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SOUTHERN CROSS UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT, SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Community gardens for Timor-Leste, the challenges and opportunities

Arquimedes Key Bernat Plewe

This report has been prepared by an undergraduate student and may not have been corrected according to the comments of University staff. The report should be cited in the following format:

Arquimedes Key Bernat Plewe. 2015. Community gardens for Timor-Leste, the challenges and opportunities. Unpublished Third Year Undergraduate Report. School of Environment, Science and Engineering, Southern Cross University, Lismore.

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Community gardens for Timor-Leste, the challenges and opportunities

Prepared by Arquimedes Key Bernat Plewe

Integrated Project prepared as partial fulfilment of the requirements

of the Bachelor of Environmental Science.

Southern Cross University

2015

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Copyright declaration:

I, Arquimedes Key Bernat Plewe, consent to this report being made available for photocopying and loan, provided that my work is fully acknowledged and that the granting of such a licence in no way inhibits me from exercising any of my exclusive rights under the Copyright Act 1968. I understand this licence is granted in the interests of education and research and that no royalties are payable.

Arquimedes Key Bernat Plewe, 05/05/2015

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Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Dr. David Lloyd for being an immense inspiration, a shining guide and guardian and for his endless patience. I am thanking the people I met in Timor-Leste who were so supportive of my research and in a country foreign to me provided friendship, homes, meals and endless pools of knowledge (##Rosaria Martins da Cruz & Roumaldo Amaral, Ina Varella Bradridge, Fernando Madeira, Ego Lemos, Barry Hinton, CERES Global, Danny Fyffe and Pepy##). I am thanking Timor-Leste’s children with their big smiles and laughter’s, the endless “Malay!!”, their excitement, happiness and hope providing a bright light everywhere.

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Abstract

Timor-Leste is one of the youngest countries on this planet gaining independence in 2002, after centuries of Portuguese colonisation and 25 years of illegal Indonesian occupation. The country has been left with a completely destroyed infrastructure, an exploited and degraded environment, a huge number of fatalities and psychological and physical trauma. Due to the killings before and during Indonesia’s withdrawal nearly half of Timor-Leste’s population is under the age of fifteen. As in most developing countries there is a large influx of people from rural areas moving to Cities, in Timor Leste particular to its capital Dili and unemployment rates are high. Most of the country relies on subsistence farming to survive and food insecurity and malnutrition are two the most pressing problems. The agricultural practices, a mixture between Javanese rice and Melanesian root based farming, are defined by minimal inputs and outputs and suitable extensions services are often missing. To successfully engage with Timorese communities, communication with traditional authorities is necessary and respectful acknowledgement of traditional systems can be of advantage. During a visit in Timor-Leste several organisations working in the home and community garden sector were visited and interviewed and an in depth literature review was conducted to investigate challenges and opportunities for the implementation of community gardens in Timor-Leste. The organisations reported that access to natural resources like water, productive soils, seeds and finance is often inadequate. However research shows that some of these problems could easily be overcome by implementation of sustainable and affordable techniques. Community gardens are well known in developed and developing countries and have been proven to be beneficial in many ways. They can they play a vital role in reducing food insecurity and poverty. Furthermore they are known to be a supportive environment for education, cultural expression and environmental stewardship and promote social and mental wellbeing. Well managed community gardens could prove to be a valuable asset for Timor-Leste’s population and the environment.

Key words: Timor-Leste, community gardens, malnutrition, sustainability

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Table of Contents

Abstract ............................................................................................................................. 5

Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 7

Methods ............................................................................................................................ 8

Background information of Timor-Leste ......................................................................... 8

Population ..................................................................................................................... 8

Climate .......................................................................................................................... 9

Geography ..................................................................................................................... 9

Soils ............................................................................................................................ 10

Agriculture .................................................................................................................. 10

Land tenure and connections to the land .................................................................... 12

Community gardens, urban and peri-urban community gardens ................................... 13

Community gardens .................................................................................................... 13

Urban and peri-urban community gardens ................................................................. 13

Community garden projects in Timor-Leste visited in June 2014 .............................. 14

Na Terra................................................................................................................... 14

HIAM Health........................................................................................................... 14

Permatil ................................................................................................................... 15

Problems effecting the implementation of community gardens in Timor-Leste ............ 15

Opportunities for community gardens in Timor-Leste ................................................... 16

Accessing land for community gardens ...................................................................... 16

Microfinance ............................................................................................................... 16

Working with youth and children ............................................................................... 16

Working with youth ................................................................................................ 16

School gardens ........................................................................................................ 17

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Resource management ................................................................................................ 18

Supplementary water resources ............................................................................... 18

Sustainable organic soil improvement .................................................................... 19

Suggestions for a supportive policy framework ......................................................... 21

Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 22

References ...................................................................................................................... 23

