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UNIVERSITATEA DE STAT DIN MOLDOVA

Facultatea de Limbi şi Literaturi Străine

Catedra Filoloie Enle!ă

Dumitru MELENCIUC

COM"ARATIVE #RAMMAR 

A$robat

de Con%iliul metodico&

ştiin'i(ic şi editorial

al USM

CE" USM

C)işinău* +,,-

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C.U/0

Dumitru Melenciuc

Comparative Grammar. – Moldova State University, 2008.

Su$ort de cur% pentru masteranzi la cursul “#ramatica com$arati1ă”. – Ci!in"u# C$% USM,2008. – p. 8&

'ecomandat de Consiliul pro(esoral al )acult"*ii de +imi !i +iteraturi Str"ine.

De%crierea CI" a Camerei Na'ionale a Căr'ii

Melenciuc, -umitruComparative Grammar Melenciuc -umitru/ univ. de Stat din Moldova. )acult. de +imi !i

+it. Str"ine. Catedra )iloloie $nlez". C.# C$% USM, 2008. – p.8&

  1ilior. p. 30 tit.4  5S16 77777  0 e9.C:U.#

2 USM* +,,-

2D/ Melenciuc* +,,-

5S16 7777777777

2

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C;62.Comparative ?nalysis on te $mic and $tic +evels=============..2.3.Con(rontation o( )orms=======================...2.2.+e9ical, +e9ical7Grammatical and Grammatical Cateories=========..@2.A.Morpoloical7Grammatical Cateories=================&A.A

30.8.? Contrastive ?nalysis o( 6on7(inite )orms o( >30.D.

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"re(ace

Comparative Grammar is intended as a teoretical course (or underraduate and postraduatestudents in teir scienti(ic researc and to supplement te teoretical course in Comparative+inuistics, Hic (orms part o( te curriculum (or te $nlis Section o( te -epartments o( )orein +anuaes and +iteratures at Moldova State University.

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into astract typoloical teoretization as applied to a particular ranc o( linuistics.

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 34

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(orms.

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comparison Has noH to e syncronic it implied a Euest (or altoeter neH sets o( (eatures and peculiarities. )or comparative piloloy tese Here alHays tout o( as sometin tat Hasenetically common, sometin tat radually divered under te pressure o( a variety o( structuraland e9tra7linuistic (actors. ?nalytical comparison typoloy4 Has, and is still looFin (or sometin to serve (or te comparison o( lanuaes o( totally di((erent (amilies (or some Find o( astract (eatures and peculiarities.

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di((erent systems and try to understand Hy te di((erent metalinuistic e9pressions Hereintroduced. Bery o(ten tere is a discrepancy not only in te metalinuistic e9pressions used todenote certain more speci(ic or particular cateories, ut also in te namin or description o( temost eneral concepts temselves. 5( He compare ?.5.SmirnitsFys metalanuae, Hic Has(urter developed y ;.?Fmanova in er -ictionary o( +inuistic

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systems lead to an accumulation o( terms and not to a clear and non7contradictory description o( allte cateorial (orms, carried y te iven rammatical (orm.

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modern 'omanian needs to e reinterpreted, ecause te present classi(ications are someHatcon(usin.

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te Conditional mood corresponds in te con(ronted lanuae to Condi*ionalul and imper(ectulmodal. KAD, D27300L ere He sould also mention te (act tat in some rammar ooFs te'omanian Condi*ionalul and ;ptative are considered to (orm one cateorical (orm o( mood,

 proaly ecause teir (orms coincide. 5n reality ere He ave tHo di((erent omonymouscateorical (orms Hit teir speci(ic meanins.

ConJunctivul reularly sustitutes te in(initive in te 'omanian colloEuial lanuae#  hey promised to take him home. +i au promis s$-l duc$ acas$. !e must have come in time. +l trebuie s> fi venit la timp. +ven a child could understand, 1i un copil putea s$ n*eleag$. o believe mecapable of something like that '$ m$ cread$ capabil de a&a ceva  ?n interestin penomenon as

 een oserved in tis case. -urin te last 38 years most people improved teir native literarylanuae and noH He can oserve te in(initive ein used more o(ten, to a certain e9tent, replacinconJunctivul  not only in te literary pulications, o((icial speeces, ut also in everyday activityconversations. ConJunctivul is used to e9press te (uture tense in colloEuial speec# 2hat shall I do3 4e s$ fac3 !e will come in time. +l  are s$ vin$ la timp. 5n te second e9ample He ave a(uture (orm used in colloEuial speec, synonymous to “ +l va veni la timp”, correspondin to te

literary style. ConJunctivul is also used to e9press le9ical and rammatical supposition, necessity,order, command, insistence# 5ight he have been here3 '$ fi fost el aici3 !e might have been there. +l ar fi putut s$ fi fost acolo. !ave I lost it on my way home3 '$-l fi pierdut n drum spre cas$3 I insist (order) that he should be present. +u insist (ordon) ca el s$ fie pre"ent. It is necessary that he

 should be here. + necesar ca el s$ fie aici.  ConJunctivul can also e used to e9press te imperativeand present inde(inite indicative (orms:  eave the town immediately '$ pleci (pleac$) din ora&imediat #on?t you worry, mother '$ nu te nelini&te&ti, mam$ #o not doubt '$ nu te ndoie&ti

 et0s sit and talk. '$ &edem &i s$ vorbim. 

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lucrat) la lec*ii pe parcursul lunii acestea n-ar avea probleme la eAamen. nd n livad$. -'$ fie el lucr>nd n livad$3 #e ar fi el lucr>nd n livad$  KAD, 332L Metasemiotictransposition is (ound in ot $nlis and 'omanian.

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erunziu or conte9tual and le9ical durative means.

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action, a result, as a tense (orm, time relation. 1ut lately more and more linuists consider anteriority to e te main cateorlal meanin o( (inite and non7(inite per(ect (orms $.1enveniste,?.SmirnitsFy, '.?llen, .%almer, etc.4. 73@3L

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=/T)e Enli%) Verbal Cateorie%

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multitude o( terms to name te cateory o( mood# mood, assertion, actual assertion, relativeassertion, aspect o( mood, (actual7 teoretical7ypotetical mood, (act mood indicative4, te moodo( (act, declarative mood, tout7mood, imainative mood, contrary7to7(act mood, in(lectionalmood, etc. nd multe lucruri interesante (hey say that he is having may have a lot of interesting things); )

 #ac$ el ar fi av>nd aceast$ carte, l-a& ruga s$ mi-o dea (If he were having this book I should ask 

him to give it to me); ) /nde-i 9etru3 - 7a (S) fi lucr>nd n gr$din$. E'$ fie el lucr>nd3 #e ar fi el lucr>nd (2here is 9eter3 !e might be working in the garden. - 4ould he be working3 If he wereworking  ;nly te (orms o( present conJunctive turned out to e9press aout 3& meanins# te in(initive,indicative, imperative, suJunctive 5, suJunctive 55, etc. +ets taFe some e9amples and comparetem Hit teir translations in $nlis#

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here you would had helped us. #ac$ ai fi fost aici ne-ai fi a%utat. ) If you were here you would helpus. #ac$ ai fi aici ne-ai a%uta. . If I had started last week I sould have got there in time. #ac$ a& fi

 plecat s$pt$m>na trecut$ a& fi a%uns acolo la timp.  Comparin te systems o( moods in $nlis and 'omanian He come to te conclusion tattere is muc in common etHeen te tHo.

