comiitment and cultural values

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How Does Satisfaction Translateinto Performance? AnExamination of Commitmentand Cultural Values

Jin Zhang, Wei Zheng

The purpose of this study is to add new insights into the mechanism throughwhich job satisfaction relates to job performance. Affective commitment wastested as a potential mediator between job satisfaction and job performance,and traditionality was used as a potential moderator between job satisfactionand affective commitment. A survey study was conducted on 292 employees

from seven companies in China. The study findings suggest that affective com-mitment serves as one of the mechanisms through which job satisfaction influ-ences job performance. Job satisfaction can strengthen peoples identificationwith, involvement in, and emotional attachment to their organization whichin turn can foster better performance. The second major finding of this studyis that cultural values influence how well people translate job satisfaction intoaffective commitment. People who are culturally more traditional tend totransfer their satisfaction with their job into stronger commitment than peo-ple lower in cultural traditionality. HRD implications are drawn.

Since the emergence of the human relations movement, the relationshipbetween job satisfaction and job performance has captured much scholarlyattention (Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001). Human resource develop-ment (HRD) draws heavily from the human relations philosophies and is con-cerned with how to foster desirable workplace attitudes and behavior, amongwhich job satisfaction and job performance are key constructs (Bartlett &Kang, 2004). Studies multiplied to shed light on the linkage between job satis-

faction and job performance but findings remain controversial (Brayfield &Crockett, 1955; Iaffaldano & Muchinsky, 1985; Judge et al., 2001). A general

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY, vol. 20, no. 3, Fall 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/hrdq.20022 331


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332 Zhang, Zheng

consensus exists that there is a significant relationship between job satisfactionand job performance, ranging from .17 to .30 (Iaffaldano & Muchinsky, 1985;Judge et al., 2001). However, the relationship has received inconsistent sup-

port, and there is no consensus regarding the validity of various models toexplain the relationship (Judge et al., 2001).Exploration of mediators and moderators has been pursued in order to

help explain inconsistent findings between job satisfaction and job perfor-mance (Judge et al., 2001). A mediator accounts for the relation between theindependent variable and the dependent variable (Baron & Kenny, 1986).A moderator is a variable that affects the direction and/or strength of therelation between an independent or predictor variable and a dependent orcriterion variable (1986, p. 1174). However, it is still not well understood

how job satisfaction and job performance influence one another (Judge et al.,2001). For HRD scholars and practitioners, it is critically important to eluci-date how job satisfaction and job performance influence one another so thatHRD practices can be designed that ensure alignment of satisfaction and per-formance. For example, with knowledge of the relationship between job sat-isfaction and job performance, HRD professionals could help strengthenorganizational practices that encourage organizational members to translatejob satisfaction into efforts to improve job performance. In the reverse direc-tion, HRD professionals could sharpen the focus of performance improve-

ment practices to make sure individual job satisfaction is enhanced whentheir performance improves. This study is an effort to explore the psycholog-ical processes that can explain the linkage between job satisfaction and jobperformance.

The social psychological perspective adopted in this study posits thatattitude influences behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Allen & Meyer, 1990,1996; Bhuian & Abdul-Muhmin, 1997; Cohen, 1991; Eagly, 1992; Hellman &McMillan, 1994; Jamal & Badawi, 1995; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Organ &Ryan, 1995; Riketta, 2002; Yavas & Bodur, 1999). This perspective regards

attitudes as important causes and predictors of behavior (Eagly, 1992). It isconsistent with one of the key foundations of HRD, human relations schoolof thought, which holds that in order to improve performance, employeesneed to be motivated, satisfied, and in good social relations with other orga-nizational members (Swanson & Holton, 2001). Although a foundationalbelief in HRD, it is not clear through what mechanisms job satisfaction influ-ences job performance. In other words, it is not clear how HRD professionalscould maximally leverage organizational members positive attitudes towardtheir jobs for improving their performance outcomes.

Affective commitment captures the employees emotional attachment to,identification with, and involvement in, the organization (Allen & Meyer,1990). Affective commitment captures the employees attitude toward theirorganizations in general and it may influence their decision to expend effortson their jobs. Affective commitment could result from job satisfaction

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(Bhuian & Abdul-Muhmin, 1997; Hellman & McMillan, 1994; Jamal &Badawi, 1995; Yavas & Bodur, 1999) and could lead to better performance(Allen & Meyer, 1996; Cohen, 1991; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Organ &

Ryan, 1995; Riketta, 2002). It could serve as a mediator between job satis-faction and job performance, because the level of satisfaction affects the levelof organizational members commitment toward their organization, and as aconsequence commitment leads to the amount of effort organizational mem-bers exert on their jobs and subsequently the level of their job performance.No studies have been found to directly examine the potential mediating roleof affective commitment in transferring the influence of job satisfaction tojob performance.

