after being assured that

they would not be held responsible. A few subjects began to laugh nervously or exhibit other signs of extreme stress

once they heard the screams of pain coming from the learner.[1]

If at any time the subject indicated his desire to halt the experiment, he was given a succession of verbal prods by the

experimenter, in this order:[1]

1. Please continue.

2. The experiment requires that you continue.

3. It is absolutely essential that you continue.

4. You have no other choice, you mustgo on.

If the subject still wished to stop after all four successive verbal prods, the experiment was halted. Otherwise, it was

halted after the subject had given the maximum 450-volt shock three times in succession.[1]

The experimenter also gave special prods if the teacher made specific comments. If the teacher asked whether thelearner might suffer permanent physical harm, the experimenter replied, "Although the shocks may be painful, there
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is no permanent tissue damage, so please go on". If the teacher said that the learner clearly wants to stop, the

experimenter replied, "Whether the learner likes it or not, you must go on until he has learned all the word pairs

correctly, so please go on".

Results

Before conducting the experiment, Milgram polled fourteen Yale University senior-year psychology majors to

predict the behavior of 100 hypothetical teachers. All of the poll respondents believed that only a very small fraction

of teachers (the range was from zero to 3 out of 100, with an average of 1.2) would be prepared to inflict the

maximum voltage. Milgram also informally polled his colleagues and found that they, too, believed very few

subjects would progress beyond a very strong shock.[1]

Milgram also polled forty psychiatrists from a medical school

and they believed that by the tenth shock, when the victim demands to be free, most subjects would stop the

experiment. They predicted that by the 300 volt shock, when the victim refuses to answer, only 3.73 percent of the

subjects would still continue and they believed that "only a little over one-tenth of one per cent of the subjects would

administer the highest shock on the board."[4]

In Milgram's first set of experiments, 65 percent (26 of 40)[1]

of experiment participants administered the

experiment's final massive 450-volt shock, though many were very uncomfortable doing so; at some point, every

participant paused and questioned the experiment; some said they would refund the money they were paid for

participating in the experiment. Throughout the experiment, subjects displayed varying degrees of tension and stress.

Subjects were sweating, trembling, stuttering, biting their lips, groaning, digging their fingernails into their skin, and

some were even having nervous laughing fits or seizures.[1]

Milgram summarized the experiment in his 1974 article, "The Perils of Obedience", writing:

The legal and philosophic aspects of obedience are of enormous importance, but they say very little

about how most people behave in concrete situations. I set up a simple experiment at Yale University to

test how much pain an ordinary citizen would inflict on another person simply because he was ordered

to by an experimental scientist. Stark authority was pitted against the subjects' [participants'] strongestmoral imperatives against hurting others, and, with the subjects' [participants'] ears ringing with the

screams of the victims, authority won more often than not. The extreme willingness of adults to go to

almost any lengths on the command of an authority constitutes the chief finding of the study and the fact

most urgently demanding explanation.

Ordinary people, simply doing their jobs, and without any particular hostility on their part, can become

agents in a terrible destructive process. Moreover, even when the destructive effects of their work

become patently clear, and they are asked to carry out actions incompatible with fundamental standards

of morality, relatively few people have the resources needed to resist authority.[5]

The original Simulated Shock Generator and Event Recorder, or shock box, is located in the Archives of the History

of American Psychology.

Later, Prof. Milgram and other psychologists performed variations of the experiment throughout the world, with

similar results.[6]

Milgram later investigated the effect of the experiment's locale on obedience levels by holding an

experiment in an unregistered, backstreet office in a bustling city, as opposed to at Yale, a respectable university.

The level of obedience, "although somewhat reduced, was not significantly lower." What made more of a difference

was the proximity of the "learner" and the experimenter. There were also variations tested involving groups.

Dr. Thomas Blass of the University of Maryland, Baltimore County performed a meta-analysis on the results of

repeated performances of the experiment. He found that the percentage of participants who are prepared to inflict

fatal voltages remains remarkably constant, 6166 percent, regardless of time or place.[7][8]

There is a little-known coda to the Milgram Experiment, reported by Philip Zimbardo: none of the participants who

refused to administer the final shocks insisted that the experiment itself be terminated, nor left the room to check the
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health of the victim without requesting permission to leave, as per Milgram's notes and recollections, when

Zimbardo asked him about that point.[9]

Milgram created a documentary film titled Obedience showing the experiment and its results. He also produced a

series of five social psychology films, some of which dealt with his experiments.[10]