Introduction

Timor-Leste is one of the youngest countries on our planet but also one of the poorest. Situated between South East Asia, Australia and the Pacific on the eastern part of the island of Timor it has a tropical climate. Timor-Leste is still considered a post-conflict country and the current population of 1.1 million people suffers consistently from food insecurity; large parts of the population, especially children under the age of 5 are considered severely undernourished (Molyneux et al., 2012; Costa et al., 2012; Worldbank, 2011). Timor-Leste’s agricultural sector which is a mixture between Javanese rice and Melanesian root-based agriculture (Molyneux et al., 2012; Costa et al., 2012) is effected by environmental degradation, erosion, irregular rainfall and the low input of organic or inorganic fertilisers (Molyneux et al., 2012; Costa et al., 2012; Worldbank, 2011). It is suggested that yields and soil quality could be significantly improved by applying some simple and affordable agriculture practices (Mellek et al., 2010; Heitkamp et al., 2011; Wani et al., 2003; Gosh et al., 2004; Del Carmen et al., 2008; Hati et al., 2006). Furthermore basic rainwater harvesting methods such as rainwater tanks or ponds and dew water collection can be of advantage in water scarce times (Zingiro et al., 2014; Isha, 2008; He et al., 2007).

Community gardens have proven to be an excellent platform for education in a supportive social and bio-physical environment if appropriate guidance is present (Krasny and Tidball, 2009). Research has shown that community gardens, including those in urban and peri urban areas can be beneficial in many ways. They are promoting social inclusion, mental wellbeing and nutrition intake and in addition benefit the environment and serve as income generation for the often poorest parts of the population (Bushamuka et al., 2005; Girard et al., 2012; Trinh et al., 2003; Colding and Barthel, 2013; Weinberger, 2013; Saldivar-Tanaka and Krasny, 2004). This might suggest that community gardens could prove to be of great advantage for Timor-Leste. However many current community garden projects in Timor-Leste struggle with adequate access to resources like water supply, good soils, seeds and seedlings or

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simply are missing the funds for implementation of garden projects (personal communication Fernando Madeira (Na Terra), Rosaria Martins da Cruz & Roumaldo Amaral (HIAM Health), Ben Walta (CERES Global), Ego Lemos (PERMATIL & HASATIL), Danny Fyffe (Smallholder Agriculture International) and Barry Hinton (Barry’s Eco-lodge). This paper explores the advantages and possibilities of community gardens in Timor-Leste, addresses some of the problems experienced by the organisations which implement community gardens in Timor-Leste and gives some suggestions to solve these.

Methods

The main methodologies used for the research discussed in this paper were a key informant approach (Holosko et al., 2012) and an in-depth literature review of the environmental, social, cultural and political circumstances which influence the success or failure of community gardens in relation to Timor-Leste. Several organisations and individuals were visited and interviewed during a visit in Timor-Leste in June 2014; these include Fernando Madeira (Na Terra), Rosaria Martins da Cruz & Roumaldo Amaral (HIAM Health), Ben Walta (CERES Global), Ego Lemos (PERMATIL & HASATIL), Danny Fyffe (Smallholder Agriculture International) and Barry Hinton (Barry’s Eco-lodge). The responses were used to highlight the challenges, but also the positive impacts and outcomes of the respondents work and projects. For the literature review the data bases and documents available through Southern Cross University, Lismore, government reports and legitimate documents from non-government organisations (NGOs) of interest for example international aid agencies were accessed and analysed.

Background information of Timor-Leste

Population

Currently Timor-Leste has a population of approximately 1.1 million people which is expected to rise to 2.5-3 million by 2050 (Molyneux et al., 2012; Costa et al., 2012). It is estimated that 41% of the population lives in poverty, the poverty rates are reported to be higher in rural areas than in urban areas (Harmadi & Gomes, 2014). There is considerable rural-urban migration and the population of Dili has more than doubled in the last decade; the 2010 census indicates that up 50% of Dili’s population may live in informal settlements (Scambary, 2012). The unemployment rates in Timor-Leste are high, 40% of adults are illiterate and only 57% of the younger population visits a secondary school after primary school (Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung, 2014). Gender inequality is large and forced marriage, trafficking of women and domestic violence are common; government

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agencies suggest that 40% of women over the age of 15 have been subjected to violence (Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung, 2014).

Timor-Leste has the highest fertility rate in the world with 7.8 children per woman considered to be in childbearing age and over 45% of the current population is under the age of 15 (Worldbank, 2011). Timor-Leste is chronically food insecure, 23 % of the total population are considered malnourished and the rate of acute malnutrition (wasting) is estimated with 12%. The effects are specifically severe among children where 52% under the age of 5 are chronically undernourished (stunted), 43% are considered severely malnourished (OXFAM, 2008; Molyneux et al., 2012). It is estimated that around 80% of the population are subsistence farmers (Datt et al., 2008; OXFAM, 2008; Molyneux et al., 2012; Harmadi & Gomes, 2014). 80% of nationally considered poor population and 90% of the rural living poor are relaying on the agricultural sector to sustain their livelihoods (Datt et al., 2008; OXFAM, 2008; Molyneux et al., 2012; Harmadi & Gomes, 2014).

