Companion titles to Using German {Second edition)

Using French (third edition) A gu ide to contemporary usage R. E. BATCHELOR and M. H. OFFORD (ISBN 0 521 64177 2 hardback) (ISBN 0 521 64593 X paperback)

Using Spanish A gu ide to contemporary usage R. E. BATCHELOR and C. J. POUNTAIN (ISBN 0 521 42123 3 hardback) (ISBN 0 521 26987 3 paperback)

Using Russian A guide to contemporary usage DEREK OFFORD (ISBN 0 521 45130 2 hardback) (ISBN 0 521 45760 2 paperback)

Using Japanese A guide to contemporary usage WILLIAM MCCLURE (ISBN 0 521 64155 1 hardback) (ISBN 0 521 64614 6 paperback)

Using French Synonyms R. E. BATCHELOR and M. H. OFFORD (ISBN 0 521 37277 1 hardback) (ISBN 0 521 37878 8 paperback)

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Further titles in preparation

Using German A guide to contemporary usage Second edition

MARTIN DURRELL

H CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE

The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1RP, United Kingdom

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

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© Cambridge University Press 1992,2003

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 1992 Second edition 2003

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

Typeface Ehrhardt 10.5/12 pt. System fflfcX 2S [TB]

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data Durrell, Martin. Using German: a guide to contemporary usage / Martin Durrell. - 2nd edition

p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0 521 53000 8 (paperback) 1. German language - Grammar. 2. German language - Textbooks for foreign speakers - English. I. Title. PF3112.D78 2003 438.2'421 - dc21 2002041692

ISBN 0 521 53000 8 paperback

Contents

Introduction page xi Acknowledgements xiii References xv Glossary of linguistic terms xxi Abbreviations and conventions xxix

1 Varieties of language 1

1.1 Varieties according to use: register 3 1.1.1 Medium 4 1.1.2 Subject matter 5 1.1.3 Situation 5 1.1.4 Register and regionalism 7 1.1.5 Indicating register 7

1.2 Varieties according to user: regionalism 10 1.2.1 Regionalism and standard German 11 1.2.2 Regionalism and spoken German 11 1.2.3 Indicating regional variation 12

1.3 Examples of variation: pronunciation 13 1.3.1 Regional variation in pronunciation 15 1.3.2 Register variation in pronunciation 16

1.4 Examples of variation: grammar 18 1.4.1 Regional variation in grammar 19 1.4.2 Register variation in grammar 20

1.5 Examples of variation: vocabulary 23 1.5.1 Regional variation in vocabulary 23 1.5.2 Austrian and Swiss words 26 1.5.3 Register variation in vocabulary 29

1.6 Passages illustrating levels of register 35 1.6.1 Telephone conversation (informal colloquial speech) 35 1.6.2 Radio discussion (unprepared speech in a formal

context) 38 1.6.3 Literary prose (Günter Grass, Die Blechtrommel) 41 1.6.4 Non-literary prose {Fachsprache) 43 1.6.5 Serious newspaper report (Die Welt) 45 1.6.6 Tabloid newspaper report {Bild) 48

2 Words and meanings 52

2.1 Problems of meaning 52 2.1.1 Problems of meaning: English-German examples 52 2.1.2 Problems of meaning: German-English examples 88

2.2 Easily confused words 93 2.2.1 Easily confused words: similar form - different meaning 93 2.2.2 Easily confused words: different gender - different

meaning 102 2.2.3 Easily confused words: different plural - different

meaning 104 2.2.4 Easily confused words: different form - same meaning 105

2.3 Word formation 107 2.3.1 Forming nouns 107 2.3.2 Forming adjectives 109 2.3.3 Forming verbs - prefixes 111 2.3.4 Inseparable verb prefixes 111 2.3.5 Separable verb prefixes 114 2.3.6 Verb prefixes which can be separable or inseparable 115

2.4 Idioms 119

2.5 Prepositions 123 2.5.1 German prepositions with the accusative case 124 2.5.2 German prepositions with the dative case 127 2.5.3 German prepositions with the dative or the accusative

cases 132 2.5.4 German prepositions with the genitive case 139 2.5.5 English prepositions 140

2.6 Modal particles 155 2.6.1 Modal particles in statements 156 2.6.2 Modal particles in questions 160 2.6.3 Modal particles in commands 161 2.6.4 Modal particles in exclamations 163

2.7 Greetings and forms of address 164 2.7.1 Greetings 164 2.7.2 du and Sie 166

2.8 Letters 168

3 Words and forms 171

3.1 Nouns: genders and plurals 171 3.1.1 Suffixes as indicators of gender and plural 171 3.1.2 Suffixes or prefixes as clues to gender and plural 173 3.1.3 Plurals in-5 176

3.1.4 Nouns with alternative plurals 177 3.1.5 Foreign words with unusual plurals 178 3.1.6 Differences in plural usage between German

and English 178 3.1.7 Nouns with variable gender 180

3.2 Nouns: case 181 3.2.1 'Weak' masculine nouns 182 3.2.2 'Mixed' nouns 183 3.2.3 The dative ending -e 184 3.2.4 The genitive singular ending ~(e)s 184

3.3 Verbs: strong and weak 186 3.3.1 Strong verb classes 186 3.3.2 Deceptive weak verbs 189 3.3.3 Irregular weak verbs 190 3.3.4 Verbs with strong and weak forms 190

3.4 Determiners and adjectives 192 3.4.1 Basic determiner endings 192 3.4.2 Basic adjective endings 193 3.4.3 Uncertainties and variation in current usage 194 3.4.4 Adjectives as nouns 196

3.5 Other words that decline: forms and uses 198 3.5.1 Demonstratives 198 3.5.2 Relative pronouns 200 3.5.3 Possessive pronouns 202 3.5.4 Interrogatives 202 3.5.5 man, einer, jemand 203 3.5.6 Some indefinites 204

4 Grammar: cases, tenses and moods 207

4.1 Verbs and cases: valency 207 4.1.1 Verbs governing the dative case 209 4.1.2 Verbs governing the dative and the accusative cases 211 4.1.3 Verbs governing the genitive case 213 4.1.4 Verbs governing a prepositional object 214 4.1.5 Infinitive clauses and idtfs-clauses with verbs governing a

prepositional object 219 4.1.6 Verbs with varying constructions 220

4.2 Cases: dative and genitive 224 4.2.1 Possessive dative 224 4.2.2 Genitive or von} 225 4.2.3 The position of genitive phrases 227 4.2.4 Measurement phrases 228