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as 2 meanins. 5n te (irst meanin it e9presses an optative meanin a His, a desire4 Hic is notcontrary to reality (5ay he live a hundred years et success attend you ong live the Lueen)

 5ay, let   e9press modality ere and in comination Hit te main ver tey e9press an optativemeanin. %rosodic elements are also important in intensi(yin te modal meanin, in te laste9ample it is prevailin.

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hearing it better now. he dog was smelling the lamp post. 'he was feeling the sun eAtremely. 'hemust be a stranger whom I was observing. !e is always doing things like this. 'he was all the time

 smelling at him. hey were occasionally visiting them.  ?nalyzin all te veral cateories He ave oserved a penomenon o( transition (romrammatical to le9ical7rammatical and le9ical means o( e9pressin tis or tat cateorial meanin.? ood e9ample could serve te cateory o( ta9is anteriority4, Hic underoes a process o( le9icalization in many lanuaes# in 'ussian te per(ect anteriority as practically disappeared andte le9ical anteriority as taFen its place.

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c>nd el a intrat . nd 

23

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 peste o clip$ l au"ir$m pe necunoscut urc>nd din nou $.%o4/ mbind /  Suc sentences could eeasily e trans(ormed# !e walked singing = !e walked; !e was singing - +l mergea c>nt>nd = +l mergea &i c>nta; +l c>nta (+l era c>nt>nd). 

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always worrying. 'he was all the time smelling at him. !e was always promising to come. heywere occasionally visiting them.

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are doin sometin else. )or e9ample# I am not working in the garden, I am walking in the garden, I am not reading a book, I am writing a letter. 5n ot cases tere is an aspectual meanin o( actionsdevelopin in time at te iven moment. ?nalyzin te cateories o( aspect in te con(rontedlanuaes He can conclude tat te $nlis lanuae possesses a clear7cut rammatical aspectualsystem, prevailin over te le9ical and prosodic aspectual means used as a rule to intensi(y teeneral aspectual meanin. 5n 'omanian te rammatical aspect is suservient, te le9ical and

 prosodic aspectual cateorial means ein prominent. 5n te contrasted lanuaes one couldoserve te tendency o( metasemiotic stylistic4 transposition. 5( He compare a numer o( relatedlanuaes Hit an unrelated one He (ind tat coincidences and di((erences vary in eac case. mp acum.; Y]Y PN\PY\ UP NZY, Y]Y PN\PY\ UP NZY VYPV. Qow  in$nlis intensi(ies te rammatical aspectual meanin, Hile in ?raic, 'omanian and 'ussian tele9ical means elan, acum, VYPV are te only aspectual means and tey may e intensi(ied onlyconte9tually and prosodically. 5n ?raic te imper(ect is Hider in meanin tan in 'omanian.

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latter is susidiary and is not usually sinled out in rammar ooFs. 5n 'omanian and ?raic terammatical aspect is suservient, te le9ical aspectual cateory ein prominent. 5n all tecontrasted lanuaes one could oserve te tendency o( metasemiotic stylistic4 transposition o( aspectual (orms. 

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o( te continuousnon7continuous aspectual opposition.

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deas"./ ?u (ost dormind la isearica lui svetin 1enedict. K2>, 8AL Ii era merTndu !i apropiindu7m" c"tre -amascu, Zntru ameadz"... K2>,D0L =martorului t"u Znsumi era st"ndu=K2>,D3L =?maudzit pre mul*i m"rturisind s" ie (ost covTr!ind pre Basilie Bod". K2>, 3A2L Ii din zi Zn zi mul*i s7au (ost ad"uTnd= !i7au mai (ost viind !i un eneral al lui=K2>,3ADL ? (ost pl"tind !i el cTnd a(ost de (a*". Ii arcul l7au (ost tr"Tnd cu vTrteJ. K2>,3L

?nalyzin tese e9amples He ave no esitation in statin te (act tat te constructions o( te au9iliary ver a (i < erun!iul e9press te rammatical continuous aspect liFe in $nlis,Spanis, %ortuuese and 5talian. nd n livad$3

 #e ar fi el lucr>nd n livad$ KAD, 332LConstructions Hit participle 5 in $nlis usually ave identical eEuivalents in 'omanian and

oter 'omance lanuaes and e9press continuous actions. 3.?ccusative Hit %articiple 5# 8oung  Mrancis was seeing the darkies working in the cotton fields - >n$rul Mrancis i vedea pe negrimuncind pe planta*iile de bumbac O.GalsHorty4/ 2.6ominative Hit %articiple 5 and 6ominative

Hit erunziul# !e was seen running to the river - +l a fost v$"ut fugind spre r>u. A.6ominativeasolute# he house door being open, she went in before om, reLuesting him to follow her M.ndu-i s-o urme"e.>.?solute %articiple construction# < lake with children swimming in it, appeared and disappeared - /n lac, cu copii sc$ld>ndu-se n el, ap$ru &i disp$ru. 2alking in the park he met !elen. .-oule

 predicate# !e walked singing - +l mergea c>nt>nd . 5n tis case He ave tHo actions as i( lendedtoeter in a sorter unit#  +l mergea. +l c>nta4. ?ll tese constructions e9press a clear cutrammatical continuous aspect comined Hit te le9ical durative meanin o( te vers. KAD, 332733AL

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continuar a V in(initive practically e9presses te same type o( continuous action#  +le continua aler N %ornal. K@8L $9actly te same He ave in $nlis# !e continues reading the %ournal canbe easily changed into !e continues to read . ng>nd acas$. +r erreichte

 schwimmend das andere /fer. !e reached the other bank swimming. < a%uns inot>nd la cel$laltmal. K2L 5n German, liFe in )renc, te asence o( te continuous (orms is compensated y5mper(ect and constructions Hit %artizip %r]sens %artizip 54, Hic normally e9press a durativeaspectual meanin.

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anteriority 7 simultaneity can e e9pressed in $nlis in a purely rammatically. ?t te same time, itcan e also e9pressed le9ically, y conte9tual marFers, liFe adverial modi(iers, etc. e souldcare(ully Feep apart te conceptual cateory o( anteriority and te rammatical one as constituted

 y te oppositions o( te relevant cateorial (orms.