Furthermore, culture influences attitude (Dorfman & Howell, 1988).

The literature shows that levels of satisfaction and commitment differ acrosscultural groups (Clugston, Howell, & Dorfman, 2000; Palich, Hom, & Griffeth,1995; Sommer, Bae, & Luthans, 1996). However, how culture influences therelationship of the two constructs has not been examined. Cultural valuescan serve to shape how people react to their job and their organizations.This study is situated in the Chinese context. China is undergoing significantsocio-cultural transformations that constitute an interesting ground for test-ing how the divide of traditional and modern values plays its role in howpeople perceive their job and how it affects their commitment to their orga-

nizations. This study investigated the potential moderating effect oftraditionality (Farh, Earley, & Lin, 1997) on the relationship between jobsatisfaction and affective commitment.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to examine the mechanism through which jobsatisfaction influences job performance. In particular, an attitudinal con-struct (affective commitment) is investigated as a potential mediator in the

relationship between job satisfaction and job performance, and a culturalconstruct (traditionality) is introduced as a moderator in the connectionbetween job satisfaction and affective commitment. Our specific researchquestions are:

Does affective commitment mediate the relationship between job satisfac-tion and job performance?

Does traditionality moderate the relationship between job satisfaction andaffective commitment?

Theoretical Background

The literature on the relationship between job satisfaction and job perfor-mance provides the background for this study.

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Job Satisfaction Job Performance. Job satisfaction and job performanceare both key constructs in HRD research. Job satisfaction refers to theemployees pleasurable or positive emotional state as a result of the appraisal

of ones job and job experiences (Locke, 1970; Schmidt, 2007). It is an indi-cator of not only employee well-being and psychological health (Haccoun &Jeanrie, 1995), but also numerous desirable organizational outcomes, such aswork attendance, intention to remain in the organization, motivation to transferlearning, turnover intention, and actual turnover (Brown, 1996; Egan, Yang, &Bartlett, 2004; Tett & Meyer, 1993). Job performance is the central theme inHRD because one of the key goals of HRD interventions is to enhance job per-formance (Swanson & Holton, 2001).

Our understanding of the relationship between job satisfaction and job

performance has evolved over the years. Since the human relations move-ment in the 1930s, the potential contribution of job satisfaction to job per-formance has been established (Judge et al., 2001). Literature suggests thatthe connection between job satisfaction and job performance is small butsignificant (Iaffaldano & Muchinsky, 1985; Judge et al., 2001). Multipleexplanations are offered to explain the relationship between job satisfactionand job performance. On the one hand, it is believed that happier peoplemake more productive people (job satisfaction leads to job performance;(Keaveney & Nelson, 1993; Shore & Martin, 1989). This perspective is

based on human relations theories and underlying social psychology theo-ries. Social psychology theories suggest that human attitudes have a bearingon behavior, which gives rise to the path from job satisfaction to job perfor-mance. On the other hand, some scholars believe that more productive peo-ple feel more satisfied at work (job performance leads to job satisfaction;Brown, Cron, & Leigh, 1993; MacKenzie, Podsakoff, & Ahearne, 1998).This perspective grounds itself on motivation theories (Deci & Ryan, 1985;Lawler & Porter, 1967). For example, Lawler and Porters motivation theory(1967) posits that better performance brings about intrinsic and extrinsic

rewards that could increase job satisfaction. Locke (1970) explains that jobperformance influences goal and value attainment, which elevates job satis-faction. Moreover, some believe there is a reciprocal relationship between jobsatisfaction and job performance (Sheridan & Slocum, 1975; Wanous,1974). Despite the abundance of research on satisfaction and performance,more studies are called for to investigate potential mediators and moderatorsthat may further our understanding of the relationship (Judge et al., 2001).This study follows the social psychological perspective that posits attitudeinfluencing behavior and thus assumes the direction of job satisfaction to jobperformance.

Affective Commitment Mediating the Relationship Between Job Satis-faction and Job Performance. There is a special dearth of research examiningthe affective and cognitive processes that explain the relationship between jobsatisfaction and job performance (Judge et al., 2001). Some researchers



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propose that positive affect and withdrawal behavior could mediate the influ-ence of job satisfaction on job performance (Hulin, 1991; Isen & Baron, 1991).We follow Ajzen and Fishbeins proposition (1980) that attitude toward behav-

ior does not directly predict behavior, but must first be translated into behav-ioral intention. Organizational commitment captures a behavioral intention tostay with an organization, based on a feeling of obligation to the organization(Allen & Meyer, 1990). It usually follows from an individuals entering an orga-nization and internalizing the norms in the organization (Allen & Meyer,1990).

