communication strategies for technology products in singapore: a content analysis

International Business Review 10 (2001) 551–570www.elsevier.com/locate/ibusrev

Communication strategies for technologyproducts in Singapore: a content analysis

Tanuja Singh*, Denise D. Schoenbachler1

Department of Marketing, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60115, USA

Abstract

As technology becomes a unifying force in the global economy, Transnational Corporations(TNCs) have increased their efforts to compete more effectively. In recent years, as marketsin the Asia-Pacific have grown significantly, TNCs from the West have flocked to these mar-kets. The Singapore market is particularly important in this region—economically and techno-logically it is very similar to Western markets and offers numerous opportunities for trade andinvestment. It has positioned itself as a technology leader in this region and serves as a gatewayto many South East Asian nations, which increases its strategic significance even further.Culturally however, Singapore is very distinct from the West with roots in the Chinese valuesystem. This research examines the nature of technology advertising in Singapore. Given Sin-gapore’s unique economic, technological, and geographic significance, the results of the studycan be used by marketers of technology and other products to better position their productsin this market. The results suggest that while in some areas, advertising in Singapore resemblesWestern advertising, there are many distinctions that must be kept in mind if TNCs want toestablish a stronghold in this country. 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Communication strategy; Technology products; Content analysis; Singapore; Information con-tent; Thematic content

1. Introduction

As technology becomes the single most unifying force in this global world, cor-porations specializing in technology-based products must ensure that their products

* Corresponding author. Tel:.+1-815-753-1714; fax:+1-815-753-6014.E-mail address: [email protected] (T. Singh).

1 Tel.: +1-815-753-6225.

0969-5931/01/$ - see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.PII: S0969 -5931(01 )00032-4

552 T. Singh, D.D. Schoenbachler / International Business Review 10 (2001) 551–570

and services adequately address the needs of global customers. Equally important isthe need to develop effective communication strategies so that the information needsof diverse target markets are met. In recent years, the Asian-Pacific markets havebecome increasingly important to US based technology companies, as domestic andEuropean markets have become relatively saturated. Despite the recent Asian finan-cial crisis, experts believe that these markets will recover fully and continue to offersignificant growth potential in the years to come. Many North American, Japanese,and European transnational corporations (TNCs) are realizing the potential of thesemarkets as they continue to pour billions of dollars into Asian markets.

The focus of this study is technology-based products and the communication stra-tegies used for these products in the Singapore market. In particular, the study pro-vides guidance in developing communication strategies for technology productsthrough an evaluation of the print advertisements of companies that market tech-nology-based products in Singapore. These products were chosen because of theirsignificance in the Singaporean economy as well as the fact that this sector is parti-cularly important for the Western TNCs, who use Singapore as a market for theirproducts and also as the gateway to other markets in the region. Furthermore, theyprovide an interesting contrast; while culture would be expected to affect advertisingappeals in general, technology products may be less susceptible to cultural peculiari-ties. Interestingly, despite the significance of technology in the global economy,scholarly studies have not examined communication strategies for technology pro-ducts.

Economic growth in the Singaporean market has resulted in attracting strongadvertising creative talent. Leading international agencies such as Leo Burnett,McCann-Erickson and Ogilvy and Mather now have offices in Singapore, which alsohas top local agencies like Batey Ads, DNC and Henen Advertising. Advertisingexpenditures in Singapore topped $1.27 billion in 1997, up more than 12% from theyear before (Singapore Infomap, 1999). Understanding the characteristics of tech-nology ads in Singapore should help marketers assess how such products are adver-tised in a market which is technologically and economically very similar but cul-turally very dissimilar from its Western counterparts.

The study seeks to examine the nature of information content and themes that areused to advertise technology-based products in Singapore. Specifically, the objectivesof this study are: (1) to assess the information characteristics of print advertising inSingapore for technology-based products; (2) to evaluate the themes and appealsused to promote technology-based products; (3) to ascertain whether significant dif-ferences exist in the information content and themes of advertisements betweenTNCs and Singaporean companies and, if so, what factors could account for thesedifferences? and (4) to evaluate whether significant differences exist in the mannerin which US and other Western companies advertise their technology-based productsin Singapore as compared to companies from Asia and other regions. These compari-sons are relevant because some researchers argue that Western TNCs are responsiblefor cultural homogenization around the world as they transfer predominantly Westernimages and ideologies to cultures which are significantly different from the west,thus affecting consumption and changing the local culture permanently (Griffin, Vis-

553T. Singh, D.D. Schoenbachler / International Business Review 10 (2001) 551–570

wanath, & Schwartz, 1994). Thus, if the themes and appeals used by Western TNCsdiffer systematically from the ones used by local and/or Eastern-origin companies,it could be inferred that Western TNCs may be, to some extent, responsible for aunidirectional flow of ideas into Singapore. Additionally, it would be strategicallyrelevant to examine whether Singapore origin companies use less or more infor-mation cues as opposed to Western and other TNCs. The results should offer usefulinsights into the information needs of the Singapore consumer, and whether Westernand other TNCs are fulfilling these needs.