EthicsThe Milgram Shock Experiment raised questions about the research ethics of scientific experimentation because of

the extreme emotional stress and inflicted insight suffered by the participants. In Milgram's defense, 84 percent of

former participants surveyed later said they were "glad" or "very glad" to have participated, 15 percent chose neutral

responses (92% of all former participants responding).[11]

Many later wrote expressing thanks. Milgram repeatedly

received offers of assistance and requests to join his staff from former participants. Six years later (at the height of

the Vietnam War), one of the participants in the experiment sent correspondence to Milgram, explaining why he was

glad to have participated despite the stress:

While I was a subject in 1964, though I believed that I was hurting someone, I was totally unaware of

why I was doing so. Few people ever realize when they are acting according to their own beliefs and

when they are meekly submitting to authority To permit myself to be drafted with the understanding

that I am submitting to authority's demand to do something very wrong would make me frightened of

myself I am fully prepared to go to jail if I am not granted Conscientious Objector status. Indeed, it is

the only course I could take to be faithful to what I believe. My only hope is that members of my board

act equally according to their conscience[12][13]

The experiments provoked emotional criticism more about the experiment's implications than with experimental

ethics. In the journal Jewish Currents, Joseph Dimow, a participant in the 1961 experiment at Yale University, wrote

about his early withdrawal as a "teacher," suspicious "that the whole experiment was designed to see if ordinary

Americans would obey immoral orders, as many Germans had done during the Nazi period."[14]

Indeed, that was one

of the explicitly stated goals of the experiments. In the Preface (p. xii) to his book, Obedience to Authority, Milgramwrote: "The question arises as to whether there is any connection between what we have studied in the laboratory

and the forms of obedience we so deplored in the Nazi epoch."

Interpretations

Professor Milgram elaborated two theories explaining his results:

The first is the theory of conformism, based on Solomon Asch conformity experiments, describing the

fundamental relationship between the group of reference and the individual person. A subject who has neither

ability nor expertise to make decisions, especially in a crisis, will leave decision making to the group and its

hierarchy. The group is the person's behavioral model. The second is the agentic state theory, wherein, per Milgram, "the essence of obedience consists in the fact that a

person comes to view themselves as the instrument for carrying out another person's wishes, and they therefore no

longer see themselves as responsible for their actions. Once this critical shift of viewpoint has occurred in the

person, all of the essential features of obedience follow".[15]
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Alternative interpretations

In his bookIrrational Exuberance, Yale Finance Professor Robert Shiller argues that other factors might be partially

able to explain the Milgram Experiments:

[People] have learned that when experts tell them something is all right, it probably is, even if it does not

seem so. (In fact, it is worth noting that in this case the experimenter was indeed correct: it was all right

to continue giving the 'shocks' even though most of the subjects did not suspect the reason.)[16]

Milgram himself provides some anecdotal evidence to support this position. In his book, he quotes an exchange

between a subject (Mr. Rensaleer) and the experimenter. The subject had just stopped at 255 V, and the experimenter

tried to prod him on by saying: "There is no permanent tissue damage." Mr. Rensaleer answers:

Yes, but I know what shocks do to you. Im an electrical engineer, and I have had shocks ... and you get

real shook up by them especially if you know the next one is coming. Im sorry.[17][18]

In a 2006 experiment, a computerized avatar was used in place of the learner receiving electrical shocks. Although

the participants administering the shocks were aware that the learner was unreal, the experimenters reported that

participants responded to the situation physiologically "as if it were real."[19]

Replications and variations

Milgram's variations

In Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View (1974), Milgram describes 19 variations of his experiment, some

of which had not been previously reported.

Several experiments varied the immediacy of the teacher and learner. Generally, when the victim's physical

immediacy was increased, the participant's compliance decreased. The participant's compliance also decreased when

the authority's physical immediacy decreased (Experiments 14). For example, in Experiment 2, where participants

received telephonic instructions from the experimenter, compliance decreased to 21 percent. Interestingly, some

participants deceived the experimenter by pretending to continue the experiment. In the variation where the

"learner's" physical immediacy was closest, where participants had to physically hold the "learner's" arm onto a

shock plate, compliance decreased. Under that condition, 30 percent of participants completed the experiment.

In Experiment 8, women were the participants; previously, all participants had been men. Obedience did not

significantly differ, though the women communicated experiencing higher levels of stress.

Experiment 10 took place in a modest office in Bridgeport, Connecticut, purporting to be the commercial entity

"Research Associates of Bridgeport" without apparent connection to Yale University, to eliminate the university's

prestige as a possible factor influencing the participants' behavior. In those conditions, obedience dropped to 47.5

percent, though the difference was not statistically significant.