Climate

The climate in Timor-Leste is classified as tropical and is dominated by wet and dry seasons (Costa et al., 2012). The north has one rainy season from November to April, whereas in the south a bimodal rainy season can be observed from November-April and from June to August (Anderson and Deutsch, 2001). Rainfall and temperature differ significantly between the coastal areas and the highlands. Both rainfall and temperature are expected to increase due to global warming (Molyneux et al., 2012; Costa et al., 2012). Current recorded mean annual temperatures vary between 25 to 27.5 oC close to the coast and 15–17.5 oC at the highest elevation in the central mountain range; CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Australia) predicts an increase of temperature between 1.25-1.75 oC by the year 2050 (Molyneux et al., 2012). The average (1950-2000) rainfall ranges from <800mm at some locations at the north coast to 2400-2600mm in the mountain districts. Rainfall is predicted to increase by 100-200mm at the coast and between 260 and 280mm in the mountains by the year 2050 (Molyneux et al., 2012). Predictions are that the number of very hot days will increase as well as the number of extreme rainfall days (Pacific Climate Change Science, 2011).

Geography

With a total land area of 14 874km2 Timor-Leste is a relatively small country on the eastern part of the island of Timor which is situated between SE Asia, Australia and the Pacific (Molyneux et al., 2012). It is lying between 8.1 and 9.5˚S and 125.0 and 127.3˚E and also includes a small enclave called Oecussi located within the western part of Timor between 9.2 and 9.5S and 124.1 and 124.5E. Furthermore two small islands

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belong to Timor-Leste, Atauro off the north coast and Jaco off the east coast (Molyneux et al., 2012).

The island is created by oceanic uplift initiated by the thrust of the Australian tectonic plate towards and underneath the Asian tectonic plate (Thompson, 2011). Geomorphological this results in steep slopes, a high degree of erosion and exceptionally high sediment accumulation within river beds. These sediments lead to thick and extensive alluvial fans around rivers beds and are also found across the coastal plains (Thompson, 2011).The country is dominated by a massive mountain range which rises up to 3000m high and is dissected by steep river valleys. It extends from the centre of the island all the way to the north coast, in the South the range tapers off and leaves space for some coastal planes (Molyneux et al., 2012; Thompson, 2011). Most of the country has a slope of 8-25% and it is estimated that over 44% of the total landmass has a slope over 40% (Barnett et al., 2007).

Soils

Soils in Timor-Leste do usually not store water well and are subject to easy erosion, they are generally alkaline, shallow and rocky (Anderson and Deutsch, 2001). Some of the most common soils found in Timor-Leste are Vertisols, Luvisols and Fluvisols. The Vertisols can be found inland, Luvisols and Fluvisols are found closer to the coast (Marques et al., 2010; Thompson, 2011). Vertisols have a high clay continent (35% or more), are usually covered by natural grassland or woodland and are generally used for grazing or wood cutting (FAO, 2006). The Fluvisols are known to develop around alluvial deposit, are considered fertile and usually are flooded for some time of the year. Often they are used as grazing land, as rice paddies or for cultivation of annual crops and in Timor-Leste often for leafy water greens (Marques et al., 2010; FAO, 2006). FAO (2006) describes Luvisols as suitable for agricultural use and as fertile; however on slopes they are subject to easy erosion. There can be large variations between soils types within a small area of land, as the topography can change very quickly and abrupt, for example from the steep slopes to a river valley or to a flat mountain ridges (Thompson and Dili, 2011).

Agriculture

It is estimated that approximately 40% of Timor-Leste’s total landmass is usable for food or livestock production (FAO 2007; WFP 2010). Most of the agriculture practised is purely subsistence farming, on which 80% of the population depend on in one way or the other to be able to sustain their livelihoods (Harmadi et al., 2014; Datt et al., 2008). In 2010 agriculture contributed 28% of real non-oil GDP, employed around 80% of the rural population and accounted for 65% of the total national employment (Harmadi et al., 2014; NSD and UNFPA 2011).

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Timor-Leste’s agricultural sector is characterised by low input and low output levels the production techniques are very simple and shifting cultivation based on slash and burns is still very common (FAO 2007; Lundahl and Sjӧholm, 2013). The agricultural system could be defined as a mixture between Javanese rice and Melanesian root based agriculture; the main crops grown include rice, maize, sweet potato, cassava, leafy greens, pumpkin, papayas, bananas and peanuts (Molyneux et al., 2012; OXFAM 2008; UNDP, 2013). Seven agro-climatic zones based on elevation and rainfall have been identified (Table 1).

Table 1: The seven agro-climatic zones of Timor-Leste with their relative area (%), altitude, annual rainfall, length of growing season and the major crops grown for each zone (Resource: Molyneux et al., 2012).