Allen and Meyer (1990) divide organizational commitment into threedimensions: affective, normative, and continuance. Affective commitmentrefers to the individuals identification with, involvement in, and emotional

attachment to the organization. Normative commitment captures the sense ofobligation to the organization based on organizational members belief thatthey ought to do so. Continuance commitment encompasses organizationalmembers recognition of the costs resulting from their leaving the organiza-tion. Of the three dimensions of organizational commitment, affective com-mitment has been the most frequently validated (OReilly & Chatman, 1986;Price & Mueller, 1981) and found to have the strongest correlations withemployee attitudes and work behavior (Allen & Meyer, 1996; Meyer, Stanley,Herscovitch, & Topolnytsky, 2002; Riketta, 2002). Normative commitment is

generally regarded as influenced by perceptions of organizational expectationsand continuance commitment related to transferability of skills and costs ofleaving (Allen & Meyer, 1990). In our study, we intend to connect commit-ment to satisfaction and performance, which capture work-related attitudeand behavior with which affective commitment seems to have closer relation-ships than normative or continuance commitment. Furthermore, job satisfac-tion is an affect and is one of the components of subjective well-being thatmay be more relevant to affective commitment than the other two dimen-sions, and so affective commitment is used.

A range of variables have been found to influence the level of affectivecommitment, involving personal characteristics such as age, role-relatedcharacteristics such as degree of autonomy, structural characteristics such asorganizational communication, and work experience characteristics suchas leadership (Cohen, 1992). Job satisfaction was found to be associatedwith affective commitment (Bhuian & Abdul-Muhmin, 1997; Hellman &McMillan, 1994; Jamal & Badawi, 1995; Yavas & Bodur, 1999). In particu-lar, job satisfaction is seen as an antecedent to affective commitment becausethe more satisfied people are with their job, the more identification they mayexperience with their organization (Brown & Peterson, 1993; Mowday,Porter, & Steers, 1982; Mueller, Boyer, Price, & Iveson, 1994). Organiza-tional members orientation toward a specific job precedes orientationtoward the entire organization (Currivan, 1999). Moreover, job satisfactionwas even found to mediate the effect of various antecedents on commitment,




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such as pre-employment expectations, perceived job characteristics, roleconflict and role ambiguity, organizational culture, and leadership styles(Iverson & Roy, 1994; Williams & Hazer, 1986; Yousef, 2002).

At the same time, affective commitment affects job performance. Ahigher level of individual commitment to the organization leads to moreeffort exerted in performing ones tasks, which leads to better performanceoutcomes. Research has demonstrated a positive link between affective com-mitment and job performance and productivity (Allen & Meyer, 1996;Cohen, 1991; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Organ & Ryan, 1995; Randall, 1990;Riketta, 2002). Therefore, affective commitment can help explain how satis-faction influences job performance.

Enhanced satisfaction with ones job indicates that ones needs are met,

and the positive experience can lead to elevated identification with and emo-tional attachment to the organization; this attachment can translate into anenhanced level of effort on the job, and more consideration for the organiza-tion even when negative things take place, which consequently contributesto performance improvement. Therefore, we hypothesize that affective com-mitment mediates the relationship between job satisfaction and job perfor-mance. At the same time, this mediation is partial because job satisfactioninfluences job performance through other channels such as reduced absenceand turnover (Hulin, 1991) and positive affect (Isen & Baron, 1991) which

may favorably influence performance without affecting commitment level.

HYPOTHESIS 1: Affective commitment partially mediates the relationship betweenjob satisfaction and job performance.

Traditionality Moderating the Relationship Between Job Satisfaction andAffective Commitment. Judge et al. (2001) suggest that the variability in therelationship between job satisfaction and job performance may be due to theexistence of moderators. In our study, we examine how cultural values may

moderate the relationship between job satisfaction and affective commitment.Both job satisfaction and affective commitment reflect peoples attitudes, whichare usually shaped by cultural values. A number of studies explored the con-nection of cultural values and commitment (Clugston, Howell, & Dorfman,2000; Palich, Hom, & Griffeth, 1995; Sommer, Bae, & Luthans, 1996). Forexample, McKinnon, Harrison, Chow, and Wu (2003) found that organiza-tional culture valuing innovation, respect for people, stability, and aggressive-ness had strong relationships with commitment in the Taiwanese context.However, the correlation between cultural values and commitment has beenshown to be small (for example, only 2.7% of the variance in commitment wasexplained by cultural values in Palich et al.s 1995 study). Kirkman and Shapiro(2001) called for examination of more complex models between cultural val-ues and commitment. One explanation of the small correlation could be thatcultural values may influence commitment through strengthening or weakening



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the influence of some antecedents of commitment. Our study examines oneset of cultural values, traditionality, as a potential moderator in the relation-ship between job performance and affective commitment.