Milgram also combined the effect of authority with that of conformity. In those experiments, the participant was

joined by one or two additional "teachers" (also actors, like the "learner"). The behavior of the participants' peers

strongly affected the results. In Experiment 17, when two additional teachers refused to comply, only 4 of 40

participants continued in the experiment. In Experiment 18, the participant performed a subsidiary task (reading the

questions via microphone or recording the learner's answers) with another "teacher" who complied fully. In that

variation, 37 of 40 continued with the experiment.[20]
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Replications

Around the time of the release of Obedience to Authority (i.e. 1973-1974), a version of the experiment was

conducted at La Trobe university in Australia. As reported by Gina Perry in Behind the Shock Machine[21]

, some of

the participants experienced long-lasting psychological effects, possibly due to the lack of proper debriefing by the

experimentor.[22]

In 2002 the British artist Rod Dickinson created The Milgram Re-enactment, an exact reconstruction of parts of the

original experiment, including the rooms used, lighting and uniforms. An audience watched the four-hour

performance through one-way glass windows.[23][24]

A video of this performance was first shown at the CCA

Gallery in Glasgow in 2002.

A partial replication of the Milgram experiment was conducted by British psychological illusionist Derren Brown

and broadcast on Channel 4 in the UK in The Heist(2006).[25]

Another partial replication of the Milgram experiment was conducted by Jerry M. Burger in 2006 and broadcast on

the Primetime series Basic Instincts. Burger noted that, "current standards for the ethical treatment of participants

clearly place Milgrams studies out of bounds." In 2009 Burger was able to receive approval from the institutional

review board by modifying several of the experimental protocols.[26]

Burger found obedience rates virtually identical

to what Milgram found in 19611962, even while meeting current ethical regulations of informing participants. In

addition, half the replication participants were female, and their rate of obedience was virtually identical to that of

the male participants. Burger also included a condition in which participants first saw another participant refuse to

continue. However, participants in this condition obeyed at the same rate as participants in the base condition.[27]

The experiment was again repeated as part of the BBC documentary How Violent Are You?[28]

first shown in May

2009 as part of the long running Horizon series. Of the 12 participants, only 3 refused to continue to the end of the

experiment.

In the 2010 French documentary, Le Jeu de la Mort (The Game of Death), researchers recreated the Milgram

experiment with an added critique of reality television by presenting the scenario as a game show pilot. Volunteers

were given 40 and told they would not win any money from the game, as this was only a trial. Only 16 of 80

"contestants" (teachers) chose to end the game before delivering the highest voltage punishment.[29][30]

The experiment was performed on the April 25th, 2010 episode ofDateline NBC.

The Discovery Channel aired the "How Evil are You" segment of Curiosity which aired on October 30, 2011. The

episode was hosted by Eli Roth who got similar results to the original Milgram experiment.[31]

Due to increasingly widespread knowledge of the experiment, recent replications of Milgram's procedure had to

ensure that the participants were not previously aware of it.

Other variations

Charles Sheridan and Richard King hypothesized that some of Milgram's subjects may have suspected that the

victim was faking, so they repeated the experiment with a real victim: a "cute, fluffy puppy" who was given real,

albeit harmless, electric shocks. They found similar findings to Milgram: half of the male subjects and all of the

females obeyed to the end. Many subjects showed high levels of distress during the experiment and some openly

wept. In addition, Sheridan and King found that the duration for which the shock button was pressed decreased as the

shocks got higher, meaning that for higher shock levels, subjects showed more hesitance towards delivering the

shocks.[32][33][34]
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Media depictions

Obedience is a black-and-white film of the experiment, shot by Milgram himself. It is distributed by The

Pennsylvania State University.[35]

It is available on DVD in the UK from the British Universities Film & Video

Council.[36]

The Tenth Level was a 1975 CBS television film about the experiment, featuring William Shatner, Ossie Davis,

and John Travolta.[8][37]

I as in Icarus is a 1979 French conspiracy thriller with Yves Montand as an attorney investigating the

assassination of the President. The movie is inspired by the Kennedy assassination and the subsequent Warren

Commission investigation. Digging into the psychology of the Lee Harvey Oswald type character, the attorney

finds out the "decoy shooter" participated in the Milgram experiment. The ongoing experiment is presented to the

unsuspecting attorney.