2. Background

2.1. Relevance of the Singapore market

While many markets in the Asia Pacific may be similar to their Western counter-parts in terms of their technological development, they continue to be politically andculturally distinct, thus requiring adaptation of messages and information to suit theneeds of the local market. The case of Singapore is particularly unique. From aneconomic development viewpoint, it is one of the world’s most developed countrieswith per capita income (purchasing power parity based) second only to the UnitedStates. It was ranked the world’s most competitive country in 1999 by the WorldEconomic Forum, ahead of the US and Hong Kong and is considered the world’ssecond most free economy, after Hong Kong and ahead of the US (Country Commer-cial Guide, 2000). It thrives as a successful business center in the international arena.Singapore’s location and the free market economy play a unique role. Even thoughit is a relatively small country of about 3.5 million people, it acts as a major testmarket for US products, works as a gateway to Southeast Asia for US products, andhas one of the most developed economies and infrastructures in the world. Fortyfour percent of total foreign investment commitments in Singapore come from theUS and it is the tenth largest export market for US goods. Additionally, 18% ofSingapore’s total imports, among them several high-tech goods, come from the US(Country Commercial Guide, 2000).

Singapore’s role has evolved gradually and has come about as a result of carefulplanning. Since the 1960s, Singapore has directed its economic development, ratherthan just reacting to external events. Thus, in the 1960s when job creation was theprimary concern, labor-intensive industries were encouraged by the government. Bythe early 1970s, full employment was achieved and the emphasis shifted to higherskilled jobs and quality products. Since the early 1990s, the emphasis has been onthe manufacturing and service sectors as dual growth streams. Local enterprises havebeen encouraged to diversify operations, upgrade skills, and develop into strongexport-oriented companies. Singapore has also embarked on a strong indigenousscience and technology base to support high-tech industries. The government recog-nizes the need for Singapore to be an early adopter of information technology andinnovator of information technology applications for the economy to remain vibrantand competitive. The goal is to establish Singapore as the information technology


mega-hub (Singapore Infomap, 1999). Singapore already ranks fourth as an infor-mation driven economy in the world (United States, Sweden, and Finland are thefirst three countries), leading other Asian markets such as Japan and Korea. TheSingapore government is aggressively investing in the digital age by making e-com-merce a priority and making the Internet available to everyone. To overcome the‘digital divide’ between the ‘haves’ and the ‘have-nots’ in Singapore, it hasdeveloped innovative plans such as distributing free computers, providing free broad-band access at public kiosks, and giving every Singaporean a free e-mail addressand website. These plans are specifically targeted toward the ethnic minorities, lateadopters and people from low-income groups (Newsbytes Asia, 2000). This emphasison technology should further strengthen the role of Singapore in the technology sec-tor.

Despite a temporary slump in the economy due to the recent Asian crisis, theSingapore economy is back on track (Young, 2000). All sectors including technologysectors such as telecommunications and electronics are growing significantly. In thesecond quarter of 1999, the economy grew at an impressive 6.7% after a sharp dropin 1998, when the growth rate was a dismal .3% following record growths in theprevious ten years of above 9%. Manufacturing, especially in electronics and pharm-aceutical sectors, showed impressive gains (Country Commercial Guide, 2000). Froman economic stance, Singapore rivals its Western counterparts with a technologydriven, growth-oriented economy. Thus, Singapore is an important market — it isimportant as a major export and investment market for the US and other countries.Additionally it serves as a gateway to many South East Asian economies, wheremuch growth is predicted in the next decade. This technology savvy market presentsnumerous opportunities for the US TNCs in the technology sector alone.

Culturally, however, Singapore is very different from the United States and otherWestern European nations (Tan & Dolich, 1983). For example, on Hofstede’s (1983)cultural dimensions, it ranks almost diametrically opposite the United States on twodimensions — individualism and power distance; it has one of the lowest individual-ism scores whereas the US has the highest. On the power distance dimension, it hasa much higher score than the US. These distinctions may be particularly relevant asfar as advertising strategies of Western companies are concerned. Advertising hasbeen called a reflection of the values and norms of a society (Holbrook, 1987). Theculture of a country shapes the value system of a society and helps determine howan individual’s world will be viewed as well as how it will be fashioned (McCracken,1986). Srikandath (1991) has referred to cultural values as the “%organizing prin-ciples; the orienting ideas for thought and action in every society” (p. 168).Researchers suggest that by examining the dominant cultural values of a society asdepicted in the advertisements, one can understand consumer motivations in makingproduct choice decisions (Cheng, 1994; Cheng & Schweitzer, 1996; Tse, Belk, &Zhou, 1989). Thus, one would expect cultural distinctions between Singapore andthe West to also manifest themselves in advertising appeals. This information couldbe particularly relevant for companies wishing to advertise in Singapore or makingSingapore their bridge to other markets in the region.


2.2. Information content and value of advertising

Most researchers support the notion that advertising provides information of valueand helps with decision making. In fact, prior research revealed that informativeadvertising is the best predictor of ad likeability as well as attitude toward the brand(Aaker & Stayman, 1990). Furthermore, advertisements, which do provide infor-mation, tend to generate higher recall, comprehension and persuasion, particularlyif that information serves to differentiate that product from competitors (Stewart &Koslow, 1989). Abernethy and Franke’s (1996) meta-analysis reveals that advertis-ing’s information value is evidence of its usefulness.