Zone and percentage of total land area

Altitude (m)

Annual Rainfall (mm year -1)

Length of growing season (months)

Major Crops

North coast lowlands (10)

<100 <1000 4-5 Rice, maize, cassava, coconut

Northern slopes (23)

100-500 100-1500 5-6 Maize, cassava, rice, sweet, potato, cowpea

Northern uplands (19)

500-2000 >1500 6-7 Red beans, coffee, maize, rice, cassava

Temperate uplands (2)

>2000 >2000 9 Potatoes, wheat, barley, arrowroot

Southern uplands (14)

500-2000 >2000 9 Maize, cassava, rice, sweet, potato, cowpea

Southern slopes (21)

100-500 1500-2000 8 Maize, cassava, rice, sweet, potato, cowpea

South coast lowlands (11)

<100 <1500 7-8 Rice, maize, cassava, coconut

Timor-Leste’s agricultural potential is massively under developed due to a range of reasons, including poor infrastructure, missing access to resources like seeds, seedlings and adequate irrigation systems; the soils are generally poor and extension services or governmental support seems insufficient. Furthermore up to 30% post-harvest loss due

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to missing storage options, long transport ways, disease and pest have been reported (Molyneux et al., 2012; OXFAM 2008; WFP 2010).

Until the food crisis in 2008 the agricultural sector in Timor-Leste has received declining attention, not just from the governmental institutions of Timor-Leste but also from international NGOs (Harmadi et al., 2014). In a country where around 80% of the population depends on the agricultural sector for survival less than 5% of the total budget where dedicated to the agriculture and fisheries sector (Harmadi et al., 2014). In Timor-Leste’s predicted budget from 2014-2018 a slight increase of investment within the agricultural sector is planned (Government TL, 2013); it is suggested that the investments of the government should be strongly linked with strategies for the development of a rural economy (Harmadi et al., 2014).

Land tenure and connections to the land

Timor-Leste’s property rights sector remains blurred due to conflicting property titles obtained during Portuguese colonisation and Indonesian occupation and additionally through the very strong and complex customary land tenure systems (USAID, 2012; Thu, 2012). Many existing land records were destroyed in 1999 during the violent withdrawal from Indonesia. Moreover a strong and applied governmental policy framework as well as jurisdictional law structure in regards to land rights have yet to be established (USAID, 2012; Thu, 2012). The civil unrest in 2008 which caused even more displacement and land occupation to occur only added to this already difficult situation (USAID, 2012; Thu, 2012). There are basically three types of land classification in Timor-Leste (i) state property, (ii) private property which is owned by individuals and (iii) communal land belonging to origin groups (USAID 2012). Origin groups sometimes chose to give usufruct land rights to non-origin individuals, which are often displaced individuals or relocated groups (USAID 2012, Shepherd, 2014). An astonishingly large part of Timor-Leste’s rural land is managed through the customary tenure systems of origin and alliance (Nixon, 2009; Thu, 2012) and most land parcels still belong to the traditional owners (USAID, 2012). Within these systems individuals or families can own land or inherit it, but communal land is also recognised, often this will be a forest for hunting or gathering or an area which can be used as farmland by any member of the group (Fitzpatrick et al., 2008). Furthermore ritualised land (referred to as tara bandu) does also exist, access and use of this land is restricted for most members of the community (Fitzpatrick et al., 2008). In urban and peri-urban areas access to land is more state regulated; here the chefe de suco may play a significant role in acknowledging land transactions, but most likely after consulting the origin group (Thu, 2012; USAID, 2012).

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Community gardens, urban and peri-urban community gardens

Community gardens

The term community garden usually refers to an open communal space which is managed and operated by members of the community to produce food (Guitart et al., 2012). Community gardens are known in developed and developing countries and can be established by a diverse range of community groups for example neighbourhood groups, schools, prisons, farmer associations or hospitals. They are a place of community activism and provide a space for social interactions, food production, cultural expression and environmental restoration and have been proven to be beneficial for mental wellbeing, social integration and income generation (Colding and Barthel, 2013; Bushamuka et al., 2005; Girard et al., 2012; Krasny & Tidball, 2009).

Similarly community gardens, which if under appropriate guidance provide an excellent social and bio-physical environment for education (Krasny and Tidball, 2009) and can play a vital role within the food system by decreasing malnutrition and increasing the availability, affordability and consumption of a varied range of fresh nutritious food especially for the poor (Bushamuka et al., 2005; Trinh, 2003; Weinberger, 2013). Studies generally support the idea that strategic household food production can improve the nutrition and health of women and children (HIAM Health, personal communication, June 2014; Weinberger, 2013) and Talkuder et al. (2010) for example report a measurable impact of home garden participation on the night blindness among children, which was reduced due to the increased intake of vitamin A.