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 per(ect (orms are practically not used in Journalese, eiter in 1ritis or ?merican neHspapers. ?s (ar as (inite per(ect (orms are concerned, pre(erence is iven to present per(ect, ecause tis is te (ormtat is est suited to estalisin a correlation etHeen past and present, on te one and, and teconnection etHeen te per(ormer and te underoer o( te speec event, on te oter.

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;ne o( te most important elements o( all te per(ect rammatical (orms o( te vers in$nlis is  past participle or  participle II  'omanian 7 participiul trecut 6* e9pressin anteriority inte purest Hay. 5t may e used separately and can syntetically e9press anteriority and voice, serveto (orm a numer o( per(ect and passive voice analytical (orms. nd E creat -He oserve tree distinct cateorical oppositions, tat o( simultaneity vs. anteriority cateory o( ta9is4, active vs. passive cateory o( voice4 and continuous vs. non7continuous cateory o( aspect4. 6ot all te participles possess all te tree cateorial (orms. nd E plecat / s.  %ast participles can e used independently.

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analytical non7per(ect (iorms te past participle ets devoid o( anteriority meanin and preservesonly te passive cateorial (unction he letter was written and sent in time4. K&0, 2&87288L

lni numai c>*iva ofi*eri, prieteni de ai s$i, care fuseseanun*a*i (= anun*a*i) din timp. 

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cateory o( anteriority is not present in lanuaes Here te rammatical (orms o( anteriority ave practically disappeared.

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level and ten try to adduce some e9amples o( teir realization on te etic level. ;n te systemiclevel $nlis and 'omanian ave a (ully developed system o( rammatical (orms e9pressin tecateorial meanin o( anteriority.

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replaced in speec and non7(iction te9ts y a stylistically more natural (orm 7 perfectul compusP 5t isnot alHays easy to e9plain tis di((erence only y stylistic (actors. 5t (olloHs naturally tat Hen Hecompare $nlis oriinal te9ts Hit teir translations into )renc and 'omanian He alHays (indreat similarity.

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nuit blanche. !e was an actor on the +nglish stage; Musese actor pe scena engle"$; Il avait KtK uncomKdien sur la sc~ne anglaise. 5( He ase our conclusions on te conte9t, ten Hat as een saidere in te past inde(inite (orm is in te relationsip o( anteriority Hit te precedin and tesuseEuent situations.

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de votre soeur et Gon. 9oveste&te-mi despre sora dumitale &i despre Gon. ell him that I?m awfully glad, and that I wish him luck, #is-lui Lue %e n?en rK%ouis et Lue %e lui souhaite beaucoup dechance. 'pune-i c$ m$ bucur foarte mult &i c$-i doresc noroc. I never bet, said 'oames, and I don?t 

 smoke. Ge ne parie %amais, dit 'oames, et %e ne fume pas. +u nu fac pariuri, "ise 'oames, &i nu fume".  O.GalsHorty4  Cases Hen present inde(inite are con(ronted Hit pass\ compos\ and per(ectul compus ave een descried aove.

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in clauses o( time and condition 5 2

3,/;/T)e Cateorial Meanin o( "a%t "er(ect in t)e Con(ronted Lanuae%

%ast per(ect is used to e9press anteriority to an action or moment in te past.   Coincidence# past per(ect – plus7Eue7par(ait – pluscvamper(ectul#  !e had bought the meadows on the far side of theriver. Il avait achetK les p>turages de l?autre bord de la rivi~re. 4ump$rase p$&unile de pe cel$lalt mal al amisei. O.GalsHorty4 5t sould e mentioned te (act tat pluscvamper(ectul in 'omanianas practically lost its analytical (orms radually sustituted y a syntetic (orm oin acF to an

analytical (orm o( past participle plus te ver ^a (i”4. +et us adduce some e9ample o( analytical per(ect (orms still (ound in literature. $9amples#.1i cum a%unge la f>nt>n$, scoate mai nt>i furca,de unde o avea str>ns$ , $i apoi se pune %os s$ se odihneasc$.

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all he took the fork out of the place he had put it, and then he sat down to rest. /n om, suindu-se peo &ur$, unde avea aruncat ni&te f>n, tr$gea din r$sputeri de funie. < man climbing on a shed, whohe had piled some hay, was pulling the rope up with might and main. t timp ai fost plecat. !e had everything he needed during the time you had been away.Non&coincidence# He (ind past per(ect con(ronted Hit )renc  passK simple, passK composK  and

even imparfait / and 'omanian perfectul simplu, perfectul compus and imperfectul  used instead o(  plus-Lue-parfait  and pluscvamperfectul 4. )or e9ample# 34 past per(ect – pass\ compose – per(ectulcompus#. I replied unwittingly, and not at first observing the eAtraordinary manner in which the

 speaker had chimed in with my meditation; 4omme %?Ktais plongK dans mes pansKes, %e n?ai pasm„me remarLuK des le commencement Lue les paroles de #upin ont co†ncidK avec mes pansKes;

 |ng>ndurat cum eram, la nceput nici nu mi-am dat seama c$ vorbele lui #upin au coincis ntocmaicu g>ndurile mele.

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denoted y tis (orm immediately a((ects te state o( tins Hic are (ound at te moment o( speaFin. ndurat cum eram, la inceput nici nu mi-am dat seama ca vorbele lui au coincis ntocmai cu g>ndurile mele.  

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taFen into consideration. )irst o( all, He ave to stress te (act, tat one could not compare tHo or more lanuaes, unless one ad a very clear idea o( a certain underlyin  tertium comparationis. 5nour case it is $nlis and its cateory o( ta9is, Hic is Hell developed and as een linuisticallyHell investiated4, some tird memer on te asis o( Hic te con(rontation is e((ected. ;ur 

 previous FnoHlede o( te con(ronted lanuaes also elps us to secure a (irm stand, a reliale asis(or our analysis and tere is no dout tat syncronic con(rontation o( any tHo systems cannot ereally scienti(ic unless account is care(ully taFen o( teir previous development.