Researchers have found that advertising follows a sequential path as it evolvesfrom serving a strictly utilitarian purpose, i.e. providing information for decisionmaking to eventually addressing symbolic needs in a society. Leiss, Kline, & Jhally(1990) found that advertising went through four different stages in the US; it evolvedfrom product information stage to product image stage, which was followed by thepersonalization stage and ultimately reached the lifestyle stage. For example, in theinitial stages, advertising in the US was geared towards addressing mainly utilitarianneeds. It offered functional and tangible benefit-oriented reasons for purchasing aproduct and was geared toward an information orientation. Subsequently, it becamemore symbolic and less utilitarian as the information needs were fulfilled. It hasbeen suggested that this path in fact, coincides with the economic development ofa country. Since from an economic development perspective both the US and Singa-pore are similar, it might be expected that generally advertising in Singapore wouldbe more symbolic than utilitarian. On the other hand, in the case of advertising fortechnology-based products that are often innovative and complex, information con-tent would still be important. Marketers of these types of products focus on differen-tiating their product from competitors’ offerings, often through information aboutthe product as compared to differentiation based on image or emotional themes.However, little is known about technology advertising. The assumptions that aremade about the audience for technology based products may influence the type ofinformation provided and the extent of information content provided. Singapore-based companies may adopt information strategies that are different from informationstrategies in Western communications based upon a better understanding of the mar-ket.

2.3. Cultural values and advertising themes

Advertising has been posited to contain the dominant cultural values of a societyand thus, reflects consumer motivations in making product choice decisions (Cheng,1994; Cheng & Schweitzer, 1996; Tse, Belk, & Zhou, 1989). If advertising trulyreflects societal values, then examining country-specific advertising should help withunderstanding that country’s value system. Researchers have found that culturalvalues differ among nations and this difference is manifested in the advertisingappeals of these nations (Albers-Miller & Gelb, 1996; Biswas, Olsen, & Carlet, 1992;Lin, 1993).


In recent years, standardizing appeals across cultures has been a focus of adver-tisers. Global marketers feel the need to project a uniform image across countriesand standardized advertising appeals enable them to do so. The economies of scaleinherent in this approach to global advertising make it even more appealing (Biswaset al., 1992). Despite its clear advantages, standardized advertising may fail toaddress the need for advertising to be compatible with the cultural values of theaudience (Cheng & Schweitzer, 1996). Thus, attempts to standardize advertisingacross nations must be measured against the need to address culture-specific motiv-ations.

Researchers examining culture-specific advertising have noted a clear culturalvalue contrast between Eastern and Western nations. Values such as tradition, con-formity, and nurturing others rather than the self, are considered predominately East-ern whereas modernity, individuality and hedonism are characteristics of Westernvalues (Cheng & Schweitzer, 1996). Singapore is unique in that it is an Easternculture, but it has been carefully developed with Western influence and also reflectsseveral Western values such as free market enterprise, technology orientation, andmodernism. However, as noted earlier, Hofstede (1983) found that Singapore wasalmost diametrically opposite the US in two of the four cultural dimensions(individuality and power distance). Even in the other two dimensions, uncertaintyavoidance and masculinity, Singapore differs significantly from the US. It is lessmasculine and also less prone to uncertainty avoidance. Demographically, its multi-racial population is predominantly Chinese (76.4%), yet English is one of the fourofficial languages which also include Chinese, Malay, and Tamil (The World FactBook, 1999). The lifestyle is a mixture of East and West, but Chinese values such asstrong family ties and close social relationships predominate (Tan & Dolich, 1983).Singapore, due to its cultural roots in the Chinese value system, is greatly influencedby Confucian Dynamism. Societies high in Confucian Dynamism, such as Singapore,hold a long-term orientation by emphasizing thrift and perseverance. On the otherhand, low Confucian Dynamism societies, such as the US, believe in immediategratification and a short-term orientation (Harrison, 1994). Furthermore, unfetteredself-expression, common in the West, is frowned upon and the government has takengreat pains to ensure that “%Western style prosperity not bring in Western self-indulgence…” (Adweek, 1993). Thus, given the Western value orientation of Singa-pore, one would also expect to see themes such as ‘ tradition’ , ‘collectivism’ , and‘economy’ in Singaporean advertising but not excessive appeals of ‘self-indulgence’and ‘hedonism’ . In summary, it is likely that advertising in Singapore would containsome themes which are based on Western values such as technological superiority.At the same time, given the strong Chinese influence, it should be expected thatadvertising would incorporate many local values and themes. Additionally, the focuson technology-based products may direct these themes toward more utilitarian pur-poses such as themes about modernity, technology, or effectiveness.


3. Method

The research technique most widely used to assess the information content ofadvertisements is content analysis, which has been used extensively in marketing toanalyze the content of marketing communications (Kassarjian, 1977). Using the basicelements of content analysis, Resnik and Stern (1977) produced a typology of infor-mation categories to assess the information content of advertising. Numerous studies,both domestic and cross-national, have used this scheme to analyze information con-tent of print and television advertising. This research study uses an adapted versionof the Resnik and Stern (1977) typology to assess the information content of printadvertising of technology products in Singapore publications (categories not relevantfor technology products were removed from the typology). The presence of at leastone cue or more of the eleven in the typology was used as evidence that an advertise-ment contains information of value for decision making. Therefore, examining thenature of information of Singapore advertising will help with an assessment ofwhether or not technology product advertising is informative and therefore usefulfor decision making.