Palmer and Carvaho (2008) as well as Leon and Boris (as cited in Oldham et al., 2013) are arguing for the importance of local participation within the sustainable natural resource managing and decision making process, whereas other studies (e.g. Odendo et al., 2010; Salasya et al., 1996; Oxfam, 2014; Zingiro et al, 2014) agree that membership in a farmer association or a similar group usually accelerates the adoption of agricultural and environmental practices. Krasny & Tidball (2009) therefore suggest that community gardens offer a unique platform for multidisciplinary learning, environmental stewardship and advocacy to support sustainable development. This argument is also supported and emphasised by research from Ison et al. (2007), Pretty (1995), Toderi et al. (2007), Rist et al. (2007) and Pahl-Wostl et al. (2008).

Urban and peri-urban community gardens

Urban and peri-urban community gardens are a subset of communal gardens and also can come in the form of rooftop and horizontal gardens or as edible landscapes (Weinberger, 2013; Colding and Barthel, 2013). The United Nations promote urban and peri-urban agriculture and consider it as an important factor in meeting their millennium

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development goals (Orsini et al, 2013). The popular gardens of Cuba are most likely one of the best known examples (Weinberger, 2013). The size of urban and peri-urban agriculture projects can vary between subsistence and recreational types of gardens on a micro level, and small to large commercial projects (De Zeeuw et al., 2012). Urban and peri-urban agriculture often focuses on high-value products and perishable products like herbs, mushrooms, leafy greens, poultry, eggs, small animal meat production and dairy products (De Zeeuw et al., 2012). Urban and peri-urban gardens are considered beneficial for the environment as they increase urban biodiversity (Trinh et al., 2003; Colding and Barthel, 2013), decrease the need of transportation and refrigeration and additionally the gardens can aid as insulation for houses against extreme temperatures (Orsini et al, 2013; De Zeeuw et al, 2011; Weinberger, 2013). In Timor-Leste approximately 22% of the urban population are engaged in urban agriculture (Harmadi and Gomes, 2013). Considering the infrastructure problems in Timor-Leste which include limited transport and storage possibilities, eroded roads and significant post-harvest losses the country could benefit considerably from urban and peri urban agriculture (Orsini et al, 2013; De Zeeuw et al, 2011; Weinberger, 2013).

Community garden projects in Timor-Leste visited in June 2014

Na Terra

Na Terra is an organisation operating in Timor-Leste and in Macau, China. Na Terra is employing Permaculture principles, promotes sustainable development and embraces a holistic approach of education. Na Terra moved from trying to implement community gardens due to lack of interest and participation of the approached communities to establishing demonstration gardens. The concept of demonstration gardens is to provide a well-run and functioning garden for the community to visit. Here the community members are welcome to observe and have the freedom to implement or adapt systems which they like on their own land but without any pressure from the organisation telling them what to do. Na Terra has a demonstration garden in Baucau and also runs Permaculture school gardens in Baucau. Additionally they offer educational classes for parents and students in regards to establishing home gardens and appropriate nutrient intake. Na Terra also plans a large Permaculture project on the island of Atauro with inclusion and participation of all communities on the island, the centre there will also have a scientific research station for related research projects.

HIAM Health

HIAM Health is a Timorese NGO established in 2003 and focuses on rehabilitation of undernourished children under the age of 5 and empowering women as well as communities. HIAM Health is employing a holistic approach by starting with identifying malnourished children under five and taking them and their parents into a rehabilitation centre in Dili. Here the families are not only provided with five meals daily but they also receive education in relation to appropriate nutrition uptake, healthy

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cooking and hygiene. Furthermore the parents are trained to be able to establish their own kitchen gardens at home. HIAM Health also runs extension classes within communities were mixed gender classes are trained and educated by addressing agricultural issues most relevant to their community. Where possible and requested HIAM Health establishes community gardens, unfortunately these projects are limited due to the lack of funds and very often due to insufficient water supply within the communities.

Permatil

Permatil, directed by Ego Lemos, was founded in 1999 has initiated a whole range of environmental and agricultural programs including the development and publishing of a Permaculture handbook specifically adapted to Timor-Leste. Permatil in line with NaTerra reports that due to the lack of participation and interest of the approached communities they have given up establishing community gardens in favour of demonstration gardens. Running Permaculture youth camps and cultural events, Permatil reports to have a greater success in working with parts of the younger population compared to trying to motivate and gain trust of the older generations. Ego Lemos acts as an adviser to the Vice Minister of Education in Timor-Leste. In cooperation with New Zealand Aid Ego Lemos developed a permaculture manual which will be included in the curriculum of 1200 schools in Timor-Leste. At each of these schools the implementation of a permaculture gardens and the establishment of seed banks are also in planning.