Traditionality is defined as a commitment to, respect for, and acceptanceof the customs and norms of a traditional society (Schwartz, 1992). Tradition-ality encompasses cultural values such as respect for authority, filial piety, maledomination, and a general sense of powerlessness (Yang, Yu, & Yeh, 1989).These values are consistent with the fundamental relationships of Confucianthought in China (Spreitzer, Perttula, & Xin, 2005). From Hofstedes concept ofpower distance (1997), Hui, Lee, and Rousseau (2004) suggest that in theChinese culture, traditionality largely corresponds with Hofstedes powerdistance, which captures the extent to which employees accept status

differences and follow the rules defined by their roles. Specifically, high-traditionality employees tend to comply with their leaders directions whilelow-traditionality employees are less likely to do so simply because of theirstatus differences (Chen & Aryee, 2007). However, traditionality encom-passes a larger domain than power distance in that it carries moral overtonesthat are prescribed in the Confucian culture (Schwartz, 1992), thus renderingtraditionality particularly relevant in the Chinese context.

Traditionality can be construed and measured at both the individualand societal levels (Farh, Hackett, & Liang, 2007). Although cultural values

are usually studied at the societal level, it was found that there are substan-tial within-society cultural differences along cultural dimensions (Cross &Madson, 1997; Triandis, 1995) and many studies actually examined culturalvalues at the individual level (Kirkman, Lowe, & Gibson, 2006). The fasttransformation of Chinese society has been a fertile ground for observing dif-ferent cultural values. Starting from the late 1980s, Chinese values have beenchanging substantially because of socio-economic transitions, in areas suchas superior-subordinate relationship, personal control, and moral discipline(Ralston et al., 2006). Further, it was found that different generations of Chi-

nese have their own values related to openness, materialism, and family andkinship ties (Egri & Ralston, 2004). Traditionality could serve to accentuateindividuals value differences in the Chinese context.

High-traditionality employees tend to be high on power distanceaccepting the unequal distribution of power (Fahr et al., 2007). In high powerdistance cultures, the less powerful members expect and accept that power isdistributed unequally (Hofstede, 1997). High power distance values mayprompt superiors to assume subordinates are inferior, and subordinates inturn seek exchange-based security and economic relationships rather thanself-development (Bochner & Hesketh, 1994). Increased satisfaction withtheir jobs may lead people high on traditionality to attribute their job satis-faction to the favorable conditions provided them by their organization, andin turn, they may feel more identified with their organization. In otherwords, high traditionality may amplify the individuals commitment to the




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organization as a result of increased job satisfaction. For low-traditionalityemployees, because of their greater focus on their own development,increased satisfaction with their jobs may be less likely attributable to favorsfrom the organization, and hence they may experience a relatively smaller

increment in commitment.

HYPOTHESIS 2: Traditionality moderates the relationship between job satisfactionand affective commitment. The relationship will be stronger for people higher intraditionality.

Figure 1 presents the hypothesized conceptual framework for this study.

MethodA survey was conducted to collect data on the relevant variables.

Samples and Procedures. Respondents in the present study are employ-ees and their supervisors from seven companies in manufacturing industriesin mainland China. Four hundred employee questionnaires and an equal num-ber (400) of supervisor evaluation forms were distributed to those companies.The research assistants from the research team and the coordinators from eachhuman resources department in the companies were trained to administer andmonitor the data collection process. The coordinators from the department of

human resources of those companies provided the list of employees and theirimmediate supervisors. The research assistants and the coordinators distrib-uted and collected the questionnaires. The respondents were asked to volun-tarily fill out a questionnaire in which several measures were included.Respondents were assured that their answers would not be connected back to


Affectivecommitment

Traditionality

Job satisfactionSupervisor-rated

performance

Figure 1. Hypothesized Model of this Study


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their names and only the researchers had access to the original dataset. Mean-while, their immediate supervisors were asked to voluntarily evaluate theirsubordinates job performance with an evaluation form. A total of 328

employee questionnaires were returned (return rate 82%) and 292 supervisorevaluation forms were collected (return rate 73%). Finally, 292 supervisor-sub-ordinate dyads and their completed data remained in the dataset for furtheranalyses.