In order to systematically examine the values and cultural themes depicted intechnology product advertising in Singapore, a typology developed from Pollay(1983) and Mueller (1987), and Strickland, Finn and Lambert (1982) was tested andused for this study. The resulting scheme consisted of 43 themes that could be presentin an ad. These themes were comprised of both utilitarian and symbolic as wellas Eastern and Western values. Advertisements were also coded for various otherdimensions such as the product category, product name, type of magazine in whichthe ad appeared, country-of-origin (COO) of the advertiser, type of advertisement,type of product, and primary appeal (emotional versus rational) in an ad. Two judgeswere trained to code the advertisements on these dimensions. Both judges haveadvanced degrees in marketing, professional experience in advertising, and possesssignificant expertise in content analysis, advertising, and international research. Athird judge was also used in the pre-test stage. A pre-test had both judges code thesame fifty advertisements, and a third judge was used to break ties for those adver-tisements where there were differences. The first attempt resulted in an inter-rateragreement of 85% or above for all dimensions and categories. Subsequent dis-cussions between the judges were used to further clarify the coding scheme. Afterthis discussion, a second set of fifty ads was coded again, which resulted in an inter-rater agreement of 90% or more for all categories. Rust and Cooil (1994) suggestthat high inter-judge agreement does not necessarily indicate high reliability. In fact,even if judges agree 100% across coding categories, it is still possible that the judgesare systematically wrong in their agreement (Rust & Cooil, 1994). Thus, a morestringent measure of inter-rater reliability, Perreault and Leigh’s (1989) measure wasused. The Perreault and Leigh measure is basically a special case of the Rust andCooil (1994) measure of reliability when there are two judges. Reliability of inter-rater coding ranged from 0.8944 to 0.9695 for the 43 judgment categories. Once itwas established that inter-rater reliabilities were sufficiently high and the coding


procedure was reasonably free of errors, the remainder of the ads was coded separ-ately by the two judges.

English language magazines have high circulation rates in Singapore and are usedby both domestic and TNCs as the medium of choice for advertising. Since Englishis an official language of Singapore, using only English language ads is appropriatefor a cross-national study of advertising content. Technology product ads were col-lected from 11 different publications in Singapore (see Table 1). Sixty eight percentof the magazines were of Singapore origin; the remainder was classified as ‘other’ .These included regional versions of global magazines such as Business Week,English language magazines from China that are distributed in Singapore, nine pro-motional slicks, and a few magazines that can be broadly classified as technologyand business magazines from the ‘Asia-Pacific’ region. Issues of magazines wererandomly selected and it was ensured that no ‘special issues’ were part of the sample.The magazines chosen were primarily technology, trade, and business magazinessince these are the most likely outlets for print advertising for technology-relatedproducts. They were chosen based upon their circulation figures and audience charac-teristics. In addition, the authors obtained information directly from TNCs that adver-tise technology-based products in Singapore about the print media outlet they usemost frequently. This list of magazines is thus an accurate reflection of the types ofmagazines in which companies advertise these products.

The final total sample was comprised of 315 ads that were classified as ads fortechnology-based products. Of the 315 ads, advertising for durable products was themost common (54% of the ads) followed by services advertising (34%). Advertisingfor non-durable products appeared in 12% of the ads. The majority of the ads were

Table 1Publications included in the study

Publication Frequency of Percent of total Circulationa

advertisements

Directions 67 21.3 18,204Asia-Pacific 107 34.0 28,420TelecommunicationAsia Business 4 1.3 92,032Review 4 1.3 95,000Asia Week/Time (Asia) 9 2.9 316,000Business Week (Asia) 28 8.9 67,928Wireless Asia 8 2.5 15,399Telecom Asia 25 7.9 20,566Asian Communications 20 6.4 20,064Data Communication (Asia- 34 10.8 129,341Pacific)Promotional Slicks 9 2.9 N/A

Total 315 100 (rounded)

a circulation figures are for Singapore for Singapore based magazines and for circulation area forother magazines.


classified as business-to-business (83%). Consumer ads comprised 7% of the samplefollowed by institutional ads that appeared in 6% of the sample ads; about 4% ofthe ads were direct-response ads. Slightly more than 62% of the products/servicesadvertised were Western-origin, 14% were Singapore origin, 13% were Japanese orKorean origin; the remainder was from other countries.

4. Results

Fifty-four percent of the ads used a primarily rational appeal whereas 46% useda primarily emotional appeal. Rational appeals are defined as those focusing on theinformation provided and appeal to the rational or decision making side of the recipi-ent. Emotional appeals, although they may contain information, seek to persuade byappealing to some form of emotional response such as humor, sadness, fear or excite-ment. Although many ads contain both rational and emotional components, ads werecoded as rational if the predominant theme was more rational-oriented and werecoded as emotional if the predominant theme was emotion.

Table 2 contains information on the product/service types that were included inthe study. As shown, the products/services advertised ranged from communicationdevices such as pagers and cellular phones to consulting services in the telecommuni-cations industry. Together, communication devices and communication services werethe most advertised products and services (50.5% of the total ads) followed by com-puter hardware and software (26% of the total ads). While in a few instances, therewere some category overlaps (e.g. an ad that advertised both a computer hardwareand software), most ads could be easily classified into distinct categories.