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3,/>/Cateor4 o( Anteriorit4 a% %een b4 A/I/Smirnit%4 and E/en1eni%te/

  istorical linuistics in eneral, comparative piloloy in particular, as accumulated areat ody o( material, especially (or te 'omance lanuaes. 1ut as a rule, manuals on te istoryo( tese lanuaes are mainly oriented toHards te development o( di((erent ([rms te cane o( Hic as taFen place in Morpoloy and Morponoloy. L $.1enveniste is (ully aHare o( te instaility o( te system. e taFes into consideration te(act tat, (or e9ample, te relationsip etHeen te (orms il fit  and il a fait  is alHays in a state o( (lu9. 1enveniste comes to te conclusion tat %?ai fait, may eiter (unction as an aorist or e9pressanteriority ein a per(ect (orm4 and as a rammatical (orm it carries tHo di((erent cateorial (ormsin di((erent conte9ts4 o( te same cateory. 1enveniste in is ooF  9robl~mes de linguistiLue KAD,3>Lsucceeds in ivin a convincin e9planation o( te reason Hy in )renc tere raduallyevolved te so7called temps surcompos\es/

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te main cateory o( natural uman lanuaes, (or tey are istorical cateories, tey develop or dieout. 1y so doin, tey (olloH te (ate o( te speec community/ Hic as created tem as te

 principal means o( communication. KAD, 3>733L

3,/-/A Contra%ti1e Anal4%i% o( Non&(inite Form% o( Ta8i%

5( He taFe te cateory o( ta9is in te predicative (orms, He oserve tat te cateorial (orms o( anteriority are mi9ed Hit tose o( tense, voice and aspect. 5n te nominal (orms ta9is is usuallye9pressed in a “pure” Hay. ndri de a fi v$"*Œi

mpreun$ cu el. e (ind many e9amples o( complete coincidence. 1ut tere is a reat numer o( tem classi(ied as non7coincidences. Bery o(ten te $nlis and )renc in(initive (orms aretranslated into 'omanian y con%unctivul , a polysemantic (orm Hic as een radually taFinover te (unctions o( te in(initive especially in colloEuial style# he storm culminated in onematchless effort that seemed likely to tear the island to pieces, burn it up, drown it to the treetops,blow it away, and deafen every creature in it, all at one and the same moment. (5.wain) ?orage

 se %eta avec une telle fureur Lu?il semblait Lu?elle voulait mettre l?ile en pi~ces, la brler avec ses flames, inonder les arbres, la rKduire a nKant et eAterminer toute creature vivante. Murtuna sen$pusti cu at>ta furie, nc>t p$rea c$ vrea s$ sf$r>me insula n *$nd$ri, s-o mistue n fl$c$ri, s$inunde copacii, s-o mistuie depe fa*a p$m>ntului &i s$ st>rpeasc$ orice fiin$ vie. (5.wain)

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 pe care, dup$ c>te i se p$rea, nu-l mai "$rise de c>nd trecuse oceanul. 1ut in ot cases teanteriority meanin is te same. %er(ect in(initive in $nlis and in(inti( pass\ can e con(ronted in'omanian Hit per(ectul compus, e9pressin anteriority to te present moment#  I am sure only tohave heard what I have heard, to have seen what my eyes have seen 'uis-%e bien sur de avoir entendu ce Lue %?ai entendu, d?avoir vu ce Lue mes yeuA ont vu '>nt sigur numai c$ am au"it (de avi au"it) ceea ce am au"it, c$ am v$"ut (de a fi v$"ut) ceea ce am v$"ut 072>L 

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 fr$m>nt>ndu-&i mintea...M.nd am a%uns (a%ung>nd) la chei, am observat... o coas$ &i dou$ h>rle*e.   5n  all te

con(ronted sentences ere He ave consecutive actions.

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ce au intrat, au *intuit poarta pe din$untru. 5n spite o( te (act tat tere are di((erent (orms in tecon(ronted lanuaes te rammatical meanin o( anteriority is preserved in all o( tem.c4 %er(ect participle – plus7Eue7par(ait – mai mult ca per(ectul# 'oames, having prolonged his week-end visit had been spending the afternoon at the oological ardens. 'oames avait continuK sonweek-end ondres et avait passK l?apr~s-midi dans le %ardin "oologiLue. 'oames &i prelungiseweek-endul la ondra &i &i petrecuse dup$ amea"a n gr$dina "oologic$. O.GalsHorty4 %er(ect

 participle is readily translated into )renc and 'omanian y means o( past per(ect (orms, e9pressinte rammatical meanin o( past anteriority. 5t could e sustituted y a past per(ect (orm in$nlis as Hell.

"a%t "artici$le/

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c4 suJunctive 55, anteriority to te present moment o( speec# If she had come in time yesterday youwould have seen her; #ac$ ea ar fi venit (s$ fi venit, dac$ venea) la timp ieri ai fi v$"ut-o (ovedeai);d) suJunctive 55, (uture anteriority in te past0 I knew he would say that he would have come if hehad known; +u &tiam c$ el va spune c$ ar fi venit (venea) dac$ ar fi &tiut (s$ fi &tiut); e) suJunctive 55, anteriority to a moment or action in te (uture# 'he thinks he will say that hewould have come if he had known; +a crede c$ el va spune c$ ar fi venit (venea) dac$ ar fi &tiut (s$

 fi &tiut, dac$ &tia).  5t is Hell FnoHn tat in te natural uman lanuaes content and (orm are actually

inseparale. e cannot astract ourselves (rom (orm in analytical comparison and (rom content incomparative piloloy. at is te actual connection etHeen con(rontational linuistics andcomparative piloloyP 5n Hat Hay are He supposed to avail ourselves o( te results o( comparative7istorical investiation Hen con(rontin conate and unrelated lanuaesP 5n order tat tis prolem may e presented as clearly as possile, He sall turn to te cateory o( anteriorityin $nlis and 'omanian. 1y con(rontin, (or e9ample, te cateory o( ta9is in $nlis and

'omanian, He came to te conclusion, tat tere is a common tendency in ot lanuaes.

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 people use elements o( suprasyntactic prosody. 5( te utterances iven aove are said y persons ein in a stron emotional state, te most important part o( te messae Hould e caracterized yspeci(ic metasemiotic prosody# sloHed doHn tempo, increased loudness or decreased loudnessHit te same e((ect4, i (all on te most important le9ical unit, te rane o( te voice isHidened. ?lso ere te correspondin to te iven situation ody lanuae, voice Euali(ications andvoce Euali(iers are used to maFe a stroner impact on te listener. 8

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‘is open@); he book reads well E he book is read well (he book is being read well) E 4artea secite&te bine E 4artea este citit$ bine. 5n te second e9ample te passive meanin is comined Hitte durative one enancin te metasemiotic connotation.

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unit observat$, te rane o( te voice is Hidened. 1y tis He Hill ave Euite a di((erentinterpretation o( they discovered   in 'omanian, asolutely di((erent (orm te point o( vieH o( stylistics connotations.

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aove stated cateorial (orms e9press te iven meanins o( voice le9ically or le9ically7rammatically. 5n 'omanian te system o( cateorial (orms o( voice resemles te one in $nlis,

 ut in most rammar ooFs a system o( tree (orms is usually put (orHard# active, passive andre(le9ive.