Of the 292 employee respondents, about half were male (52.1%) and44.5% were single. Respondents reported an average age of 30.13 years(SD 7.45) and an average organizational tenure of 4.85 years. About one-fourth of the respondents have a senior high school diploma or under(25.9%), 30.6% took some college coursework (two-year), and 34.5% had a

university degree. Among all the respondents, 23.2% were from state-owncompanies, 62.2% from private or cooperative enterprises, and 14.6% fromforeign-owned companies, joint ventures, or other types of companies. Therespondents occupational background included marketing/sales (23.8%),technician/engineering/information system (7.3%), manufacturing/operation(6.4%), management/administration (14.9%), research/development (4.3%),personnel/training/finance (13.1%), logistics/services (14.3), and others(2.1%). Respondent positions included 5.8% senior-level management,24.7% middle-level managers, 24.1% junior managers, 16.8% staffs or clerks,

and 15.9% workers.Measures. All the measures used in the present study were originally

designed and developed in English except for the traditionality scale and theperformance scale. The English measures were translated into Chinese andapplied in studies conducted in China by other researchers before. In the cur-rent research, the Chinese versions of all the measures were employed directly.

Job Satisfaction. We used a scale consisting of six items, on a 5-pointscale, to measure employees satisfaction with their jobs, supervisors, peerrelations, income, and development and promotion. Developed by Tsui,

Egan and OReilly (1992), the scale was used in previous studies by scholarsin both American (Wesolowski & Mossholder, 1997) and Chinese contexts(Li, Tian, & Shi, 2006), with acceptable internal consistency (Cronbachsalpha of .83 in Li et al., 2006). Sample items are I am satisfied with the job Iam doing and I am satisfied with the opportunities of promotion anddevelopment in this company.

Affective Commitment. We used a measure of affective commitment byChen and Francesco (2003) in the Chinese context. The measure was alsoused by other scholars in Singapore (Lee, Lee, & Lum, 2008) and Greece(Markovits, Davis, & van Dick, 2007). It contains six items, on a 7-pointscale, with acceptable internal consistency (Cronbachs alpha of .80 in Chen &Francesco, 2003). Sample items are I would be very happy to spend the restof my career with this organization and I do not feel like part of the familyat my organization (reverse-scored).




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340 Zhang, Zheng

Traditionality. The traditionality scale was designed by Farh et al. (1997)to measure the degree to which Chinese people hold traditional cultural val-ues. The scale includes five items with a 7-point scale (1 do not agree at

all; 7

totally agree). Example items are Children should respect whomtheir parents respect and One should obey leaders. The items have beenused in previous studies in Taiwan (Farh et al., 1997; Fahr et al., 2007),Hong Kong (Farh et al., 1997), and Mainland China (Hui et al., 2004). Theinternal consistency coefficient (Cronbachs alpha) ranged from .60 (in Farhet al., 1997) to .74 (Hui et al., 2004).

Supervisor-Rated Performance. The performance measure involves 11items that were given to supervisors to evaluate their immediate subordi-nates who have responded to the survey questionnaire. Among the 11 items,

five of them were used to evaluate the employees task performance (e.g., thisemployee can effectively fulfill his/her job requirements), five for contextualperformance (e.g., this employee is happy to provide extra help for the com-pany outside his/her job requirements), and one item to assess the overallperformance level, on a 6-point scale. This evaluation measure was devel-oped and used in both American and Chinese contexts by Luthans, Avolio,Walumbwa, and Li (2005).

Reliability and Validity of the Measures. Each of the measures weselected has been used in the Chinese context and has demonstrated adequate

reliability and validity. To evaluate their reliability in our study, Cronbachsalpha was calculated for each of the measures as a reliability index. The relia-bility coefficients for the four measures used in the present study ranged from0.71 to 0.90 (see Table 1).

To establish content validity, six experts in human resource develop-ment and in psychometrics were invited to review and discuss each measure.These experts were from the school of management or the department ofpsychology in four universities (Tsinghua University, Cornell University, Uni-versity of California at Berkeley, and Peking University) who published on

topics related to this study. The experts read and evaluated each measure


Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, Reliability, and CorrelationsAmong Study Variablesa

Mean s.d. 1 2 3 4

1 Traditionality 3.98 1.08 (0.71)

2 Job satisfaction 3.86 0.56 0.27 (0.81)

3 Affective commitment 3.73 0.57 0.16 0.38 (0.83)

4 Supervisor-rated performance 4.91 0.49 0.11 0.28 0.29 (0.90)

Note:Values in parentheses are internal consistency reliability estimates.aCorrelation coefficients of .16 or greater are significant at p .01. Correlation coefficients that aregreater than .12 and less than .16 are significant at p .05 with listwise deletion.