4.1. Information content

More than 98% of the advertisements had at least one information cue, confirmingthat in general, technology advertising in Singapore is informative from an infor-mation content perspective. Less than 2% of the ads had no information content at

Table 2Product categories included in the study

Product name Frequency Percent

Communication service 86 27.3Computer hardware 41 13.0Computer software 40 12.7Consultant 12 3.8Manufacturer 22 7.0Office Equipment 23 7.3Communication devices 73 23.2Other 18 5.7

Total 315 100


all. About 96% of the ads had five or fewer information cues. The maximum numberof cues for the sample was 6 although only about 4% of the ads had 6 cues; over95% of the ads had between 1–5 cues. It is pertinent to mention that the maximumpossible information cues were eleven. Interestingly, communication devices andservices had significantly fewer informational cues than other products and services;the mean number of cues for communication devices and services was 2.55 whereasmean number of cues for other products and services was 3.20.

Table 3 summarizes the most common types of information cues used in tech-nology-based advertisements. Information cues are not mutually exclusive, i.e. anadvertisement can have more than one information cue and is coded as such. Interms of the information content, the most commonly provided information wasavailability of the product or service. Availability information included the physicaladdress of the place where the product/service could be purchased, a telephone num-ber for the company or its representative, e-mail address of the company, and com-pany website address. The second most commonly provided information was quality.An advertisement was said to contain information on product or service quality ifit discussed the product’s superior characteristics based upon an objective evaluationof such things as engineering, durability, attention to detail, etc. Quality was alsoimplied if the advertisement mentioned quality awards that the product/service hadreceived including statements such as ‘Computerworld Reader’s Choice Award’ . Pro-duct or Service component information was the third most commonly provided infor-mation. Component information included such things as the product’s physical com-position, technological details about the functional components of the product, andancillary items that are included with the product.

The remainder of the information cues was present in substantially fewer ads. Forexample, only 22% of the ads contained information on product packaging. Packag-ing information included information on whether the product is available in differentshapes, sizes, and models. This was followed by ads using independent test resultsto demonstrate the superiority of their product. If an ad mentioned an offer that was

Table 3Types of information cues for the total advertisement sample

Information cue Frequency Percent of ads in which used

Availability 259 82.2Quality 210 66.7Components 187 59.4Packaging 70 22.2Independent research 47 14.9Special offers 32 10.2Safety 26 8.3Price 24 7.6New ideas 17 5.4Warranties 16 5.1Company research 15 4.8


available with the purchase of the company’s product/service for a limited time, theinformation content was classified as a special offer. About 10% of the ads had thisinformation. Safety information regarding a product/service was present in slightlymore than 8% of the ads. About 8% of the ads contained information on productprices. Comparative pricing information was also classified in the category labeledpricing. Slightly more than 5% of the ads provided information on how the productadvertised contained a completely novel feature that made the product more desir-able; this was labeled new ideas. Almost the same number of ads had warrantyinformation and information which discussed the company’s internal research(labeled company research) attesting to the quality of the product/service advertised.

4.2. Information cues as a function of country-of-origin

Next, an analysis was conducted to see whether information cues provided differedas a function of the COO of the advertiser. As noted earlier, COO comparisonswould offer valuable data about whether Western and other TNCs customize theirinformation content to the needs of the Singapore market. It is to be expected thatSingapore origin companies are better able to assess the information needs of thelocal market and thus, if the nature of information provided by TNCs and localcompanies is similar, it could be inferred that TNCs do indeed customize informationfor the Singapore market. An examination of the sample revealed that a majority ofthe advertisements in the sample came from Japanese, Korean, Western (includingNorth American and Western European), and Singaporean origin companies. A com-parative analysis of information cues was performed based upon three COO categor-ies. Japanese and Korean companies were put into one category because of the smallnumber of individual ads from each country and the relative cultural similaritybetween the two countries. Western and Singapore origin companies comprised theother two categories (see Table 4).

Table 4Types of information cues by origin of the advertisement

Information cue Western Singapore Japan/Korea Other

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent

Availabilitya 158 80.6b 42 97.7b 27 67.5b 32 88.9Quality 128 65.3 27 62.8 31 77.5 24 66.7Components 112 57.1 29 67.4 21 52.5 25 69.4Independenta 21 10.7b 14 32.6b 6 15.0 6 16.7researchPackaginga 35 17.9b 15 34.9b 9 22.5 11 30.6Special offers 18 9.2 6 14.0 1 2.5 7 19.4

a Chi-square analysis revealed significant differences (0.05 level) between frequency of cue by originof the advertisement;

b chi-square analysis revealed significant differences between frequency of cue for noted origins.


Singapore origin companies had the highest mean for information cues — 3.49followed by Japanese/Korean origin companies, which had 2.75 cues on average,and finally, Western companies which had 2.68 cues. The maximum possible cueswere 11 but the highest number of cues for the sample was 6. However, very fewads had even 6 cues. As noted earlier for the entire sample, the majority of the adsin the sample had five or fewer cues.