Problems effecting the implementation of community gardens in Timor-Leste

The organisations which were interviewed during a visit in Timor-Leste in June 2014 reported that limited access to resources such as water, seed and seedlings, missing finance and the generally poor soils were the main reasons hindering the successful establishment of community gardens. Some of the interviewed reported “an attitude of passivity inherited from the colonial and Indonesian eras” (FAO, 2007, p. 5;) often displayed by the older generations of Timor-Leste’s population, or that projects are only successful as long as they are incentive driven and are not uphold once the initiating organisation has left (FAO, 2007; personal communication Fernando Madeira (Na Terra), Ego Lemos (PERMATIL) and Barry Hinton (Barry’s Ecolodge), June 2014; Shepard 2014; Seeds of Life, 2014). Some organisations report successful implementations of agricultural community projects (Seeds of Life, 2014; CARE 2013; Shepard 2014; USAID, ND; Fox, 2003), however it seems that further research is needed to investigate the success rates of the continuance of the implemented community gardens. HIAM Health for example noted that there is not enough funding for long term follow up visits in the villages. Microfinance in Timor-Leste has been not

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very successful until recently mainly due to infrastructure problems, e.g. no access to a bank account (Alldén, 2009; Conroy, 2004; Fox, 2003). NGOs report about microfinance systems for agricultural projects, however these are often adapted to Timorese circumstances; for example the NGO agreed to finance goats for a few farmers under the condition that these farmers past new born goats on to other farmers within the community (Conroy, 2004; Fox, 2003). Some authors emphasise that often only certain family clans benefit from the funding offered by the supporting organisations (Conroy, 2004; Shepherd, 2014; Fox, 2003).

Opportunities for community gardens in Timor-Leste

Accessing land for community gardens

To gain access to land for community projects in rural areas seems to be no hindrance and usually is dealt with in customary ways, through negotiations between landowner and land user. This can be more problematic in urban and peri-urban areas around Dili where land is mostly state regulated; however appropriate policy and providing state land for communal projects could eliminate this problem (USAID, 2012; Worldbank, 2009; Thu, 2013). None of the interviewed individuals or representatives of organisations mentioned that getting access to a piece of land for communal or personal agricultural purposes was a problem.

Microfinance

The problems in microfinance sector due to missing infrastructure might be overcome in the near future. It has been noted that there are more opportunities for microfinance if the recipients are organised in a group e.g. a farmer association (Alldén, 2009; Silim and Okwach, 2012; Bingen et al., 2003). Furthermore it can be expected that access to microfinance will be easier in the near future with the support of new developments within the banking sector. For example in cooperation the Banco Nacional Ultramarino (BNU), Timor Telecom, Inclusive Finance for the Under-Served Economy (INFUSE) and MicroSave have developed a system which allows mobile phone users to transfer and receive money without having a bank account (UNCDF, 2014).

Working with youth and children

Working with youth

Timor-Leste’s youth grew up in a time of change, their attitudes and values regarding authority, community and trust were developed during the latter years of the independence movement and the transitional period after gaining independence (Dale et al., 2010). Although large numbers of youth were involved in violent outbreaks during

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2006, some of the once violent and antisocial groups have now developed into civic groups offering education and community activities to their members (Scambary, 2012). Most Timorese youth is peacefully occupied by concerns like socialising, school, work or marriage and show opposed to the general opinion an interest in community engagement (Scambary, 2012; Dale et al., 2010). In an extension of the 2007 Timor-Leste Survey of Living Standards it is suggested that approximately half of the questioned youth have attended a community meeting and nearly all who had attended a meeting felt that they are involved in decision making processes within their community (Dale et al., 2010). Similar research suggests that youth in Freetown, Sierra Leone, which is like Timor-Leste a developing post conflict country, youth presently shows interest in family-based life and farming; a survey of 483 urban farmers revealed that 27% were under the age of 15 and 54% under the age of 30 (Maconachie et al., 2011). This is in line with statements from Permatil and NaTerra which reported that they are currently working with some highly motivated youth. Both suggest that engaging programs which are tailored to youth might have a much higher chance in succeeding compared to projects previously run by the organisations.

The youth unemployment rates in Timor-Leste are high and are considered to be higher in Dili than in the areas. For large numbers of rural youth having moved to Dili the connectedness to their community, family or school often is missing and this could put youth furthermore at risk (Kostner and Clark, 2007; Scambary, 2012). The establishment of a community driven development program for community gardens could generate youth employment, deliver further education, strengthen the connection of youth with their community and include youth purposeful into the empowering nation building process (Oldham et al., 2013). Findings by Jha and Dang (2013) indicate that food inadequacy in Timor-Leste is strongly related to the education of the head of the household more so than the observed food poverty. Consequently it might be suggested that equipping younger generations today with an adequate knowledge of nutrition, skills to grow their own food and the know-how to address agricultural challenges delivered through a strong connected social-ecological framework could have major impact on the health and wealth of the families of tomorrow (Weinberger, 2013; Krasny & Tidball, 2009; Rist et al., 2007).