4.3 Tenses 229 4.3.1 Present and future 229 4.3.2 Past and perfect 230 4.3.3 haben or sein in the perfect? 231

4.4 The passive 233 4.4.1 werden- or $m-passive? 234 4.4.2 The impersonal ('subjectless') passive 235 4.4.3 The passive with dative objects 236 4.4.4 von or durch with the passive? 236 4.4.5 Alternative passive constructions 237

4.5 The subjunctive 239 4.5.1 Forms of the subjunctive 239 4.5.2 The use of the past subjunctive and conditional forms 240 4.5.3 Indirect speech 242 4.5.4 Conditional sentences 245 4.5.5 Other uses of the subjunctive 246

4.6 The modal auxiliaries 248 4.6.1 The German modal auxiliaries 249 4.6.2 The English modal auxiliaries 253

5 Syntax and word order 262

5.1 Word order 262 5.1.1 The verbal bracket 262 5.1.2 The closing bracket 263 5.1.3 The initial element in a main clause 264 5.1.4 The use of initial position in German 265 5.1.5 The central section of German clauses 267 5.1.6 Can anything follow the closing bracket? 271

5.2 Alternatives to subordinate clauses 274 5.2.1 Alternatives to relative clauses 274 5.2.2 Alternatives to noun clauses with dass or wie and infinitive

clauses 275 5.2.3 Alternatives to other subordinate clauses 276 5.2.4 Adverbials rather than clauses 279 5.2.5 Other alternatives to subordinate clauses 281

5.3 The present participle in German and English 282 5.3.1 The use of the German present participle 282 5.3.2 German equivalents of English ing-form constructions 284

6 Spelling and punctuation 289

6.1 Spelling 290 6.1.1 Capital letters 290 6.1.2 One word or two? 292

6.1.3 The use o f ß and ss 296 6.1A Miscellaneous spelling changes

Punctuation 297 6.2.1 The use of the comma 297 6.2.2 Other punctuation marks 299

Index 300

Introduction

The primary intention of this book is to provide information on German as it is actually used nowadays, especially on points where conventional grammars and surveys of vocabulary are silent. It aims to help English-speaking learners to communicate effectively and accurately by developing an awareness of the subtleties of the language. It is thus directed at those who have mastered the basics of German, typically after three or four years at school or an intensive introductory course and are venturing into the complexities and subtleties of the language. It is not a comprehensive grammar, but it deals with those aspects of German grammar and usage about which such advanced learners may have questions, and it attempts to answer as many of those questions as possible.

The areas treated in this book can be grouped under two headings. First, there are those which result from variation within the German language itself. Learners can often be confused because everyday conversational German is often quite different from written German and from what they have been taught. German, just like English, has many alternatives and varieties - in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. One purpose of this book is to explain for the English-speaking learner how modern German usage can differ widely, depending, for instance, on the formality or informality of the situation or on where the speaker or writer comes from. This kind of variation in usage can be puzzling for foreign learners, and standard reference works often give insufficient detail or contradictory (or even misleading) information on such points. In this book, the most common variations in current usage which stem from regional differences or differences depending on the degree of formality are shown as fully as possible. It will be made clear, for example, that the use of the present subjunctive is not a matter of grammatical rule, but of register (see 4.5.3). Chapter 1 provides an introduction, with examples and commented texts, to the range of variation in modern German. The reader is advised to study this chapter closely before consulting the other chapters, which are intended to be used for reference and give extensive detail on selected points concerning vocabulary (chapter 2), declensions (chapter 3), grammar (chapter 4), syntax and word order (chapter 5), and spelling and punctuation (chapter 6), where the changes in German spelling and

punctuation rules which were introduced in the late 1990s are explained in detail.

Secondly, the book covers those aspects of German which for one reason or another seem to be difficult for English-speaking learners, although the difficulties are often more apparent than real. This may be because German expresses things in a different way to English, as when English uses present participles and German does not (see 5.3), where there is a lack of one-to-one correspondence between the vocabulary of the two languages (see 2.1) or in the various uses of prepositions (see 2.5). In such cases the differences between the languages are shown in as much detail as possible. There are other aspects of German, such as gender and plural of nouns (see 3.1), which have to be coped with in their own terms, as there is little comparable in English.

Second edition

In this second edition the major change is that the revised spelling of German has been implemented throughout, with the exception of one text (1.6.3) which was originally published before the introduction of the new spelling and whose author is a well-known opponent of the changes (indeed, he has insisted on his most recent books being published using the old spellings). This is in itself a reflection of the current situation, since, as explained in more detail in chapter 6, it now seems likely that the two spelling systems will continue to co-exist in the German-speaking countries for some considerable time beyond 2005, despite the fact that the old spellings are supposed to cease to be used after this date.

Apart from this, the opportunity has been taken to revise the whole text and the language material of the book, eliminating errors, inconsistencies and ambiguities as far as possible. In particular, all the explanatory material has been recast with the aim of making it clearer and more explicit. For example, German words in lists are now systematically glossed in English, and the account of the modal particles in 2.6 has been reshaped to show how they are used in statements, questions, commands and exclamations, with the intention of helping the learner to see how they are used in actual communicative situations. More than half the texts in 1.6 have been replaced to bring them up to date and to reflect the variety of register in modern German more consistently and systematically. In particular, contrastive examples are now given from the 'serious' and 'popular' press.

Acknowledgements

No book such as this can be the unaided work of a single individual, and I must acknowledge a debt of gratitude to Wini Davies, Dr Karen Herrmann, Professor R. E. Keller and Paul Webster for their many helpful suggestions which have been incorporated in the text. The remaining inadequacies are my own, especially where I have been foolish enough to ignore their sound advice. I am also grateful for much information, advice and encouragement to Stephen Barbour, Friedrich Dehmel, Julie Flynn, Anna Hochsieder, Derek McCulloch, Herbert Meyer, Manfred Prokop, Margaret Rogers, Jon West and Ellen Wilhelmi, all of whom provided me with data or were kind enough to read particular chapters. My thanks are due, too, to all colleagues at the Institut fur Deutsche Sprache in Mannheim, especially Dr Karl-Heinz Bausch, Tobias Bruckner, Professor Alan Kirkness, Professor Gerhard Stickel and Eva Teubert. I was able to collect or check much of the material in the book during a stay in Mannheim which was generously funded by the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst. The great bulk of the initial work for the first edition was completed in the academic year 1983/84, which I spent as an exchange professor at the University of Alberta, and I must give special thanks to all my colleagues in Edmonton for their help and encouragement during a thoroughly enjoyable and productive stay in Canada. Particular mention must be made of the superb library facilities at the University of Alberta. I should also like to thank Rosemary Davidson, Amanda Ogden, Annie Cave and Julia Harding for their invaluable editorial advice and much encouragement, Debbie Carlisle for her skill in coping with a difficult manuscript and, last but not least, all my past and present students in London, Manchester and Edmonton, whose queries and problems furnished much of the raw material.