Atrocity is a 2005 film re-enactment of the Milgram Experiment.[38]

The Human Behavior Experiments is a 2006 documentary by Alex Gibney about major experiments in social

psychology, shown along with modern incidents highlighting the principles discussed. Along with Stanley

Milgram's study in obedience, the documentary shows the 'diffusion of responsibility' study of John Darley and

Bibb Latan and the Stanford Prison Experiment of Philip Zimbardo.

Chip Kidd's 2008 novel The Learners is about the Milgram experiment, and features Stanley Milgram as a

character.

The Milgram Experimentis a 2009 film by the Brothers Gibbs which chronicles the story of Stanley Milgram's

experiments.

"Authority", an episode ofLaw & Order: Special Victims Unit, features Merrit Rook, a suspect played by Robin

Williams, who employs the strip search prank call scam, identifying himself as "Detective Milgram". He later

reenacts a version of the Milgram experiment on Det. Elliot Stabler by ordering him to administer electric shocks

to Det. Olivia Benson, whom Rook has bound and is thus helpless.

The track "We Do What We're Told (Milgram's 37)" on Peter Gabriel's album So is a reference to Milgram's

Experiment 18, in which 37 of 40 people were prepared to administer the highest level of shock.

The Dar Williams song "Buzzer" is about the experiment. "I'm feeling sorry for this guy that I pressed to shock /

He gets the answers wrong I have to up the watts / And he begged me to stop but they told me to go / I pressed the

buzzer."

Episode 114 of the Howie Mandel showHowie Do Itrepeated the experiment with a single pair of subjects using

the premise of a Japanese game show.

The second scene in the 1984 film Ghostbusters[39]

has Dr. Venkman shocking a human test subject during an

Extrasensory perception experiment. Albeit, one must take into account that Dr. Venkman was shocking only the

male test subject as a way to flirt with the attractive female test subject.

A Derren Brown special named "The Heist" repeated the Milgram experiment to test whether the participants will

take part in a staged heist afterwards.[40]

The Science Channel's Curiosity Series (2012) with Eli Roth recreated the experiment asking the question, "50

years later, have we changed?"
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Notes

[1] Milgram, Stanley (1963). "Behavioral Study of Obedience" (http://content.apa. org/journals/abn/67/4/371).Journal of Abnormal and

Social Psychology67 (4): 3718. doi:10.1037/h0040525. PMID 14049516. . as PDF. (http://www.garfield.library. upenn. edu/

classics1981/A1981LC33300001. pdf)

[2] Milgram, Stanley (1974). Obedience to Authority; An Experimental View (http://books. google. com/books?id=MlpEAAAAMAAJ).

Harpercollins. ISBN 0-06-131983-X. .

[3] Blass, Thomas (1991). Understanding behavior in the Milgram obedience experiment: The role of personality, situations, and theirinteractions. (http://www.stanleymilgram. com/pdf/understanding behavoir.pdf). 60. pp. 398413. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.60.3.398. .

[4] Milgram, Stanley (1965). "Some Conditions of Obedience and Disobedience to Authority".Human Relations18 (1): 5776.

doi:10.1177/001872676501800105.

[5] Milgram, Stanley (1974). "The Perils of Obedience" (http://web.archive.org/web/20110514231624/http://home. swbell.net/revscat/

perilsOfObedience.html).Harper's Magazine. Archived from the original (http://home. swbell.net/revscat/perilsOfObedience.html) on

2011-05-14. . Abridged and adapted from Obedience to Authority.

[6][6] Milgram 1974

[7] Blass, Thomas (1999). "The Milgram paradigm after 35 years: Some things we now know about obedience to authority".Journal of Applied

Social Psychology29 (5): 955978. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1999.tb00134.x. as PDF (http://neuron4. psych.ubc. ca/~schaller/

Psyc591Readings/Blass1999. pdf)

[8] Blass, Thomas (Mar/Apr 2002). "The Man Who Shocked the World" (http://www.psychologytoday. com/articles/200203/

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References

Blass, Thomas (2004). The Man Who Shocked the World: The Life and Legacy of Stanley Milgram. Basic Books.

ISBN 0-7382-0399-8.

Levine, Robert V. (JulyAugust 2004). "Milgram's Progress" (http://www.americanscientist.org/template/

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Man Who Shocked the World

Miller, Arthur G. (1986). The obedience experiments: A case study of controversy in social science. New York:

Praeger.

Parker, Ian (Autumn 2000). "Obedience" (http://www.granta.com/Magazine/71). Granta (71). Includes an

interview with one of Milgram's volunteers, and discusses modern interest in, and scepticism about, the

experiment.