Table 4 offers a comparative look at the type of information provided as a functionof COO of the advertiser. The most commonly provided information was availabilityfor the entire sample. The difference between three COOs was significant. Qualitywas the second most commonly provided information and a significantly higher num-ber of ads from Japanese/Korean companies contained this information (78%) ascompared to Western (65%) or Singaporean (62%) ads.

The significant differences noted in Table 4 indicate that Singapore ads are sig-nificantly more likely to contain availability information as compared to ads fromother COOs. Singapore ads are also more likely than Western ads to contain inde-pendent research and packaging information.

4.3. Thematic content

Table 5 describes the thematic content of the ads. The predominant themes(defined as present in at least 10% of the ads in the sample) for the sample are firstreviewed in depth and the remainder of the themes is reported in the table. Use ofthemes in ads is not mutually exclusive. That is, an ad could contain more than onetheme and was coded as such. Thus, the percentage breakouts for thematic contentwill sum to greater than 100%.

4.3.1. Thematic content for the sampleThe most commonly found theme for the sample was effectiveness with slightly

more than 54% of the ads containing this theme. Effectiveness is a functional appeal;if an ad described how a certain product was capable of achieving certain ends suchas improving a business process or reducing cost, it was called an effectivenessappeal. The second most commonly used appeal was technology; slightly more than50% of the ads used technological sophistication as a primary appeal. Technologyappeals were defined as those where the advanced and sophisticated technical skillsto engineer and manufacture a particular product are emphasized. Technical andtechnological details provided in an ad were also included within this category. Con-venience was the third most commonly found theme with 44% of the ads containingsome reference to the product or service being convenient. Convenience is oftenimplied when something makes your task easier through a feature contained in theproduct or service.

Competition ranked number 4 on the list of themes with slightly more than 39%of the ads containing some reference to how their product/service was superior com-pared to other choices in the market. In this theme, the emphasis is on distinguishinga product from its counterparts by aggressive comparisons. Since explicit compari-sons are often not allowed in many markets, implicit comparisons that used suchwords as ‘number one’ or ‘ leader’ , were much more common.


Table 5Thematic content for the total advertisement sample

Theme Frequency Percent

Effectiveness 171 54.3Technology 158 50.2Convenience 137 43.5Competition 124 39.4Popular 108 34.3Economy 94 29.8Modern 76 24.1Collectivism 70 22.2General success 45 14.3Work 43 13.7Foreign setting 38 12.1Achievement 34 10.8Tradition 30 9.5Unique 21 6.7Humor 11 3.5Individuality 9 2.9Self esteem 6 1.9Hedonism 6 1.9Family 6 1.9Natural 4 1.3Adventure 4 1.3Slice of life 3 1.0Leisure 3 1.0Enjoyment 3 1.0Wisdom 2 0.6Health 2 0.6Social 1 0.3Physical activity 1 0.3Sex 1 0.3Love 1 0.3Magic 0 0Respect 0 0Wealth 0 0Symbolism 0 0Humility 0 0Youth 0 0Friendship 0 0Patriotism 0 0Nurture 0 0Neatness 0 0Dear 0 0Courtesy 0 0Beauty 0 0


Claims of product/service popularity ranked 5 on the list of themes; slightly morethan 34% of the ads contained references to popularity. Popularity themes are thosewhere a company touts universal recognition and acceptance of a company’s productsby consumers. Examples include statements such as ‘best seller’ and ‘well-knownnationwide or world wide’ . In the next theme labeled economy, which ranked 6 onthe list of themes, the affordable, cost-saving, and economical nature of a productis emphasized. The primary emphasis in an economy appeal is on ‘good value’ .About 30% of the ads used this appeal with statements such as, “ they reduce networkrollout time by 25–40% saving you money and time” . Modernity appeals appearedin about 24% of the ads and ranked 7 on the list. Modernity appeals are those wherethe notion of being new, contemporary, up-to-date, and ahead of time is emphasized.“Our facilities are fully equipped with the latest state-of-the art computer controlledfabrication equipment” , is an example of a modernity appeal.

Collectivism appeals were present in slightly more than 22% of the ads and ranked8 on the list of appeals. Collectivism appeals refer to those suggestions where con-forming to a group norm is important and desirable. “Millions of people use this soyou should too” , or “ join in the crowd” “ join in the winners” are examples of collec-tivist appeals used in this sample. General success or achievement appeal ranked 9on the list and was used in about 14% of the ads. General references to success orassociating the product with success or achievement without specifying the achieve-ment per se fall into this category. “ If you are looking for a partner who can contrib-ute to your success and maximize your investment efficiency, call us today for acustomized solution” , is an example of a general success or achievement appeal usedin the sample ads. About 14% of the ads used an appeal in which respect for diligenceand dedication to one’s job, and pride in one’s skills were emphasized. Additionally,qualifications of the company’s work force and their expertise in a particular areawere also used as major selling points. This appeal was labeled work. Examplesinclude instances where a company noted that eleven scientists in their Bell Labshad perfected technologies which won them the Nobel Prize, and which was sub-sequently used by them to come up with innovative solutions.