For the second edition I must acknowledge a special debt of gratitude to all those who have been kind enough since the appearance of the first edition to write to me with questions and suggestions for improvement. I hope that I have been able to incorporate the most important of these. I continue to be immensely grateful to my colleagues in Manchester, in particular Dr Wiebke Brockhaus, for their continued help, assistance and support, and to the English and German students in Manchester whose questions have provided constant stimulation. I must again thank all colleagues at the Institut fur

Deutsche Sprache in Mannheim where in the course of several visits over the years I have been able to check the material and verify the linguistic data on the basis of their incomparable collections of modern German usage. Dr Kate Brett at Cambridge University Press deserves especial thanks for her continued patience, encouragement and practical advice whilst this edition was in preparation.

References

General reference books The following reference works were consulted at all stages of preparing this book.

Agricola, E. et al. (eds.). 1977. Wörter und Wendungen. Wörterbuch zum deutschen Sprachgebrauch. 8th edn. Leipzig.

Barbour, J. S. and P. Stevenson. 1990. Variation in German. A Critical Approach to German Sociolinguistics. Cambridge.

Beaton, K. B. 1996. A Practical Dictionary of German Usage. Oxford. Braun, P. 1993. Tendenzen in der deutschen Gegenwartssprache. Sprachvarietäten. 3rd

edn. Stuttgart. Clyne, M. 1995. The German Language in a Changing Europe. Cambridge. Duckert, J. and G. Kempcke (eds.). 1984. Wörterbuch der Sprachschwierigkeiten.

Zweifelsßlle, Normen und Varianten. Leipzig. Duden. 1998. Grammatik der deutschen Gegenwartssprache. 6th edn. Mannheim,

etc. Duden. 2000a. Das große Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. 3rd edn. 10 vols on

CD-ROM. Mannheim, etc. Duden. 2000b. Rechtschreibung der deutschen Sprache und Fremdwörter. 22nd edn.

Mannheim, etc. Durreil, M. 2000. Using German Synonyms. Cambridge. Eisenberg, P. 1998-9. Grundriß der deutschen Grammatik. 2 vols. Stuttgart/Weimar. Engel, U. 1991. Deutsche Grammatik. 2nd edn. Heidelberg. Farrell, R. B. 1977. Dictionary of German Synonyms. 3rd edn. Cambridge. Freund, F. and B. Sundqvist. 1988. Tysk grammatik. Stockholm. Glück, H. and W. Sauer. 1997. Gegenwartsdeutsch. 2nd edn. Stuttgart. Götz, D. et al. (eds.). 2000. Langenscheidts Großwörterbuch Deutsch als Fremdsprache.

3rd edn. Berlin, etc. Fox, A. 1990. The Structure of German. Oxford. Heidolph, K. E. et al. (eds.). 1981. Grundzüge einer deutschen Grammatik. Berlin. Heibig, G. and J. Buscha. 1995. Deutsche Grammatik. Ein Handbuch fur den

Ausländerunterricht. 13th edn. Leipzig. Heibig, G. and W. Schenkel. 1991. Wörterbuch zur Valenz und Distribution deutscher

Verben. 8th edn. Tübingen. Hermann, U. 1996. Die (NEUE) deutsche Rechtschreibung. Revised by L. Götze with

an introduction by K. Heller. Gütersloh. Keller, R. E. 1978. The German Language. London. Lamprecht, A. 1977. Grammatik der englischen Sprache. 5th edn. Berlin. Quirk, R. et al. 1985. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language.

London/New York.

Schanen, F. and J.-P. Confais. 1986. Grammaire de Vallemand. Formes et fonctions. Paris.

Schwitalla, J. 1997. Gesprochenes Deutsch. Eine Einfuhrung. Berlin. Sommerfeldt, K.-E. (ed.). 1988. Entwicklungstendenzen in der deutschen

Gegenwartssprache. Tübingen. Stevenson, P. 1997. The German-speaking World. A Practical Introduction to

Sociolinguistic Issues. London/New York. Terrell, P. et al. (eds.). 1999. Collins German-English English-German Dictionary.

4th edn. Glasgow. Wahrig, G. 2000. Deutsches Wörterbuch. 2nd edn. Gütersloh. West, J. 1992-4. Progressive Grammar of German. 6 vols. Dublin. Zifonun, G. et al. 1997. Grammatik der Deutschen Sprache. 3 vols. Berlin/New

York.

Specific references

Where the books listed above give more information than could be encompassed in this book, or where I have made particular use of their material or presentation, they are listed below in abbreviated form, giving the author and the year of publication. Specialized works relevant to individual sections are also listed below.

1.3 Examples of variation: pronunciation

This section was prepared with reference to C. Hall, Modern German Pronunciation. An Introduction for Speakers of English (Manchester/New York, 1992) and the following standard works of reference: Duden, Band 6: Aussprachewörterbuch, 3rd edn (Mannheim, etc., 1990) and T. Siebs, Reine und gemäßigte Hochlautung mit Aussprachewörterbuch, 19th edn, revised by H. de Boor, H. Moser and C. Winkler (Berlin, 1969). The latter both give details on acceptable (and unacceptable) colloquial and regional usage as well as on the received standard pronunciation of German.

1.5.1 Regional variation in vocabulary

The major sources for the material in this section were: J. Eichhoff, Wortatlas der deutschen Umgangssprachen, vols. 1-2 (Bern/Munich, 1977-8), vols. 3-4 (Munich, 1998-2000) and W. Seibicke, Wie sagt man anderswo? Landschaftliche Unterschiede im deutschen Wortgebrauch (Mannheim, 1972).