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cas$, c$in>ndu-se c$ pe lume nu mai sunt t$lhari vesti*i, fr$m>nt>ndu-&i min*ile cu ce ar puteanlocui ast$"i aceast$ pierdere (5.wain).  ?s He see “se” and its variants in 'omanian (ormanalytical (orms Hit te correspondin vers, and sometimes it may e added to a Hord incolloEuial speec# “rostogolindu-se, c$in>ndu-se, fr$m>nt>ndu-&i, duc$-se@.  5n 'ussian tere(le9ive “7XY” as ecome a (le9ion and is used only as a (le9ion, Hic still preserves its oriinalle9ical meanin o( re(le9ivity. ndri de a fi v$"u*i mpreun$ cu el, &i c$ el nu-i alung$ om was therefore elevated to a placewith the %udge and the other elect, and the great news was announced. - om fu poftit s$ se sue n

 stran$, unde &edea %udec$torul &i celelalte persoane simandicoase, iar marea noutate fu adus$ lacuno&tin*$/ na viitoare E “NZY]P NVXPY\V UP VNPUWW VYPV, “NZY]P

NVXPZPV€ _ \N _Y] UP N”ZN UYXYZW, “NZY]P XY\ NVXP\€V _ \N _Y] UPVZYXY UYXYZW.  e sould note te (act tat in 'omanian He ave tHo (orms to render imper(ective actions in te past# ^se discuta” colloEuial4 and ^era discutat^ imper(ectul4.

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re(le9ive particle and (le9ion are completely synonymous Hit te meanins o( passive voice o( imper(ective durative4 action. 5n $nlis tere is no continuous aspect in te passive voice in te(uture, ecause ot cateorial (orms are used Hit te ver “to e” and it is not acceptale in teliterary $nlis to say#“

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outside, liFe in te case o( passive voice actions. ?ccordin to ?.SmirnitsFy   te Hord “noise”zomot4 in te sentence < noise was heard (/n "gomot a fost au"it or /n "gomot s-a au"it) isrammatically in(luenced y te suJect, ut le9ically it is really directed to te oJect.

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este frumoas$. t de frumoas$ ca &i aceea. t de frumoas$ ca aceea. = t aceasta. ere te comparison o( eEuality is (olloHed y tat o( in(eriority andsuperiority ineEuality. 5n 'omanian te deree o( comparison o( eEuality and ineEuality is (ormed

 y te elp o( te (olloHin constructions# tot a&a de, tot att de, la fel de, deopotriv$ de, ntocmaica, la fel ca, mai pu*in, mult mai pu*in, etc. +Aamples: BS foame tot a&a de trist$ ca &i acele

 gnduri. /n osta& tot a&a de vitea" ca Ion. neao sarcin$ mai grea &i mai prime%dioas$. < more difficult and dangerous task remained. 8ou won?t 

 find better eAamples. Qu vei g$si eAemple mai bune. Mata se f$cea din ce n ce mai frumoas$. he

 girl was getting more and more beautiful. 

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comparison Hit oter oJects in te iven conte9t. 5ntensi(iers are o(ten used ere : 8ou are a very good child E 8ou are an eAtremely good child E 8ou are a very good child indeed E 8ou look too good.

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 possible. ('per c$ ve*i avea cel mai minunat timp posibil.) I have read the worst novel imaginable. It is by far the most interesting play I have ever seen. hey are the very best friends.  5n 'omanian He ave te same division o( te superlative deree as in $nlis# relative7superlative o( superiority and tat o( in(eriority, and asolute superlative: +l este cel mai

 s>rguincios dintre to*i studen*ii. +l este cel mai pu*in activ dintre to*i studen*ii. #e c>te ori amtrecut de la treptele cele mai nalte la cele de mai %os. ? numer o( le9ical units are used in tiscase0 foarte, tare, prea, ad>nc, profund, amarnic de, mult, mult prea, gro"av de, nemaipomenit de,

 stra&nic de, minunat de, ngro"itor de, teribil de, dureros de, negr$it de, neobi&nuit de, nespus de, peste seam$ de, infinit de, peste m$sur$ de, etc.: T,,,S prea frumoas$ fat$@ (< most beautiful girl).(5.+minescu) T5$ nelini&te&te g>ndul prea pu*in modest c$ s-ar fi putut s$ nu fie nimeni.enera*ia lui e mult prea scutit$ de gri%ile "ilniceB ere He sould stress te (act aain tat tesuperlative (orms, especially tose used Hit intensi(iers, are empatic and, tus, elon to astylistic cateory as Hell. KAD, 3&A7380L

39/T)e Cateor4 o( Dei8i% in Enli%) and Romanian

ndu-&i r$mas bun de la mine, m-a rugat, &i pe c>t mi s-a p$rut,

 foarte st$ruitor, s$ vin la el a soua "i diminea*a c>t mai devreme. 1ut as He see (rom te aoveiven e9amples te de(inite article is not te only means to distinuis an oJect.

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clause, a participle prase, an adJective, Hen contrast and coice is implied#  I became used to seeing the gentleman with the whiskers - 5-am deprins s$ v$d gentlemenul cu bachenbar"i. heroom where we sat was small - 4amera, unde &edeam, era mic$; It was the very thing he liked - +rachiar acel (lucru) ce i placea.  Some prepositions, especially in 'omanian, contriute to te realisation o( te cateorial(orm o( --5.

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translated as nd ceva de m>ncare. he dining room was large enough. 'ufrageria erandea%uns de nc$p$toare. ?nytin tat is considered typical, sometin tat sould, (or e9ample,

 e e9pected to e (ound in our (lats, is used Hit a de(inite dei9is.

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unul, unii, altul, cineva, ceva, careva, altcineva, fiecare, pu*in, oleac$, ori&icare, ori&icine, ori&ic>t,oricare, cutare, at>t, vreunul, c>*iva, to*i, mul*i, niscaiva, niscai, alde, nimeni. nici unul, nici un,nici o, pe nimic, pentru nimic, intru nimic, de nimic, vre-o, unu-doi, trei-patru, cu sutele*  etc. nd despre ga"da dumneavoastr$ c$ este o snoab$. teva por*iuni de pe pa%i&tea sa, se nscrise n cel mai apropiat club de golf. ?nalyzin e9amples Hecome to te conclusion tat te asence o( marFed articles does not mean tat He ave a zeroeneralizin marFer. Barious marFers are used# possessive case, possessive pronouns, demonstrative

 pronouns, limitin prepositions. nd omul era n durerile na&terii &i p$m>ntul -&i tr$ia

 propria sa via*$, c>t de plin$ &i dulce &i s$lbatic$ acea via*$ era (omul - used with a definite

article);

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 process. M.1loF as come to te conclusion tat te non7(inites are part o( te ver system and(orm a speci(ic veral suclass a cateory, constituted y te opposition o( ot (inite and non7(inite (orms4.

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man, who has fallen into the water with all his clothes on, and, being rescued from death, frightened still, feels that he only looks a fool. 2hen nta aici6/ Bery o(ten te in(initive is

sustituted y conJunctivul and vice versa, dependin on te lanuae style used in te te9t or speec.

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discutate ceea ce au avut de discutat. nd lucrul am plecat acas$. 1ot sentences correspond to te $nlis sentence# (

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8our 5a%esty to suspect my frankness. Ge crois n?avoir %amais donnK lieu 7otre 5a%estK de suspecter ma frLnchise. Qu cred s$ fi dat (de a fi dat) vreodat$ prile% maiest$*ii voastre ca s$ sendoiasc$ de sinceritatea mea..  nt sigur numai c$ am au"it (de a fi au"it) ceea ceam au"it, c$ am v$"ut (de a fi v$"ut) ceea ce am v$"ut.