School gardens

It is general thought that a nutritious and balanced diet during childhood and adolescence is beneficial for health, growth and cognitive development, it is also suggested that it might prevent the development of chronic diseases in later stages of life (Cauwenberghe et al., 2010; Weinberger, 2013). Evidence indicates that eating behaviour adopted during childhood continuous to be relevant during adulthood (Cauwenberghe et al., 2010); it is therefore important that healthy diet habits are being promoted and established early in life (Weinberger, 2013). This could lead to an increase of the overall development and enhanced productivity of a country, as healthy

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early childhood development influenced by a good diet is a prerequisite for effective learning (Behrman, 1996; Blair, 2009). The introduction to healthy diets through school gardens could potentially have great effects on the development and general nutritional status of children; moreover the already existing infrastructure at schools provides an excellent and cost effective opportunity to provide early health promotion and health intervention programs (Blair, 2009; Weinberger, 2013).

Resource management

Ultimately an integrated approach to resource management should be applied to address agricultural matters like poor soils, land erosion and water scarcity furthermore the effects of climate change should be taken in consideration. Studies suggest that the success rate of the adaption of rainwater harvesting systems and agricultural practices can depend on several factors which should be taken in consideration; these are for example the availability of building material and work force, monetary resources, group or association membership, supportive government policies and extension services (Zingiro et al., 2014; He et al., 2007; Huhua et al; 2007; Motsi et al., 2004).

Supplementary water resources

Supplementary sources of water like rainwater and dew harvesting to increase agricultural productivity are becoming a major strategy in drought prone, semi-arid and tropical countries. These approaches have been encouraged in both developed and developing countries; many studies outline the positive effects of rainwater harvesting techniques and major increases in crop production and positive impacts on household income have been reported (Zingiro et al., 2014; Aladenola & Adeboye, 2010; Lekouch et al., 2009; Huhua et al. 2007; Msangi et al., 2004; Senkondo, et al., 2004; Fintrac/USAID, 2014).To go into the details of these systems is behind the scope of this paper, but some methods are briefly discussed to demonstrate that there are hydrological possibilities which could double the crop yields even in water scarcity prone areas (Rockström et al., 2002; Aladenola & Adeboye, 2010; Senkondo, et al., 2004).

One way of harvesting rainwater is the construction of simple rainwater collection ponds. Although some negative impacts of these ponds have been reported, for example problems with salinity and malaria or other waterborne diseases (Lire et al., 2004; Mintesinot et al. as cited in Zingiro et al., 2014), it can be suggested that in general these could be avoided by appropriate implementation and management of the ponds (Zingiro et al., 2014; Senkondo, et al., 2004). For instance related studies suggest that mosquito larvae can be excellent controlled by introducing edible fish species (Howard et al., 2007; Knight et al., 2003); the fish would also provide an additional protein source and could help decrease malnutrition rates within the communities. Commonly significantly higher yields and positive impacts on food security have been reported after the adaption of rainwater ponds, outweighing problems reported with the ponds (CARE, 2013; Zingiro et al., 2014; Isha, 2008; He et al., 2007).

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Another way, so called “in-situ” rainwater harvesting systems, are often the most simple and cheapest way of increasing water availability and are considered appropriate for most climate regions (Motsi et al., 2004; Salem et al., 2015). Motsi et al. (2004) for example outline the effects of four different tillage systems on the moisture retention rates of soil and in turn on the achieved yields. The trial study in Zimbabwe was carried out on communal lands presenting poor soils; simple and on farm level managed methods were used to ensure maximum adoption rates of these techniques and conventional tillage was used as control. The moisture retention rates of soil under the four treatments differed significantly. In regards to the average yield tied ridges tillage was the most successful technique with average yields of 3.4t/ha, closely followed by fanya juus (a system originating from Kenya) delivering around 3t/ha compared to 1.5t/ha under conventional tillage. After the trial 95% of the farmers indicated they would adopt rainwater harvesting techniques. Similarly Salem et al. (2015) report on the significant differences in the achieved yields by applying several tillages systems.

Likewise dew water harvesting systems can be implemented easy and relatively cheap by utilizing corrugated iron roofs and applying some simple adjustments. This has successfully been carried out in places like Tahiti, Tuamotu Archipelago, Croatia and India (Clas et al. 2008; Sharan et al., 2007; Beysens et al., 2007). It might therefore be argued that dew water harvesting could prove to be a valid source of water in Timor-Leste in times of scarcity and also should be considered in urban centres where larger areas of roofing might be available (Furumai, 2008; Handia et al., 2003). However in urban areas particular attention should be given to possible water contamination due to pollution from the higher traffic, industrial and domestic activities (Kurian et al., 2013; Furumai, 2008). Here the establishment of constructed wetlands could be taken in consideration, as they have been proven to be a viable option to treat contaminated water in developing countries. They correspondingly can be used to treat the wastewater in townships but are also very feasible for even very small communities and enable the reuse of the water for agricultural purposes (Zhai et al, 2011; Zhang et al., 2010; Kivaisi, 2001; Ye and Li, 2009). Constructed wetlands are known to function particular well in tropical countries as plant growth is stimulated all year round and they are very cost effective in regards to establishment, operational and management costs (Liu et al., 2008; Kivaisi, 2001). The responsible management of the wetlands could be encouraged through the economic benefits these could deliver. For example the created biomass could be used as animal feed or reused in composting systems or ornamental flowers could be chosen as vegetation type for the wetlands and generate income (Zhiang, 2014; Kivaisi, 2001; Belmont et al., 2004).