Slightly over 12% of the ads used foreign setting as a theme. Foreign setting ispresent when an association of the product or service with a foreign setting is usedto increase the desirability of the product. This can include verbal or visual attemptsto evoke images of a foreign setting such as the Statue of Liberty or the Americanflag. ‘German Engineered’ or ‘Developed with the latest US technology’ are alsoexamples of this theme. About 10% of the ads had achievement as a theme. Achieve-ment in this instance referred to a specific achievement such as winning an awardor recognition, or a documented success of some kind. The theme labeled traditionwas present in about 10% of the ads. Ads using this theme discussed historical,time-honored, and past customs to increase the desirability of the product. Ads withstatements such as “with eighty years of manufacturing experience, you can be sureyou will get the best product” are examples of this theme.


4.4. Thematic content as a function of COO

Table 6 contains the various themes as a function of the COO of the advertiser.For Western companies, the top six themes were effectiveness (51%), technology(47%), convenience (40%), competition (39%), popular (34%), and economy (30%).Japanese and Korean origin companies used technology as the most common themewith 80% of the ads providing detailed technological information about the product.This was followed by themes using effectiveness (60%), competition (50%), con-venience (40%), popular (35%), and economy (30%) as the major selling points.Convenience was the most used theme in Singapore ads (72%) followed by effective-ness (70%). Competition, popular, and economy tied for third place in the themelist, with these themes present in 37% of the ads. Collectivism was present in 35%of the total ads for Singapore origin companies.

The significant differences noted in Table 6 suggest that the ads fromJapanese/Korean sources are significantly more likely to contain technology themesthan ads from Singapore or Western sources. Both Western and Japanese/Koreanads are more likely to use convenience themes than are Singaporean ads. Westernads use modern themes more than Singaporean ads. Singaporean ads are significantlymore likely to use a collectivism theme than ads from other countries.Japanese/Korean ads use more success themes than do Singaporean ads. Singaporeads are more likely to contain a work theme than are Western or Japanese/Koreanads, and Singapore ads are more likely than Western ads to contain achievementthemes.

Table 6Thematic content by origin of the advertisement

Theme Western Japan/Korea Singapore Other

Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent

Effectiveness 100 51.0 24 60.0 30 69.8 17 47.2Technologya 91 46.4c 32 80.0c 18 41.9b 17 47.2Conveniencea 78 39.8b 16 40.0c 3 72.1c 12 33.3Competition 77 39.3 20 50.0 16 37.2 11 30.6Popular 66 33.7 14 35.0 16 37.2 12 33.3Economy 59 30.1 12 30.0 16 37.2 7 19.4Moderna 49 25.0b 10 25.0 4 9.3b 13 36.1Collectivisma 46 23.5c 4 10.0c 15 34.9b 5 13.9General 32 16.3 9 22.5b 3 7.0b 1 2.8successa

Work a 28 14.3c 1 2.5c 11 25.6b 3 8.3Foreign setting 20 10.2 3 7.5 3 7.0 4 11.1Achievementa 14 7.1b 4 10.0 9 20.9b 7 19.4

a Chi-square analysis revealed significant differences (0.05 level) between theme by origin of the adver-tisement;

b chi-square analysis revealed significant differences between themes by origin noted;c chi-square analysis revealed significant differences between themes by origin noted.


5. Discussion

Content analysis, unlike other research methods, is designed to measure ‘what is’or the actual description of content, rather than ‘what ought to be’ in the content.The technique is also not designed to address ‘why’ the content is of a certain kindand not another, but some plausible explanations may be advanced regarding the‘why’ question based upon sound theoretical reasoning. Thus, while this analysisdoes not evaluate effectiveness of ads, it does describe the current status of tech-nology advertising in Singapore. The results of the content analysis of technology-based product/service advertisements in Singapore reveal some interesting norms thatexist in the technology advertising sector. These findings provide some guidance totechnology companies, which can use these results to develop advertising communi-cations that coincide with existing norms in technology ads. As noted earlier, despitethe emerging role of technology in the world, studies on technology products adver-tising are non-existent. One study, conducted over fifteen years ago, analyzedmicrocomputer advertising and how it discriminated against women (Demetrulias &Rosenthal, 1985) but none have addressed broader questions regarding the nature oftechnology advertising. Thus, this study may serve as a benchmark for studies thatexamine technology advertising and help answer questions such as whether tech-nology advertising differs from other product/service advertising.

When the overall sample is considered, the average number of information cuesprovided in an advertisement is 2.5, but based on the coding scheme used, an adcould contain up to 11 different types of information cues. In a meta-analysis ofcontent analysis studies, Abernethy and Franke (1996) found that the mean numberof cues in their sample (which included cross-cultural studies) was 2.04. US studiesof print advertisements have reported anywhere between 1.17 to 3.94 cues(Abernethy and Franke, 1996). Thus, the mean number of information cues in theSingapore ads appears to be comparable with earlier findings.

When the type of information provided is reviewed, most ads in the sample pro-vided the same type of information: availability, quality, and component information.To remain competitive, industry participants should certainly provide these basicinformation elements, but there is opportunity for TNCs promoting technology pro-ducts to emphasize and differentiate their products by providing information distinctfrom others. A small percentage of ads contained information about warranties,safety, or newness. A company’s ads could increase the mean number of cues andthereby be more informative in nature. Additionally, advertisers of technology pro-ducts in Singapore could differentiate products/services by communicating war-ranties, novel technology/applications of products, and/or safety information, not nor-mally offered by other companies.