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independently on how well each item measured the corresponding con-struct. They gave feedback on the scales to the authors. Revisions were madeaccording to the comments from those experts. To ensure construct validity,

confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was employed to analyze the structuralvalidity of the four measures (job satisfaction, affective commitment, tradi-tionality, and performance). Table 2 reports the CFA results. The results ofthe CFA show a clear convergence of items within each measure and cleardistinction among the four measures. The six items in the job satisfactionscale showed large factor loadings (factor loadings 0.66). The same thinghappened to the other three scales: affective commitment (six items, factorloadings 0.47), traditionality (five items, factor loadings 0.45), andsupervisor-rated performance (11 items, factor loadings 0.43). The fit

indices of the CFA model revealed that the four-factor model was fitting thedata, indicating the distinctiveness of the constructs in the present study(x2 332.45, CFI .95, NNFI .93, RMSEA .05). The results of CFAindicate that those four measures used in this study have acceptable con-struct validity.

Results

Descriptive Statistics and Correlations. Table 1 presents the means, stan-

dard deviations, and correlations among the study variables and control vari-ables. Job satisfaction was found to have a significantly positive relationshipwith both performance (r 0.28, p .01) and affective commitment(r 0.38,p .01). Affective commitment was also positively correlated toperformance (r 0.29,p .01). Traditionality was positively correlated withboth job satisfaction (r 0.27,p .01) and affective commitment (r .16,p .01).The correlation between job satisfaction and affective commitment ismoderate (r 0.38,p .01).

To rule out the potential common method bias problem caused by using

self-report scales on job satisfaction, traditionality, and affective commitment,we used the statistical remedial approach recommended by Podsakoff andOrgan (1986). These scales were entered into an exploratory factor analysis.Podsakoff and Organ (1986) set the criteria that if (1) a single factor emergesfrom the factor analysis, or (2) one factor accounts for the majority of thecovariance in these variables, this indicates a substantial amount of commonmethod bias. The unrotated factor solutions in our analysis showed thatthree factors emerged, accounting for 45% of the variance of all variablesand there was no single factor that accounted for the majority of the covari-ance. According to Podsakoff and Organ (1986), common method bias wasnot present with the data collected in the current study.

Hypothesis Testing. Hypothesis 1 was examined by using a hierarchicalregression analysis. In the first regression analysis for mediation effect (model 1),we entered age, education, tenure, and position as control variables, and then




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342 Zhang, Zheng

entered job satisfaction as the independent variable (main effect). The dependentvariable was affective commitment. In model 2, we followed the same procedureto enter variables as in model 1. The third step for model 2 was to enter jobsatisfaction and affective commitment together to test the mediating effect.


Table 2. Items in Four Measures and Factor Loadings

Factor

Scale and Item 1 2 3 4

Job Satisfaction with

Work .81

Supervisor .73

Relationship .84

Income .66

Development .73

In general .83

Affect Commitment

Work here until retired .75As my own company .65

Feeling of belongings .73

Affective connection .80

Member of a family .47

Good to myself .72

Traditionality

Obeying leaders .59

Following seniors .72

Women are dependent .78

Elderly has power .73

Like what parents like .45

Supervisor-rated performance

Can do good job .85

Do extra work .66

High competency .77

Efficient .89

Play his/her role well .86

High performer .84

Help others at work .71

Protect companys image .71

Care about the development of the company .67

Prevent problems at work .77

Hardly complain .43


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The dependent variable for model 2 was supervisor-rated performance.As shown in Table 3, model 1 job satisfaction was positively related to affectivecommitment (b .36,p .01). Model 2 shows that affective commitment waspositively related to job performance (b .21,p .01), when job satisfaction

and demographic variables were controlled for. Further, the regression coeffi-cient of job satisfaction on job performance remained significant (r .20,p .01) but the magnitude of the coefficient decreased (from r .36 to r .20)after affective commitment was entered into the regression. These results revealedthat affective commitment partially mediated the relationship between job satis-faction and job performance. Hypothesis 1 was fully supported.

The moderation effect of traditionality on the relationship between jobsatisfaction and affective commitment was examined using a hierarchicalregression analysis. First, with affective commitment as the dependent vari-able, we entered age, education, tenure, and position as control variables.Second, we tested the main effect of two independent variables (traditionalityand job satisfaction) by entering job satisfaction and traditionality into theregression analysis. At the third step, we calculated an interaction term (jobsatisfaction traditionality). To reduce multicollinearity due to the overlap of



Table 3. Results of Regression Analysis for Mediation

Model 1 Model 2

Affective Supervisor-rated

Variables commitment performance

Controls

Age 0.18* 0.15*

Education 0.11 0.13

Tenure 0.05 0.08

Position 0.11 0.02

R2 0.06* 0.07**

Direct effect

Job satisfaction 0.36** 0.29**R2 0.11** 0.07**

Mediating effects

Job satisfaction 0.20**

Affective commitment 0.21**

R2 0.04**

Overall R2 0.41 0.42

Overall model F 8.67 7.44**

Note: Dependent variable: model 1 affective commitment, model 2 supervisor-rated performance* indicates that coefficient is significant at .05 level.