1.5.2 Austrian and Swiss words

This section was compiled with assistance from the following works, which give much more detail on Austrian and Swiss lexical peculiarities: J. Ebner, Wie sagt man in Osterreich? Wörterbuch der österreichischen Besonderheiten, 2nd edn (Mannheim, etc., 1980) and K. Meyer, Wie sagt man in der Schweiz? Wörterbuch der schweizerischen Besonderheiten (Mannheim, etc., 1989).

2.1 Problems of meaning

Much more detail on English-German lexical correspondences is to be found in Beaton (1996) and Farrell (1977), to which this section is indebted at many points, and I also consulted E. Leisi, Der Wortinhalt. Seine Struktur im Deutschen und Englischen^ 5th edn (Heidelberg, 1975), which is still unequalled as a comparative study of the vocabulary of the two languages. Much of the new and revised material in this section is based on the work undertaken in the preparation of Durrell (2000), which contains more information on word-fields in German.

2.3 Word formation

For this section the following standard textbooks provided much information: L. M Eichinger, Deutsche Wortbildung. Eine Einfiihrung (Tübingen, 1999), W. Fleischer and I. Barz, Wortbildung der deutschen Gegenwartssprache, 2nd rev. edn (Tübingen, 1995) and B. Naumann, Einfiihrung in die Wortbildungslehre des Deutschen, 3rd edn (Tübingen, 2000).

2.5 Prepositions

The compilation of this section was particularly assisted by reference to Lamprecht (1977), pp. 309-31, W. Schmitz, Der Gebrauch der deutschen Präpositionen, 9th edn (Munich, 1981) and J. Schröder, Lexikon deutscher Präpositionen, 2nd edn (Leipzig, 1990).

2.6 Modal particles

This section has benefited greatly from the account of the German particles in G. Helbig and A. Helbig, Deutsche Partikeln - Richtig gebraucht? (Leipzig, etc., 1995) and H. Weydt et al., Kleine deutsche Partikellehre (Stuttgart, 1983).

3.1 Nouns: genders and plurals

The statistics in 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 are taken from G. Augst, Untersuchungen zum Morpheminventar der deutschen Gegenwartssprache (Tübingen, 1975), pp. 5-70.

4.1 Verbs and cases

Duden (1998), pp. 650-81, and Helbig and Schenkel (1991) give extensive surveys of verb government and sentence patterns in German and were of considerable assistance in the compilation of this chapter.

4.3.2 Past and perfect

K. Dieling and F. Kempter, Die Tempora, 2nd edn (Leipzig, 1989) and R. Thieroff, Das finite Verb im Deutschen. Tempus - Modus - Distanz (Tübingen, 1992) give good accounts of tense usage in modern German. The use of the past and perfect tenses is comprehensively documented in S. Latzel, Die deutschen Tempora Perfekt und Präteritum (Munich, 1977).

4.4 The passive

This section draws in particular on the account of German passive constructions in Zifonun et al. (1997), pp. 1788-858.

4.5 The subjunctive

This account of the subjunctive in modern German is based in large measure on the survey by K.-H. Bausch, Modalität und Konjunktivgebrauch in der gesprochenen deutschen Standardsprache, Teil I

(Munich, 1979). I am most grateful to Dr Bausch for allowing me to consult the unpublished second part of his work. S. Jäger, Empfehlungen zum Gebrauch des Konjunktivs (Düsseldorf, 1970) can still be recommended as a very sane survey of the uses of the subjunctive in modern German.

4.6 The modal auxiliaries

The following works were particularly valuable in the compilation of this section: G. Diewald, Die Modalverben im Deutschen. Grammatikalisierung und Polyfunktionalität (Tübingen, 1999), Lamprecht (1977), pp. 163-75, and F. R. Palmer, Modality and the English Modais (London, 1979).

5.1 Word order

This explanation of German word order draws in particular on the accounts in Engel (1991), pp. 303^4, Heidolph et al. (1981), pp. 702-64; U. Hoberg, Die Wortstellung in der geschriebenen deutschen Gegenwartssprache (Munich, 1981), H. W. Kirkwood, 'Aspects of Word Order and its Communicative Function in English and German', Journal of Linguistics 5 (1969), pp. 85-106, and Zifonun et al. (1997), pp. 1495-680.

5.2 Spelling and punctuation

I am grateful to my colleague Dr Sally Johnson of Lancaster University, and to colleagues at the Institut für Deutsche Sprache for information about the controversies surrounding the introduction of the revised orthography. G. Äugst et al., Zur Neuregelung der Deutschen Orthographie. Begründung und Kritik (Tübingen, 1997) contains a useful selection of critical articles, although the debate has subsequently progressed further. Hermann (1996) includes full details on the new rules, and the account here is based on this.

In addition, occasional examples and data were drawn from many sources, in particular from the Mannheim corpus of modern spoken and written German at the Institut fur Deutsche Sprache, from the works of Alfred Andersch, Thomas Bernhard, Heinrich Boll, Friedrich Dürrenmatt, Max Frisch, Max von der Grün, Herrmann Kant, Siegfried Lenz, Bernhard Schlink, Erwin Strittmatter, Patrick Süskind

and from the following newspapers and periodicals: Bild, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, Frankfurter Rundschau, Neues Deutschland, Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Die Presse, Der Spiegel, Süddeutsche Zeitung, Die Zeit. In order not to overburden the text unnecessarily, specific sources for such occasional data are only given where the source is particularly relevant or in the case of longer extracts.

Glossary of linguistic terms

In order to talk about language we need to use some special terms. Although I have tried in this book not to introduce a large number of technical terms, some are necessary both for the sake of clarity and to avoid lengthy and tedious repetitions. As far as possible, I have kept to the more usual grammatical terms. Some, such as 'noun', 'verb' and 'adjective', need no explanation, but the less familiar ones commonly used for German and English are explained below. Not all of them are found in this book, but are included to help the reader consult other works. For similar reasons German equivalents are given where they exist. Terms used in these definitions which are themselves explained in the glossary have been given an asterisk.