The COO analysis reveals that Singapore ads contain the highest number of infor-mation cues. Western ads in Singapore publications contained the lowest number ofinformation cues. Singapore ads are also more likely to contain availability infor-mation, packaging information, and independent research information. This findingis interesting considering the research of Leiss et al. (1990), which suggests thatwith economic advancement, advertising becomes more symbolic and less utilitarian.


Since Singapore is an economically advanced country at par with the US, this findingis particularly significant. It could be that despite their economic status, Singaporeconsumers prefer to evaluate products based upon information and not symbolicappeals, and this may be particularly true of the technology sector. This significantdifference in average cues may illustrate cultural and country-specific differences inadvertising. As noted earlier, Singapore is a high Confucian Dynamism country andthus may be governed more by pragmatism and logic, which might explain infor-mation seeking (Harrison, 1994). Thus, Western advertisers might consider increasedinformation content to appeal to countries such as Singapore, which are high on theConfucian Dynamism dimension. While in general, technology advertising appearsto be more informative in Singapore, since no data is available on technology adver-tising in the West, this conclusion must be interpreted cautiously. It could well bethat technology advertising in the Western countries follows the same pattern interms of the information content of advertising.

With respect to the thematic content of technology-based advertisements in Singa-pore, the vast majority of ads contain themes that are more functional in nature,rather than value-laden. Overall, the most common themes were functional appealslike effectiveness, technology, and convenience. While these findings would appearto contradict the findings of Leiss et al. (1990), they are quite plausible. Cheng andSchweitzer (1996) have also found US advertising to be utilitarian and noted thatthe mature US consumer might seek ‘solid’ information to distinguish between com-peting products. Further, these themes are universally utilitarian in nature and do notproject any cultural value image and are likely to be congruent with most culturesdue to their ‘generic’ nature. Thus, they are almost generic prototypes for ads acrosscultures. This finding suggests that it is possible and perhaps even desirable to pro-mote technology-based products in a standardized or uniform way across countries,which may otherwise be viewed as culturally distinct.

When separated by county-of-origin, Western ads for technology products in Sin-gapore clearly follow the functional appeal model. Effectiveness, technology andconvenience were the top themes for Western ads. The only value-oriented themeamong the top five themes was popular, where the product is positioned asused/purchased by others and therefore deemed desirable. Singapore ads also focusedon functional themes like effectiveness, competition and convenience. Popular wasagain the most prevalent value-laden theme, but was found in the same number ofads, as was collectivism. Another distinction that is prominent is in the theme labeledwork, which refers to a respect for diligence, dedication to work, and taking pridein one’s work. Singapore origin ads used this appeal significantly more than anyother country. This too appears to be a function of the Confucian Dynamism dimen-sion discussed earlier, which emphasizes hard work. Thus, the symbolic themes inSingapore origin advertising such as collectivism, popular, hard work, and achieve-ment are in keeping with the Eastern values, and the Confucian Dynamism. Sincethis is not a longitudinal study, it is not possible to address if other Eastern valueshave declined in prominence over the years. Interestingly, the Japanese/Korean adsdid not contain collectivism as a primary theme, although Japanese and Korean cul-


tures are more collectivist in nature. The most common theme in Japanese/Koreanads was technology, a functional type of appeal.

6. Limitations and directions for future research

The results of the study are only applicable to technology products advertising inSingapore, which may be considerably different from advertising for other productsand advertising in other countries. Thus, the results of the study must be interpretedwithin the context of Singapore although they may serve as a benchmark for otherstudies examining technology advertising. Since technology advertising has rarelybeen examined, this study may help in developing technology specific questions forfuture investigation. As noted earlier, Singapore is at the forefront of technology andranks fourth in the world as an information driven economy. Thus, while this studyis limited to Singapore, the questions raised are relevant for technology advertisingin general. Furthermore, using Singapore as a benchmark may also provide usefulinsight into how technology is advertised in information driven economies.

Since the advertisements were selected from English language magazines only,researchers may wish to replicate the results using magazines in other Singaporeanlanguages. It should be noted however, that English is not only one of the officiallanguages of Singapore, it is also the most widely used language (Country Commer-cial Guide, 2000). Therefore, concerns regarding the generalizability of the resultsand the representativeness of the sample using English language magazines onlyare mitigated.

Additional studies could also address effectiveness issues in technology advertis-ing, which are not within the purview of this paper. Since no studies exist on tech-nology advertising, it is not possible to compare the results of this study with resultsof other cross-cultural studies on technology advertising. For example, it is notknown whether technology advertising is independent of COO or whether it is cultureneutral. The results of this study suggest that advertising in Singapore consisted ofboth universal functional themes and local culture-specific themes, consistent withthe eastern culture. Thus, it may be useful to investigate whether technology advertis-ing in other countries follows the same pattern. Longitudinal studies may also bedesigned to evaluate changes in technology advertising as technology becomes uni-versally available and commonplace.

Finally, it is important to remember that despite cultural similarities between Sin-gapore and other Eastern value countries such as China, they may be very differentin so far as advertising is concerned. Thus, researchers must exercise caution inextrapolating the results of this study to other countries.

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