Sustainable organic soil improvement

Simple agricultural methods like terracing, hedgerows or intercropping or the use of organic fertilisers based on rhizospheric beneficial organisms can increase agricultural output significantly and therefore receive growing attention from the scientific

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community (Whu et al., as cited in Del Carmen et al, 2008; Hati et al, 2006; Garrity as cited in Molynouex, 2012). Research has shown that conservation farming methods like the terracing of slopes in particular in combination with the growing of contour hedgerows reduces erosion and deforestation and can have positive impacts on soil fertility and water infiltration (Garrity, 1996; Molynouex, 2012). Studies have indicated that the physical conditions of Vertisols in semi-arid tropical climates can be improved significantly by adding poultry or farmyard manure and organic matter e.g. banana waste (Gosh et al., 2004; Del Carmen et al., 2008; Hati et al., 2006). Vertisols are common in Timor-Leste and are known to have a high shrink-swell potential which causes them to develop large cracks when they are dry and very sticky in the wet season (FAO, 2006). They don’t store water well, have a high bulk density and low levels of organic matter (Del Carmen et al., 2008; Hati et al., 2006). Through the application of farmyard manure and organic matter the bulk density and mechanical resistance of the soils were reduced whereas root length density, water-use efficiency and nutrient uptake increased and therefore yields improved significantly (Gosh et al., 2004; Del Carmen et al., 2008; Hati et al., 2006; Molynouex, 2012). Similarly comparable techniques have been successfully applied on other soils (Mellek et al., 2010; Heitkamp et al., 2011; Wani et al., 2003; Gosh et al., 2004; Del Carmen et al., 2008; Hati et al., 2006) .

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Suggestions for a supportive policy framework

Strategic objective Actions suggested Policy interventions which are supportive of community gardens

Ensure that adequate food is accessible at all times and ensure food safety for all citizens

Ensure that food is available for all citizens of Timor-Leste at all times

Encourage sustainable and environmentally sound agriculture and food production processes

Specific action points which are supportive of community gardens should be included in the national development plans of Timor-Leste

Research and sustainable extension service techniques should be supported, these should also include safety and pollution concerns

Promote sustainable development and healthy lifestyle through the education system and public participation

Provide information and educate the population in regards to a healthy lifestyle and promote behavioural changes that are affordable, accessible and sustainable

Include campaigns into national advocacy actions programs promoting community gardens and healthy nutrition

Promote school gardens

Support the formation and capacity building of local organisations and communities

Provide micro finance options

Ensure that urban spaces are sustainable and provide for the economic, health and social needs of the population

Utilise experiences, expertise and technology in areas such as urban planning, green building, water management, urban greenery, conservation and biodiversity, urban sanitation and waste management

Control pollution of air, land and water

Integrate urban community gardens and agriculture into comprehensive planning strategies for sustainable development

Develop protective regulations and laws for open spaces and communal land

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Strategic objective Actions suggested Policy interventions which are supportive of community gardens

Ensure that rural areas are sustainable managed and provide for the economic, health and social needs of the population

Utilise experiences, expertise and technology in areas such as rural planning, green building, water management, urban greenery, conservation and biodiversity, urban sanitation and waste management

Control pollution of air, land and water

Integrate community gardens and agriculture into comprehensive planning strategies for sustainable development

Develop protective regulations and laws for open spaces and communal land

(Adapted from Weinberger, 2013)

Conclusion

Timor-Leste is a very young and poor country where peace and state building is still an ongoing process, research suggest that infrastructural problems slowly but consistently will be overcome in the near future. Furthermore it is commonly agreed on that simple and affordable agricultural practices could increase yields significantly, which is a pressing matter in the severely undernourished country plagued by food insecurity. Timor-Leste’s youth seems motivated to participate in community projects and is keen to learn. They should be engaged in the empowering state building process and be well equipped with knowledge to be able to make healthy and sustainable lifestyle choices for themselves and their families to be founded. Community gardens have shown that they can provide an excellent environment for educational purposes, but are also a place of social inclusion and cultural exchange. If managed cultural sensitive and well guided community gardens could provide a wide range of positive outcomes for Timor-Leste’s population through increasing the availability of food, decreasing environmental degradation and promoting sustainable development.

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