Ablaut The vowel changes in the *past tense and *past participle of German * strong verbs, e.g. singen, sang, gesungen, see 3.3.1.

accusative {der Akkusativ) see case. adverbial {die Adverbiale) A word or phrase used to indicate, for instance, how, where, why or when something happens or is done, e.g. heute, aus diesem Grunde, in der Stadt, see 5.1.5.

apposition {die Apposition) A descriptive phrase added to a noun phrase without any connecting preposition, e.g. Kaiser Wilhelm II, der letzte deutsche Kaiser, starb im Exil in Holland.

article {der Artikel) *Determiners which give a noun specific reference. German has a 'definite' article {der, die, das, etc.) and an 'indefinite' article {ein, eine, einem, etc.), see 3.4.

assimilation {die Assimilation) The pronunciation of a particular sound may be affected by ('assimilated to') neighbouring sounds, e.g. in colloquial German gebm, er hap mir (for geben, er hat mir).

Ausklammerung Excluding a phrase from the verbal "bracket, i.e. putting it after the *past participle, * separable prefix, etc. which is usually last in the clause, e.g. Ich rufe an aus London, see 5.1.6.

auxiliary verb {das Hilfsverb) A verb used with another verb to make tenses, the passive voice, etc. The main German auxiliaries are haben, sein, werden and the * modal auxiliaries dürfen, müssen, etc., see 4.6.

(verbal) bracket (die Klammer) The characteristic sentence construction of German whereby most elements of the sentence (or clause) are enclosed between the two parts of the verb, e.g. Ich habe sie gestern in Ulm gesehen, see 5.1.1.

case (der Fall) The indication of the role played by a noun in the sentence by * inflection, i.e. by changing its form or the form of the *determiners or adjectives used with it. German has four cases: the nominative (mainly for the *subject of the verb), the accusative (mainly for the * direct object), the dative (mainly for the *indirect object) and the genitive (mainly to show possession or to link nouns together), see 3.2,4.1 and 4.2.

cleft sentence A typically English construction, little used in German, by which part of the sentence is emphasized by placing it at the beginning in a clause introduced by it, e.g. It was yesterday that she came, see 5.1.4.

(adjective) comparison (die Steigerung) The relative qualities of persons or things may be compared by using the comparative or superlative 'degree' of adjectives, usually formed in German by the suffixes -er and -(e)st respectively, e.g. schnell - schneller (comparative degree) - (der) schnellste (superlative degree),

complement (die Ergänzung) A part of the sentence which is closely linked to the verb and 'completes' its meaning in some way, e.g. the *direct and *indirect objects, *prepositional objects, direction phrases with verbs of motion, etc., see 5.1.5.

compound (die Zusammensetzung) A word formed by joining two (or more) words together, e.g. das Rathaus, die Aktiengesellschaft, brustschwimmen.

conditional A conditional sentence (der Konditionalsatz) is one which contains or implies a condition. In German, they often contain the conjunctions wenn or falls and the verb is often in the past or pluperfect *subjunctive (Konjunktiv //, see 4.5.4), e.g. Wenn ich das Fenster aufmachte, würden wir alle frieren. The würde form of Konjunktiv II is often called 'the conditional tense' in English grammars of German,

conjugation (die Konjugation) see inflection, conjunction (die Konjunktion) A word used to join clauses

together, e.g. und, aber, wenn, nachdem. dative (der Dativ) see case, declension (die Deklination) see inflection, demonstrative (das Demonstrative) A word used to point to

something specific, e.g. English this, that, German dieser, jener. Demonstratives can appear as *determiners or pronouns, see 3.5.1.

derivation (die Wortbildung) Forming a word on the basis of another, usually with the help of ^prefixes and/or * suffixes, e.g. verbessern ('derived' from besser), Bildung ('derived' from bilden), see 2.3.

determiner (das Artikelwort, das Determinativ) One of a small group of function words used at the beginning of a noun phrase. They include the definite and indefinite * articles, demonstrative adjectives, possessive adjectives (mein, sein, etc.), the indefinites (einige, jeder, mancher,; etc.), and so on; see 3.4 and 3.5. With a few exceptions, only one determiner can be used in a single noun phrase, see 3.4.3.

dialect (der Dialekt, die Mundart) A language * variety restricted to a particular geographical area, see 1.2. In the German speech area they are often strikingly different from * Hochdeutsch in phonetics and grammar. Compare Zürich German Er isch i mys Huus choo, or Westphalian (Münster) He is in mien Huus kuemmen for standard German Er ist in mein Haus gekommen.

direct object (das direkte Objekt) The person or thing directly affected by the action of the verb. In German it is in the accusative case, e.g. Er stellte den Stuhl in die Ecke.

doublet (die Dublette, die Formvariante) An alternative form of the same word, e.g. benutzen/benützen, see 2.2.4.

elision (die Elision) The omission of a sound, as characteristically occurs in rapid colloquial speech. For example, in a word like Hauptbahnhof the t is often 'elided5 in spoken German so that it sounds like Haupbahnhof.

ellipsis (die Ellipse) Omitting words, typically in colloquial speech where their meaning can be deduced from the context. In spoken German, for instance, we often find ellipsis of pronouns, e.g. Geht nicht for Das geht nicht, or Komm gleich for Ich komme gleich.

extended epithet (das erweiterte Attribut) An adjective, particularly a *participle, which is expanded into a clause-like construction, e.g. die in dem Park spielenden Kinder. Such constructions are characteristic of formal written German,

figurative meaning (die übertragene Bedeutung) A word may have an 'extended' or 'figurative' meaning besides its 'literal' meaning. For example, blass, besides its literal meaning 'pale', can have a figurative sense 'vague, faint', e.g. eine blasse Ahnung, 'a vague suspicion',

filler A conventionalized word or phrase used in conversation to give the speaker time to think or express a reaction, e.g. selbstverständlich, das gibt's doch gar nicht.

finite verb (das finite Verb) A verb form used with a subject and agreeing with it through the ending, e.g. er machte, ihr kommt an, er hat es gesagt. Finite forms of the verb are distinguished in this way from the 'non-finite' forms, i.e. the *participles and the "infinitive.

gender (das Genus) A grammatical classification system of nouns indicated in German by the different forms of the * determiners used with a particular noun, e.g. der Tisch, die Luft,

das Heft. German has three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter, see 3.1.

genitive {der Genitiv) see case. government {die Rektion) The requirement that a particular verb or preposition should be followed by a noun phrase in a particular case. Thus, in German, we say that ohne 'governs' a noun phrase in the accusative and helfen 'governs' a noun phrase in the dative.