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o( te erund and participle, and teir dependence on teir (ormal comination Hit certainsyncateorematic le9emes.

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 nd, dup$ destrugerea) alte c>teva por*iuni de pe pa%i&tea sa, se nscrisen cel mai apropiat club de golf. )renc and 'omanian pre(er past per(ect (orms Hen te $nliserund is accompanied y le9ical anteriority means a(ter4. 5n 'omanian te (orms o(  gerun"iul  or lon in(initive and conte9tual anteriority may e used te aove iven e9amples. 9assK composK E 

 perfectul compus (or gerun"iul) can also e used to correspond to te $nlis present participleHit le9ical anteriority0 /pon reaching the wharf, I noticed a scythe and three spades,,, }uand nous sommes arrives sur la Luai, %?ai remarLuK une fauA et b„ches. 4>nd am a%uns (a%ung>nd) lachei, am observat... o coas$ &i dou$ h>rle*e. 5n  all te con(ronted  sentences ere He aveconsecutive actions.

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used in te continuous aspect i( te action is repeated or te speaFer Hants to soH te action indevelopment, or to stress te (act tat te action lasted durin a certain period o( time. )or e9ample#he boy %umped over the fencehe boy was %umping round the tree. I began to read, but the teacher interrupted me I was beginning to read when he came in.  5n 'omanian He ave practically tesame situation# C$iatul a s$rit peste gard C$iatul s$rea n %urul copacului; +u am nceput s$ citesc,dar profesorul m-a ntrerupt +u ncepeam s$ citesc, cnd el a intrat. 5n 'omanian tere are noclear7cut rammatical (le9ions Hit te e9ception o( imper(ectul4 to indicate te iven cateorialmeanin. ?s to te constructions Hit inV(orms He ave already mentioned tem aove indiscussin te cateory o( aspect. e sould Just mention some e9amples#7 Accu%ati1e Hit) $artici$le I in Enli%) and Accu%ati1e Hit) erun!iul in Romanian0   #upinwas moving Luickly to the door, when we again heard him coming up - #upin se mi&ca repede spreu&a, cnd peste o clip$ l au"ir$m pe necunoscut urc>nd din nou (+.9o). & Nominati1e Hit) "artici$le I and Nominati1e Hit) erun!iul0  !e was seen running to the river - +l a fost v$"ut fugind spre ru.7 Nominati1e ab%olute# he dinner being ready, he dished and served it up E 9r>n"ul fiind gata, el 

a servit masa. he house door being open, she went in before om, reLuesting him to follow her (5.wain) - /&a casei fiind deschis$, ea a intrat naintea lui om, cer>ndu-i s-o urme"e. 7 Ab%olute "artici$le con%truction and Ab%olute erun!iul con%truction0  < lake with children

 swimming in it, appeared and disappeared - /n lac, cu copii sc$ld>ndu-se n el, ap$ru &i disp$ru.Double $redicate# he little maid came running down - Meti*a venea fugind n %os. !e walked 

 singing - +l mergea c>nt>nd.& Inde$endent $artici$le con%truction%0 he northern shores of the 4aspian 'ea are fro"en everywinter, ice remaining for some hundred days in the colder parts. –$rmurile de nord ale 5$rii4aspice sunt nge*ate n fiecare iarn$, ghia*a r$m>n>nd pentru vre-o sut$ de "ile n p$r*ile maireci. n>nd; the motion be -coming- mi&carea devenind). 

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lni numai c>*iva ofi*eri, prieteni de ai s$i, care fusese anun*a*i (or anun*a*i) dintimp. 

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 ot le9ical and rammatical anteriority means are used (or te saFe o( e9pressivity. +ets some o( te syntactic (unctions (ul(illed y past participle #

a4 attriutive 7 he data obtained are being carefully analy"ed and studied. #atele ob*inute sunt anali"ate &i studiate atent; In both languages the participles have the function of atributes.  4adverial modi(ier o( time  

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oH muc Sapir as eiter not seen or Fept (or imsel(. )rom our present vieHpoint more tan al( a century later, te omissions looF lare and surprisin. Sapir limits is discussion to $nlis. etsimilar canes occur in many oter lanuaes. e also does not note tat te stailized Hord is a

 particular one, te SB; suJect7ver predicate7oJect4 order, Hile te dominant Hord order o( older period o( te lanuae, some (ive tousand years ao, ad een S;B, as Sapir must aveFnoHn (rom te Hritins o( earlier autors. at is more important is te (act tat $nlis as eensuJect to anoter maJor dri(t, te radual cane (rom an S;B to an SB; lanuae   and teEuestion arises Heter tis dri(t is lanuae speci(ic or someoH universal. So tat SapirQs pictureo( te maJor tendencies in te development o( $nlis synta9 remains incomplete in a rater conspicuous Hay. +aFo(( '. continues te investiation o( dri(t y relatin it to comparative andtypoloical linuistic studies. +aFo(( eins y presentin a list o( some canes... tat occur inmany or all o( te 5ndo7$uropean lanuaes, clearly not as a result o( one ein in(luenced yanoter.KAD, 2@L

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claimin tat tey can e vieHed as te symptoms o( a more eneral S;B to SB; typoloicalcane. e arued tat it is te risin predominance o( SB; order in ;$ tat maFes te reaFdoHno( te in(lectional system possile/ tis Has ased on te assumption, derived (rom GreenerQsHorF, tat SB; lanuaes caracteristically do not ave ric post7positional in(lectional systems.oc vieHs te Germanic, 'omance and Slavic lanuaes, GreeF and +ituanian as evolvinradually (rom S;B to typoloically consistent SB; lanuaes. oc arues tat tey are evolvinat di((erent rates, ut tey are all on te same slope, steadily acEuirin more and more properties,Hic are caracteristic o( te SB; type. Se also states, (or e9ample, tat %roto7Germanic Has intransition (rom S;B to SB; and tat its dauter lanuaes ave steadily acEuired more SB;

 properties. ;ne sould tere(ore e attentive aout attempts to develop teories o( cane on te asis o( suc eneralisations. n$ acum n-am fost eu n aceast$ p$dure. Qot only does water function as a catalyst, but it also may be a significant rock-building constituent. Qu numai c$ apa are func*ia de catali"ator, ci ea poate fi un constituent 

&>

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important n formarea st>ncelor. Qowhere can we see such rapid progress as in computing techniLue. Qic$ieri nu putem noi vedea a&a un progres rapid ca n domeniul tehnologiilor informa*ionale. 'o bright is 7enus that even in the daytime it is sometimes visible. n$ acum n-am fost n aceast$ p$dure. +u n-am fost n aceast$ p$dure nici odat$ p>n$ acum.