** indicates that coefficient is significant at .01 level.


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344 Zhang, Zheng

job satisfaction and traditionality, we centered the variables used in the inter-action term (job satisfaction and traditionality; Aiken & West, 1991). Theinteraction term was entered; the significance test of the beta coefficient ofthis term and the variance of dependent variable explained by this term arereported in Table 4. As predicted (Hypothesis 2), the interaction term was

significant (b .22, p .05), which means that traditionality positivelymoderated the effect of job satisfaction on affective commitment. Higher tra-ditionality can strengthen the relationship between job satisfaction and affec-tive commitment. The interaction term of job satisfaction and traditionalityaccounted for 3% of the variances in affective commitment (R2 .03,F 4.61,p .01). This means that the interaction term of job satisfactionand traditionality explained more variance in affective commitment thanwhen the interaction was not considered, confirming that the moderationeffect exists. Therefore, Hypothesis 2 was fully supported.

Discussion

The purpose of this study is to shed light on the connection between job sat-isfaction and job performance. We identified a potential mediator and a


Table 4. Results of Regression Analysis forModeration by Traditionality

Variables Affective commitment

Step 1: Controls

Age 0.07

Education 0.02

Tenure 0.13

Position 0.09

R2 0.05

F 2.68*

Step 2: Main effects

Job Satisfaction 0.30**Traditionality 0.18*

R2 0.15

F 12.23**

Step 3: Moderating effects

Job Satisfaction Traditionality 0.22*

R2 0.03

F 4.61**

* indicates that coefficient is significant at .05 level.** indicates that coefficient is significant at .01 level.


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potential moderator in the connection. We tested and found that affectivecommitment can serve as one of the mechanisms through which job satis-faction influences job performance. This means that job satisfaction can stren-

gthen peoples identification with, involvement in, and emotional attachmentto their organization. This identification in turn influences how well peopleperform at their job. At the same time, job satisfaction also influences jobperformance directly. The second major finding of this study is that culturalvalues influence how well people translate job satisfaction into affective com-mitment. People who are more culturally traditional tend to transfer theirsatisfaction with their jobs into stronger commitment than do people whoare lower in cultural traditionality.

Theoretical Implications. This study contributes to the job satisfaction

and job performance literature in several ways. First, it strengthens the ideathat the well-being of organizational members is not only desirable in and ofitself but it also affects job performance. The well-being of organizational mem-bers has been a key focus of HRD researchers. Job satisfaction constitutes partof the well-being of organizational members. HRD scholars have recognizedthat performance is a key outcome of well-being (Swanson & Holton, 2001)and that individuals who have a sense of fulfillment would inherently makedecisions that cause an organization to prosper (Bierema, 1996). This view isempirically validated in this study. Our findings showed that there is a sub-

stantial connection between self-rated job satisfaction and supervisor-rated per-formance. Increased satisfaction influences performance of individuals.

Second, our study responded to Judge et al.s call (2001) for moreresearch to illuminate how job satisfaction influences job performancebecause the affective and cognitive processes that underlie the satisfactionand performance connection have been inadequately explored (Judge et al.,2001). Existing research has identified factors such as withdrawal (Hulin,1991) and positive affect (Brief, Butcher, & Roberson, 1995) as possiblemediating factors that influence the relationship between job satisfaction and

job performance. Our study extended the line of research to include affectivecommitment. Our findings suggested that affective commitment could trans-mit the effect of job satisfaction onto job performance. We found thatincreased job satisfaction could lead to a higher commitment level whichcorresponds with existing research (Brown & Peterson, 1993; Mowday,Porter, & Steers, 1982; Mueller, Boyer, Price, & Iverson, 1994), and a highercommitment level could lead to better performance which also correspondsto existing understandings (Allen & Meyer, 1996; Cohen, 1991; Mathieu &Zajac, 1990; Organ & Ryan, 1995; Randall, 1990; Riketta, 2002). Our studycontributed to the existing literature by identifying and finding that affectivecommitment can act as a mediator between job satisfaction and job perfor-mance. By enhancing affective commitment, individuals job satisfaction canhave a larger positive effect on job performance. Future research could studythis mediating effect deeper and bring further evidence to our finding.