Hochdeutsch The codified, official *variety of German as used in all the German-speaking countries, see 1.2.

idiom {die Redewendung) A set phrase with a special meaning which cannot be understood by taking the words individually, e.g. schwer auf Draht ('on the ball'), see 2.4.

imperative mood {der Imperativ) The form of the verb used to give commands, e.g. Bleib da! Stellen Sie sich das vor!

imperfect tense see past tense. indicative mood {der Indikativ) The form of the verb used to

make statements, ask questions, etc., e.g. Sie kam aus dem Haus, Bringen Sie es mir morgen?

indirect object {das indirekte Objekt) A verb Complement which typically refers to a person indirectly affected by the action of the verb in some way, for instance by receiving the direct object, e.g. Ich gab ihrem Bruder das Geld. In German the indirect object is in the dative case, whilst in English it either precedes the direct object or is in a phrase introduced by to, e.g. / gave her brother the money or I gave the money to her brother.

indirect speech {die indirekte Rede) Also called 'reported speech': a construction in which what someone said is incorporated into our own sentence rather than quoted directly. Compare 'direct speech' Er sagte: „Ich bin krank" with 'indirect speech' Er sagte, dass er krank sei, see 4.5.3.

infinitive {der Infinitiv) The base form of a verb (as typically listed in dictionaries). In German it ends in -en or -n, e.g. schlagen, ziehen, verhandeln. When used with another verb it is usually preceded by zu in the so-called 'infinitive clause' {der Infinitivsatz), e.g. Er hat mir empfohlen, den Wagen in die Werkstatt zu bringen.

inflection {die Flexion) Changing the form of a word to show different grammatical categories, e.g. for case and plural with nouns, or tense, mood, person and number with verbs. Traditionally the 'inflection' of nouns and adjectives is referred to as 'declension', the 'inflection' of verbs as 'conjugation',

inseparable verb {das untrennbare Verb) A prefixed verb whose * prefix is not stressed and remains attached to the verb in all types of sentence construction. The main inseparable verb prefixes of German are: be-, emp-, ent-, er-, ge-, ver- and zer-y see 2.3.4.

interjection (die Interjektion) A part of speech such as ah! oh! ach! etc. expressing a reaction or response,

intransitive verb (das intransitive Verb) A verb which does not govern a "direct object in the accusative case, e.g. bleiben, fallen, see 4.1.

inversion (die Inversion) We speak of 'inversion' or 'inverted word order' in German if the verb precedes the subject, for instance in a question, or in a statement where something other than the subject occupies the initial position, e.g. Gestern habe ich ihn nicht gesehen, see 5.1.

Konjunktiv see subjunctive. modal auxiliary verb (das Modalverb) In German, the six

verbs dürfen, können, mögen, müssen, sollen and wollen are known as 'modal auxiliary verbs'. They are used to express possibility, permission, obligation, etc., see 4.6.

modal particle (die Modalpartikel) Short words such as aber, auch, doch, ja, nur, etc. which are very characteristic of spoken German and express the speaker's attitude to what is being said, see 2.6.

nominative (der Nominativ) see case, number (der Numerus) A grammatical category for indicating

the difference between singular and plural. The difference between Haus and Häuser or between ich komme and wir kommen is one of'number',

object (das Objekt) see direct object and indirect object, participle (das Partizip) see past participle and present participle.

partitive (der Partitiv) An expression of measurement or quantity, e.g. ein Stück Brot, zwei Flaschen Wein, see 4.2.4.

passive voice (das Passiv) A verb form using the "auxiliary verbs werden or sein with the *past participle. The subject of the verb in the passive voice is normally the "direct object of the equivalent active construction, e.g. active: Sie lobte mich ~ passive: Ich wurde (von ihr) gelobt, see 4.4.

past participle (das zweite Partizip) A non-finite verb form used as an adjective or with an "auxiliary verb to form the "perfect tense or the "passive, e.g. gemacht, gestanden, zerbrochen.

past tense (das Präteritum) A simple tense (i.e. one formed without an "auxiliary verb) mainly used to relate events which occurred before the present moment, e.g. es machte, es brach, es zerfiel, see 4.3.2. This tense is sometimes called the 'imperfect tense' in English grammars of German, but this is a misleading term which is best avoided,

perfect tense (das Perfekt) A tense formed with the present tense of the "auxiliary verbs haben or sein and the "past participle, e.g. Ich habe gegessen, Sie ist angekommen. It is used to relate past

events to the moment of speaking and, especially in spoken German, to report past events, see 4.3.2.

person (die Person) A grammatical category of the verb by which we show the difference between the person(s) speaking ('first' person, i.e. ich, wir), the person(s) spoken to ('second' person, i.e. du, ihr,; Sie) and other person(s) or thing(s) spoken about ('third' person, i.e. er, sie, es).

personal pronoun (das Personalpronomen) Simple words referring to persons or things such as ich, du, ihm.

phrasal verb (das Funktionsverbgefiige) A combination of a noun derived from a verb and a common verb such as bringen, kommen or nehmen, e.g. etrv zum Abschluss bringen ('to finish sth'), in Betracht kommen ('to be considered'),

pluperfect tense (das Plusquamperfekt) A tense formed with the *past tense of the *auxiliaries haben or sein and the *past participle, e.g. Ich hatte geschlafen, Ich war gegangen.

prefix (das Präfix) An element added to the beginning of a word or root, e.g. Anfall, gestanden, unglaublich.

prepositional adverb (das Präpositionaladverb) Words formed by the combination of da(r)~ with a preposition, e.g. dabei, darin, damit, see 4.1.5.

prepositional object (das Präpositionalobjekt) A * complement of the verb, linked to it by means of a preposition, e.g. Ich warte auf dich, Er glaubt an ein Wunder, see 4.1.4.

present participle (das erste Partizip) A non-finite verb form made by suffixing -d to the form of the *infinitive, e.g. spielend, verbessernd. Unlike the corresponding English ing-form (e.g. playing), the German present participle is mainly used as an adjective, see 5.3.

principal parts (die Stammformen des Verbs) The three main inflectional forms of each verb, i.e. the form of the "Infinitive, the *past tense (first person singular) and the *past participle, e.g. machen - machte - gemacht', sinken - sank - gesunken, see 3.3.

progressive tenses In English, the tenses formed with the *auxiliary verb to be and the ing-form of the verb, e.g. She is going, We shall be sailing. There are no direct equivalents to these in German.

reflexive verb (das reflexive Verb) A verb used in combination with the reflexive pronoun, i.e. sich in the third person and the pronoun corresponding to the subject in the first and second persons, e.g. sich verabreden.