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elements. StocFHell proceeds to identi(y various processes Hic ave rise to sur(ace seEuencesSB;4, so tat eventually a lanuae learner ad su((icient asis to eneralize tat sentences endHit complements, not Hit vers. 6oHadays tis psycoloical motivation causes some prolems.KAD, 2@0L Since consistent ;B lanuaes suc as Oapanese maFe very sparin use o( intensi(iedstylistic syntactic structures, oH may it e e9plained tat in some ;B lanuaes intensi(iedstylistic syntactic structures ecome so important tat it canes te type o( te lanuae to B;PSome linuists, amon tem Sapir, attriute tis cane to te (amiliar tendency to level tedistinction etHeen case marFin. Sapir ad in my opinion te correct vieH o( suc a situationHen e said tat trouout te istory o( $nlis te case system... as een steadily HeaFeninin psycoloical respects KAD, 2@0L. Surely learners and speaFers o( a lanuae do not Hait until telast trace o( a case marFin is lost e(ore tey realize tat sometin is oin Hron in teir lanuae. %eraps tey Hill avoid constructions most or all o( te time i( tey run tem intodi((iculties some o( te time, and rely on constructions tat uarantee success.

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rammar o( a lanuae as a Hole can cane idem4. +aFo((Qs paper is valuale and oes eyondSapirQs discussion in tat it points out tat certain dri(ts may e sared y several lanuaes at leasto( a iven (amily.

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lanuae, te order o( tese canes is o(ten di((icult to estalis. +inuists ave tried to estaliste order o( some asic canes (or $nlis ut Hitout muc success. )urtermore, tis is done (or a Hide rane o( lanuaes and tere are no rounds to suppose tat tere is a universally determinedierarcy o( canes, a prescried rule, Hic all lanuaes must slide doHn at varyin rates. )romte stated e9planations in te study o( diacronic cane te essential prolem is tat lanuaesvary in teir structure to a reat e9tent and tis variation maFes it di((icult i( not impossile to usestructural criteria, to identi(y rammatical cateories across lanuaes. 5t seems to us tat in tisrespect Hord order as a privilee over oter rammatical cateories. ord order canes appear to

 e one o( te easiest (or cross7linuistic comparaility, since tey are clearly ased on a pysical property o(te clause, te seEuence o( units, Hic can e directly oserved. avin dealt Hit succonsiderations aout canes in eneral, it as een seen tat in developin (rom S;B to SB;synta9, lanuaes seem to (olloH similar patHays. )or instance, Modern German, Hicdeveloped (rom te same Germanic S;B source as $nlis, sares tHo o( ;ld $nlisQsdistinuisin caracteristics. )irst, te ver is typically placed in te second position o( tesentence in main clauses, preceded y te suJect or some oter element suc as an adver4.

Secondly te S;B order is employed (or emedded clauses. Since linuists are still not sure Hylanuaes cane (rom one syntactic type to anoter, te causes o( Hord order cane Hillundoutedly remain an important area o( investiation, especially since te relative order o( Berand ;Ject as een closely linFed Hit oter Hord order patterns. KAD, 272@>L

ord Order and Ot)er Meta%emiotic S4ntactic Mean% and De1ice%. 5n order to prove te (acttat syntactic units are in constant state o( (lu9 pro(. Galperin 5. Euotes pro(. G. BinoFur Homaintains tat in synta9 it is no neH material tat is coined, ut neH relations, ecause tesyntactical aspect o( speec is notin more tan a de(inite comination o( rammatical (orms, andin tis sense te actual Hords used are essentially immaterial. L ?ccordin to Galperin 5. Hord order  is a crucialsyntactical prolem in many lanuaes and in $nlis it as peculiarities caused y te concreteand speci(ic sociolinuistic (eature o( te lanuae developed y te iven speaFin community. eEuotes ;.Oespersen Ho said tat te $nlis lanuae ...as developed toleraly (i9ed Hord orders

Hic in te reat maJority o( cases soHs Hitout (ail Hat is te SuJect o( te sentence.0.KAD, 2@L ?ny cane o( te Hord order structure o( te sentence canes te prosodic pattern andmetasemiotic structure o( te iven syntactic unit. 5( te syntactic unit is rout (orHard in tesentence, it is made prominent ot y te caned structure and y te speci(ic prosody.

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apropiat de mine. rguincioas$ student$ a fost ea.   t de efficient. Qot only does water function as acatalyst, but it also may be a significant rock-building constituent. Qu numai c$ apa func*ionea"$ca un catali"ator, dar ea poate de asemeni fi o parte component$ important$ n formarea st>ncilor.Snly gradually, in recent years, has the chemistry of polymers become separated and become anindependent branch of science. Qumai treptat, n anii recen*i, a devenit industria polimerilor oramur$ independent$ a &tiin*ei. Qowhere can we see such rapid progress as in computing techniLue. Qic$ieri nu putem vedea noi a&a un progres rapid ca n tehnologiile informa*ionale./nfortunately records of evaporation are not very numerous. #in nefericire, ca"uri nregistrate de

evaporare nu sunt numeroase.  5n most o( te e9amples iven aove te adverial modi(ier is made prominent its e9pressivity is consideraly intensi(ied y te cane o( usual Hord order. ?t tesame time, in eac case, a prosodic pattern speci(ic to emotionally cared te9t is detected even inscienti(ic tecnical te9ts. 5n some e9amples, te metasemiotic connotation is (urter increased yte use o( te au9iliary vers e(ore te suJect o( te sentence# !ardly ever is; 9u*in probabil 7 inte 'omanian translation te au9iliary is used a(ter te suJect, ecause traditionally in suc cases itis not accepted in tis position. 1ut in te ne9t e9ample tere is a complete coincidence in otlanuaes# Qever before has there been - Qici odat$ p>n$ acum n-a eAistat. ;( course, tere aremany oter cases o( syntactic stylistic cane.

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te sentence, as tey are called4. ?ny oter order o( te parts o( te sentence may also carry tenecessary in(ormation, ut te impact on te reader Hill e di((erent. $ven a slit cane in teHord order o( a sentence or in te order o( te sentences in a more complicated syntactical unit Hillinevitaly cause a de(inite modi(ication o( te meanin o( te Hole. ?n almost imperceptilerytmical desin introduced into a prose sentence, or a sudden reaF in te seEuence o( te parts o( te sentence, or any oter cane Hill add sometin to te volume o( in(ormation contained in teoriinal sentence. 5t (olloHs tat te very concept o( inversion as appeared as a counterpart to tereular Hord order, te latter ein a relatively unemotional, unempatic, neutral mode o( e9pression.” KAD, 2@&L ntul &i vor eAplora alte

 planete. 5n spite o( te (act tat te $nlis empatic constructions do not e9actly correspond to teones availale in te 'omanian +anuae, te metasemiotic syntactic connotation created is

 practically identical.