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Third, the significant moderation effect of traditionality implies that cul-tural values play an important part in organizational life. HRD professionalshave recognized the importance of cultural values and their impact on orga-

nizational members attitudes (Francis, 1995). Our study revealed that cul-tural values significantly affect how job satisfaction influences commitment.Members who are higher in traditionality may more readily translate theirsatisfaction on the job into their commitment to their organizations, whilemembers who are lower in traditionality may be less likely to do so. Ourstudy answered the call of Kirkman and Shapiro (2001) for exploration ofmore complex models of cultural values and commitment than direct corre-lations. Our findings contributed to the existing literature by furnishing amoderation model of cultural value on satisfaction and commitment. Our

findings suggest that cultural values may serve as a valve in the relationshipbetween commitment and job satisfaction. Their relationship may vary withthe cultural values that individuals hold. It is therefore vitally important torecognize what the cultural values are in individuals and how the values mayaffect how factors influence commitment, before HRD interventions aredesigned. In addition, we presented further evidence that traditionality canbe used as an effective measurement in differentiating individuals in theChinese culture, although future studies could use traditionality in other cul-tural contexts.

Practical Implications. This study carries several implications for HRDprofessionals. First, HRD professionals need to continue enhancing organiza-tional members satisfaction with their job and increase their commitment tothe organization, because both can lead to desirable performance outcomes.HRD professionals could use interventions such as training and organizationdevelopment (OD) to foster higher levels of commitment and satisfaction. Sev-eral HRD studies confirmed that training practices could enhance employeecommitment (Meyer & Smith, 2000; Whitener, 2001). For example, trainingcould benefit organizational members job-related, career-related, and personal-

related development (Nordhaug, 1989). OD practices could also be leveragedto diagnose areas for improvement in job satisfaction and commitment,through HRD tools such as an employee engagement survey.

Second, our findings suggest that affective commitment mediates theeffect of job satisfaction on job performance. This means that it is insufficient just to focus on enhancing the job satisfaction of individual employees. Ifemployee commitment is low, individual satisfaction will not be effectivelytranslated into better job performance. The organizational environmentneeds to be cultivated to encourage employee commitment. Previous studiesemphasized the importance of HRD practices for enhancing organizationalcommitment through practices such as training, recognition, empowerment,and competence development (McEvoy, 1997; Pare, Tremblay, & Lalonde,2000; Ulrich, 1997).



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Third, HRD professionals need to realize that the effect of job satisfac-tion on organizational commitment can depend on peoples cultural values.The implication of our findings is that when designing HRD strategies to

enhance commitment level and ultimately performance, factors of culturalvalues need to be taken into consideration. Our findings caution HRD pro-fessionals against relying solely on across-the-board solutions to enhanceorganizational members attitude toward their job and the organization. HRDpractices need to be culturally sensitive. In the Chinese context, with peoplewho are more traditional, increasing their job satisfaction can enhance theircommitment more effectively than with people who are less traditional. Withthe latter, it is advisable to consider factors other than job satisfaction toenhance their commitment level such as reducing role ambiguity and role

conflict (Fisher & Gitelson, 1983). HRD professionals need to deepen theirunderstanding of cultural values in their workplace and devise HRD prac-tices that are culturally sensitive to serve to motivate employee groups withdifferent cultural values.

Limitations and Recommendations. This is a cross-sectional study, and soit cannot yield evidence of the causal link from job satisfaction to job perfor-mance. A longitudinal design could help address this limitation. A follow-upstudy could be conducted at a later time to examine the potential influence ofjob satisfaction on job performance over time.

Second, the cultural context was limited to the Chinese culture. Thevariability of traditionality may be smaller where the study is conducted in across-national context. The use of traditionality in a multicultural environ-ment may help expand the applicability of traditionality. Future studies couldexamine the moderating role of traditionality in a multicultural context.

Third, we used affective commitment, which only represents onedimension of commitment. Future studies could consider using normativecommitment to explore how it plays a role similar to or different from that ofaffective commitment in the satisfaction-performance connection.

In summary, our study has followed the calls of multiple researchers toshed more light on the relationship between job satisfaction and job perfor-mance. We have taken an initial step to use affective commitment as a poten-tial mediator and traditionality as a potential moderator in explaining thevariability of the relationship. Future studies need to be conducted to generateevidence of the direction of the relationship between satisfaction and perfor-mance, to explore traditionality in a multicultural context, and use multipledimensions of commitment.

Acknowledgment

This research was supported by National Natural Science Foundation ofChina grant no. 70572011, awarded to Jin Zhang.




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Jin Zhang is an associate professor at the School of Economics and Management, TsinghuaUniversity.

Wei Zheng is assistant professor of Human Resource Development of the Departmentof Counseling, Adult and Higher Education at Northern Illinois University.



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