register (die Textsorte) A language * variety determined by use and influenced by such factors as medium (i.e. speech or writing), subject matter and situation, see 1.1.

relative pronoun (das Relativpronomen) A word which introduces a subordinate clause describing a noun, for instance

English who,, which, that, German der, die, das, etc., e.g. Die Frau, Hut trägt, kenne ich nicht, see 3.5.2.

rhetorical question (dfe rhetorische Frage) A question which is really a statement, as the answer is assumed to be obvious, e.g.

kennt ihn nicht? Schachtelsatz A German sentence construction where a number of clauses are contained within each other, e.g. Der Autor, der ein Buch, das dieses Problem behandelt, geschrieben hat, hat in der Nazizeit sehr gelitten. As such sentences can be confusing, they tend to be avoided in modern German, see 5.1.6.

semantic (semantisch) Having to do with meaning, separable verb (das trennbare Verb) A verb with a stressed

"prefix which is detached from the verb in some sentence types (e.g. in statements) and forms the second part of the verbal "bracket, e.g. ankommen: Wir kommen heute um fünf Uhr an, see 2.3.5.

stress (die Betonung) In all words of more than one syllable in English and German, one syllable, known as the 'stressed' syllable, is pronounced with more force than the others. This is indicated in this book by the symbol1 before the stressed syllable, e.g. Beltonung, 'Anfang,, lebendig.

strong verb (das starke Verb) A verb whose "principal parts are made by altering the vowel (i.e. by * Ablaut) and which has the suffix -en in the "past participle, e.g. schwimmen - schwamm -geschwommen, see 3.3.

subject (das Subjekt) The noun or pronoun (in the nominative case) which determines the ending of the verb, i.e. with which the verb 'agrees' in "person and "number. In statements in the active voice the subject is typically the person or thing performing an action, e.g. Der Stein fiel mir aufden Kopf.

subjunctive mood (der Konjunktiv) A verb category mainly used in German to show "indirect speech or in "conditional sentences, see 4.5.

subordinate clause (der Nebensatz) Also called 'dependent clause'. A clause, usually introduced by a "conjunction, which functions as part of another clause (e.g. as subject, object, adjective, adverbial) on which it depends. In German subordinate clauses the "finite verb is typically the second part of the verbal "bracket, e.g. Die Frau, die sehr klein war,; konnte es nicht erreichen (the subordinate clause has the function of an adjective qualifying Frau); Als er ankam, waren ihre Brüder schon fort (the subordinate clause plays the role of an "adverbial of time),

suffix (das Suffix) An element added to the end of a word or root, e.g. Bedeutung, gelblich, machte. A grammatical suffix, as in machte, is often termed an 'ending',

superlative (der Superlativ) see comparison.

tag question In English, the short questions with an auxiliary verb at the end of the sentence, e.g. He's coming, isn't he?

topic (das Thema) Also called 'theme'. The first stressed element in a sentence typically refers to something 'given' (having been mentioned previously) or 'known' to both speaker and listener. This is the 'topic' of the sentence and some 'new' or 'unknown' information (known as the 'comment' or 'rheme') is given about it. In German main clause statements the topic typically occurs in first position before the "finite verb, see 5.1. Thus the sentence Dieses Buch hat sie in Ulm gekauft starts with an element (dieses Buch) which has just been referred to (the 'topic'), and says something about it.

transitive verb (das transitive Verb) A verb "governing a "direct object (in the accusative case), e.g. schlagen, verbessern, see 4.1.

Umgangssprache The "register of everyday speech in modern German, often coloured with regionalisms, see 1.1 and 1.2.

variant (die Variante) A word, sound or grammatical form typical of a particular "variety, see chapter 1.

variety (die Varietät) A particular form of language with differences characteristic of a particular region, social group, speech situation or medium, etc. * Hochdeutsch, "dialects, *Umgangssprache, "registers are all 'varieties' of German, see chapter 1.

valency/valence (die Valenz) A term often used to refer to the types of "complement found with a particular verb or the kinds of object it "governs, see 4.1.

verbal noun (das Verbalsubstantiv) A noun formed from a verb, either the "infinitive used as a noun, e.g. das Kommen, or some other form of "derivation, e.g. die Bedeutung (from bedeuten) or der Bruch (from brechen).

weak masculine noun (das schwache Maskulinum) A masculine noun which forms its genitive case with the ending -en, e.g. des Menschen, des Franzosen, see 3.2.1.

weak verb (das schwache Verb) A verb which forms its "past tense and "past participle with the ending -t, e.g. machen -machte - gemacht, see 3.3.

Abbreviations and conventions

acc accusative case adj adjective AU Austrian usage, see 1.2.3 CH Swiss usage, see 1.2.3 conj conjunction dat dative case demon demonstrative Engl English esp especially etw etwas fem feminine gender Fr French fut future tense gen genitive case Ger German intr intransitive verb id jemand jdn jemanden jdm jemandem jds jemandes masc masculine gender N North German, see 1.2.3 NE Northeast German, see 1.2.3 NW Northwest German, see 1.2.3 neut neuter gender nom nominative case occ occasionally perf perfect tense pi plural pluperf pluperfect tense prep preposition pres present tense pron pronounced; pronoun R1 spoken colloquial register, see 1.1.5 Rl* vulgar, see 1.1.5 R2 neutral register, see 1.1.5 R3 formal written register, see 1.1.5 R3a literary register, see 1.1.5

R3b non-literary written register, see 1.1.5 S South German, see 1.2.3 sb somebody SE Southeast German, see 1.2.3 sing singular sth something subj subject SW Southwest German, see 1.2.3 tr transitive verb / or

Where necessary, a stressed syllable is indicated by 1 before the syllable, e.g. der Maf or, das Kontinent, übersetzen,'umziehen.

Where appropriate the plural of a noun is indicated in brackets after the noun, e.g. der Vater ( "), die Frau (-en), der Lehrer (-), der Stuhl ( "e).

If the genitive singular of a noun does not end in ~(e)s it is given with the plural in the following way (see 3.2): der Bube (-n-n), der Mensch (-en, -en), der Name (-ns, n).

Adjectives used as nouns (see 3.4.4) are indicated in the following way: der Beamte(r), der Fremde(r), dasAußere(s).