Tarnow, Eugen. "Towards the Zero Accident Goal: Assisting the First Officer Monitor and Challenge Captain

Errors" (http://cogprints.org/4566/).Journal of Aviation/Aerospace Education and Research10 (1).

Wu, William (June 2003). "Compliance: The Milgram Experiment" (http://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~wwu/

psychology/compliance.shtml).Practical Psychology.

External links

Stanley Milgram Redux, TBIYTB (http://web.archive.org/web/20080215010353/http://www.hippolytic.

com/blog/2007/01/stanley_milgram_redux_1.php) Description of a 2007 iteration of Milgram's experiment

at Yale University, published in "The Yale Hippolytic," Jan. 22, 2007. (Internet Archive)

A Powerpoint presentation describing Milgram's experiment (http://www.posbase.uib.no/posbase/

Presentasjoner/P_Milgram (1963).ppt)

Synthesis of book (http://web.archive.org/web/20090316175017/http://perso.wanadoo.fr/qualiconsult/

milgramb.html) A faithful synthesis of "Obedience to Authority"Stanley Milgram

Obedience To Authority (http://knol.google.com/k/obedience-to-authority#) A commentary extracted from

50 Psychology Classics (2007)

A personal account of a participant in the Milgram obedience experiments (http://www.jewishcurrents.org/

2004-jan-dimow.htm)

Summary and evaluation of the 1963 obedience experiment (http://www.holah.karoo.net/milgramstudy.htm)

The Science of Evil (http://abcnews.go.com/Primetime/story?id=2765416&page=1) from ABC News

Primetime

The Lucifer Effect: How Good People Turn Evil (http://www.webcitation.org/5lLKy3jno) Video Lecture of

Philip Zimbardo talking about the Milgram Experiment.

Zimbardo, Philip (2007). "When Good People Do Evil" (http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/

2007_01/milgram.html). Yale Alumni Magazine. Article on the 45th anniversary of the Milgram experiment.

Milgram 1974, Chapter 1 and 15 (http://www.panarchy.org/milgram/obedience.html)

People 'still willing to torture' (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7791278.stm)BBC

Beyond the Shock Machine (http://www.abc.net.au/rn/radioeye/stories/2008/2358103.htm), a radio

documentary with the people who took part in the experiment. Includes original audio recordings of the
http://www.abc.net.au/rn/radioeye/stories/2008/2358103.htmhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7791278.stmhttp://www.panarchy.org/milgram/obedience.htmlhttp://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2007_01/milgram.htmlhttp://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/2007_01/milgram.htmlhttp://www.webcitation.org/5lLKy3jnohttp://abcnews.go.com/Primetime/story?id=2765416&page=1http://www.holah.karoo.net/milgramstudy.htmhttp://www.jewishcurrents.org/2004-jan-dimow.htmhttp://www.jewishcurrents.org/2004-jan-dimow.htmhttp://knol.google.com/k/obedience-to-authority#http://web.archive.org/web/20090316175017/http://perso.wanadoo.fr/qualiconsult/milgramb.htmlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20090316175017/http://perso.wanadoo.fr/qualiconsult/milgramb.htmlhttp://www.posbase.uib.no/posbase/Presentasjoner/P_Milgram%20(1963).ppthttp://www.posbase.uib.no/posbase/Presentasjoner/P_Milgram%20(1963).ppthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internet_Archivehttp://web.archive.org/web/20080215010353/http://www.hippolytic.com/blog/2007/01/stanley_milgram_redux_1.phphttp://web.archive.org/web/20080215010353/http://www.hippolytic.com/blog/2007/01/stanley_milgram_redux_1.phphttp://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~wwu/psychology/compliance.shtmlhttp://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~wwu/psychology/compliance.shtmlhttp://cogprints.org/4566/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grantahttp://www.granta.com/Magazine/71http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Praegerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Scientisthttp://www.americanscientist.org/template/BookReviewTypeDetail/assetid/34009;jsessionid=baaeuLYcqpRVHihttp://www.americanscientist.org/template/BookReviewTypeDetail/assetid/34009;jsessionid=baaeuLYcqpRVHihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Basic_Bookshttp://derrenbrown.co.uk/tv-shows/the-heist/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fn7-JZq0Yxs#t=0m32shttp://www.movingimage.us/science/sloan.php?film_id=214http://web.archive.org/web/20070427161233/http://www.movingimage.us/science/sloan.php?film_id=214http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0075320/http://bufvc.ac.uk/publications/dvdhttp://soar.ois.psu.edu/cgi-bin/WebObjects/SOAR.woa/wo/0.3.9.4.5.1.5.0.1.1


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