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device is alHays sense7motivated, and tere is a tendency to account (or inversion in poetry yrytmical considerations. 5n te maJority o( cases inversion in poetry is called (ort yconsiderations o( metasemiotic content rater tan rytm. 5nversion is one o( te (orms o( Hat areFnoHn as empatic constructions.

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imper(ective aspect, ut te e9istin Continuous vs. non7continuous aspect is prevailin.

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 process o( cane in te in(ormal spoFen lanuae very o(ten it is sustituted y  perfectul compusin its second simple past meanin, past anteriority ein e9pressed le9ically or conte9tually4.

yperrammaticality or ause o( rammar sould e paid attention to Hile con(rontinrammatical systems o( di((erent lanuaes. ?use o( rammar may e o( tHo Finds#

a4

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researcer (ails to Feep clearly apart te oJect o( analysis, te (acts o( te lanuae in Euestion, andte metalanuae 7 te Hords and e9pressions used Hen people talF aout te oJect lanuae.Bery o(ten tere is a discrepancy not only in te metalinuistic e9pression used to denote certainmore speci(ic or particular cateories, ut also in te namin or description o( te most eneralconcepts temselves or it is a Euestion o( approac or attitude to cateorization.

1iliorapy

3.?Fmanova ;. -ictionary o( +inuistic

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2. ?Fmanova ;., +.-elieva, '.6epesova, 6.SlonimsFaya.?pproaces to Contrastive +inuistics, MoscoH, MSU, 3D&2.A. ?Fmanova ; and Melenciuc -. .1enveniste $. %rolmes de linuistiEue \n\rale# %aris, 3D@@.

. 1enveniste $. %rolems in General +inuistics. University o( Miami %ress, )lorida, 3D&3.@.1loF M. ? Course in .adlic '. +e9ical Contrastive ?nalysis. Modern +anuae. Oournal +5,&., 3D@.3.alle M. Morpoloy in a Contrastive Grammar. 1olona, 3D&2.3@.OaFoson '. Si(ters, Beral Cateories and te 'ussian Ber. arvard University, 3D&.3&.Oames C. -eieper Contrastive Study. 5'?+ B55, 2., 3D@D.38.Oespersen ;. ? Modern $nlis Grammar on istorical %rinciples. edeler, 3D2&.3D.Oespersen ;. $ssentials o( $nlis Grammar. +ondon, 3DAA.20. arulin 5u., Cerdantseva

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A0. Melenciuc -. +inuistic Con(rontation o( -istantly 'elated +anuaes in# 3.6icFel G. Contrastive +inuistics and )orein +anuae 2.6icFel G. and aner . Contrastive +inuistics and +anuae +earnin. 5'?+ B5, 6o A, @,38., 3D@8.>A.6ida $. ?nalysis o( Meanin and -ictionary MaFin. 5O?+, vol.>2., 6o >., 3D8.>>.6ida $. +anuae Structure and .'odries -anilevscaia $., %atrusev ?., Stepanina 5. @.'ossetti ?+. 5storia limii romTne. Bol. 5. 1ucure!sti,3D@.>&.'ossetti ?+. 5storia limii romTne. Bol 55. 1ucure!ti, 3D@D.>8.Saussure ). Course de linuistiEue \n\rale. +ausanne7%aris, 3D3@.>D.SmirnisFy ?. $ssentials o( 'ussian Grammar. MoscoH, 3D&0.

0.SnooF '. ? Strati(icational ?pproac to Contrastive ?nalysis in “%apers in Contrastive+inuistics”, edited y 6icFel Gerald4. Camride University %ress, 3D&3.3. Sapir.$. +anuae. +ondon# arcourt, 1race and ald, 5nc. 3D23.2. Savin $. Gramatica limii ermane. $ditura Ma!ina de scris. – 1ucure!ti, 3DD@.A.Belicopoliscaia 6., 'odries -anilevscaia $. .Binoradov B.S. ? %ractical Course o( te Spanis Grammar. 7 MoscoH 3DD0.  w w w3. x[ {. |}[b~ }j•jXjkX€j bj[. M., 3D@@.2. x[ {. [`b[X‚ [ •j``b•bjk[Xj bkj. Slavica Slovaca. 'oXnic , 3D&0.A..ƒ}j x. [j€ X[`[Xj}~[•[ j„‚kjY ‚ Y„€[.. …k „`jX€j

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.ƒjX Œ. {‰Y }j•jXj€.. M., 3D&>.@.ƒ‚•[ %. Ž€[[b `b[‰} Xbj}~[7jc[bjkX€[•[ Xj€XjX b[X€jY„€[. , 6o A, 3@.&. ƒ‚•[ %. |jX Y„€ XY„j X b„•bjkj •[ jX[bjj j X[b[•[X[X[YjY. . 6o. >,3D8.8. ƒ‚•[ %. |bj}~[7XXj[}[•jkX€j jXX}[jY. M., MSU, 3D@A.D. ƒ‚•[ %. „€, jX[bjY j X[b[X~. M., MSU, 3D&3.30. ƒ‚•[ %. ‘}[€ j •[ Y„€. M., MSU, 3D&@.33.’‚bk . [`b[X‚ [ Xbj}~[7X[`[Xj}~[ j„‚kjj b[X€j Y„€[, €.[ Xbj}~[7X[`[Xj}~[•[ j„‚kjY X[b b[X€j Y„€[4 .., 3D@@.32.’‚bk . |bj}~[7X[`[Xj}~Y •bj€ b[X€j Y„€[. Š‚X€jY„€. . 3D&0. |bj}~[7X[`[Xj}~Y •bj€ b[X€j Y„€[. b[‰}Xb‚€‚b[ [‰[Xj. . 3D&2.3A.’b ƒ. ‚bX xb‰X€[ •bj€j Xbj}~[7jX[bjkX€[ [Xjj. ., 3D@A.

3>.‰j x., ‚„‹[ ’. [b‚•}~X€j Y„€. 7 [X€# XY €[}, 3D8>.3.€ Œ. |bj}~[7X[`[Xj}~Y j j`[}[•jkX€Y •bj€. ., * 6r 3,3D&2.3@. |jbj‹€j x. [b[}[•jY •}jX€[•[ Y„€. ., 3DD.3&.b‰ —. „€[ ‚jbX}jj j }j•jXjkX€Y `Xj[}[•jY. ., 3D@D.38.€[‰X[ Š. ˜j`[}[•jkX€j jXX}[jY j j €} Xbj}~[7jX[bjkX€[Y„€[„j. X‰[bj€ Ž[[ }j•jXj€” `. A, ., 3D@D.3D.b‹ . { X[`[Xj}~[ [ j„‚kjY Y„€[. ™j}[}[•jkX€j ‚€j, 3, 3D@0.20.b‹ . bj‹j` j`[}[•jkX€[•[ jXX}[jY b[X j b[XY„€[. b[‰} Y„€[„jY. Ž‚€ , ., 3D@D.

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