1 Varieties of language

German is spoken as a native language by about 100 million people in at least fifteen European countries. This constitutes by far the largest speech community in Western and Central Europe. It is an official state language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Luxembourg. It has recognized regional status in areas of Belgium, Denmark, Italy and Romania and, even after the expulsion and resettlement of large numbers of German speakers after the Second World War, it still accounts for sizeable long-established minorities in France, Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Russia. It also has a vast range in terms of possible uses: for everyday conversation, formal speech, technical writing, journalism, literature (in the widest sense), and so on.

Given this broad geographic spread and the number of uses to which it is put, it is quite natural that it is subject to considerable variation. Different words, grammatical constructions and sentence types are used depending on who is speaking or writing, to whom, on what topic, in what circumstances, in what region. Most people can choose to speak formally or informally as they feel appropriate in a given situation. Students, for instance, express themselves in very different ways when discussing politics or sport with friends in a cafe, talking to their parents or a lecturer, writing a seminar paper or a letter of application for a job. The spoken language also differs markedly from Berlin to Cologne, Munich, Zürich or Vienna. There can be substantial differences between the written German of a modern novel, a serious newspaper, a history book and a travel guide. All these different forms are varieties of German, and we can identify those characteristic features, the variants, which go to make up each variety.

In the process of learning their own language native speakers develop an awareness of the variants available to them and a degree of competence in using those which are appropriate to a given situation. They also develop a keen sensitivity towards such variation, so that when they hear or read a particular variant in an inappropriate context it will sound out of place, and possibly comical, affected, pompous, slipshod - or even rude. Clearly, this presents problems, and potential traps, for foreign learners. In order to communicate effectively in German they have to go through a much more conscious process of acquiring the ability to recognize and use those forms which are right for each particular situation. This is not always straightforward because

there are no hard and fast rules - it is not a matter of grammar - and the language is most often presented to foreign learners, certainly in the early stages, in a uniform variety which can be rather artificial and removed from actual everyday usage. Initial confrontation with German as it is used in day-to-day situations, with all its variation, can be confusing or frustrating - for example when learners find that laboriously learnt grammatical constructions amuse native speakers if they are used in everyday conversation, or when they are told that a particular word or expression is 'not used here', possibly with the implication that it is not very good German. But developing competence in handling variation appropriately is an essential aspect of mastering the language fully, as much for the foreign learner as for the native speaker.

Within the scope of this book it would be impossible to give a detailed account of all the varieties of modern German. They are in any case not clearly defined; distinctions between individual varieties are not clear-cut and each one tends to shade into the next. This book identifies some of the most frequent variants which native speakers have at their command and which the advanced foreign learner is most likely to encounter. This is done by explaining in detail the major factors which affect choice between variants. These factors can be usefully divided into two categories: those relating to the uses which the language serves and those relating to the users of the language, in particular to the social groups to which they belong.

NOTE: More extensive information on variation in German can be found in Barbour & Stevenson (1990), Clyne (1995) and Stevenson (1997). The account here draws on these works and has also benefited from the analysis of register in French in R. E. Batchelor and M. H. Offord, Using French, 3rd edn (Cambridge 2000), on which the numbering in 1.1.5 is based.

1.1 Varieties according to use: register

The forms used by native speakers are influenced by factors like subject matter (i.e. what they are talking about), medium (i.e. are they speaking or writing?) and situation (i.e. where they are saying it and who they are talking to). Variation of this kind, which depends on the use to which the language is being put, is commonly known as register variation. A register is a type, or stylistic level of language (e.g. colloquial, informal, formal, technical, etc.), which is influenced by factors of this kind.

1.1.1 Medium

The first crucial distinction affecting register is that between spoken and written language. When we are writing we have more time to consider what we are saying and how we are saying it, to be precise in expression, and to formulate more carefully than in the flow of speech. As a result written language tends to be more elaborate and complex than spoken language. And because there is no direct contact with the person being addressed, more detailed explanation and more formal coherence are necessary than, for example, in a conversation with a close friend, when we can leave words out, break sentences off and be less precise in our use of words and still be perfectly well understood. As a result, written language is structured more formally and precisely and exhibits a greater degree of organization in every aspect. It has a more extensive vocabulary, with distinctions of meaning which are often ignored in the spoken language. There are grammatical forms, such as, in German, the present subjunctive, the genitive case and the past tense, which are used more sparingly (if at all) in everyday spoken German than in writing. Sentences tend to be longer, with a more complex structure. Regionalisms are very limited and are largely restricted to a few items of vocabulary, principally those characteristic of the different German-speaking countries.

Spoken German, on the other hand, is characterized in general by considerable deviation from the formal norms of sentence construction which are adhered to in writing. Sentences are often incomplete (often just nouns or phrases without a verb), there are many broken or elliptical constructions, repetitions and phrases added or inserted as afterthoughts without linking them properly to the rest of the sentence. There are fewer subordinate clauses, and main-clause constructions are the rule. Filler words, like the modal particles (aber, doch, denn, etc., see 2.6), hesitation markers (öh, mhm, etc.), interjections and comment clauses (sehen Sie, weißt du, etc.), are very common. Regionalisms are almost inevitably present to some degree, and these become more marked the further south one goes (see 1.2.2).

Despite the apparent paradox, not all writing is in the 'written' register as described above, and not all speech is in the 'spoken' register. We can imitate natural speech in writing, and many modern popular novelists and the popular press use a variety which is close to it. However, in practice this is restricted to certain characteristic words and expressions, and possibly some phonetic contractions such as sehense for sehen Sie. The lax sentence constructions which are typical of spontaneous informal speech (see the examples in 1.4.2) are rarely found in any form of writing, not least because they are conventionally felt to be 'incorrect'. Similarly, characteristic written forms may be spoken, often in the most formal situations, e.g. a sermon, a public lecture, a parliamentary speech or a news broadcast; as often as not

these are given from a prepared text. It is also broadly true that written German has been moving closer to speech in many ways over the last fifty years. This is a development which is typical of English and other languages, too, and it is generally seen as a result of the increasing importance of the spoken medium in the modern world, especially in radio and television. In German, though, it is also probably due in part to the more widespread use of standard German (Hochdeutsch), rather than the dialects, in the everyday speech of most German speakers (see 1.2.2).

1.1.2 Subject matter

What is being talked or written about can influence the way it is expressed. A discussion of politics calls for a whole range of vocabulary and forms which would be inappropriate in other areas. Every activity and field of study has its own special terminology and expressions, and these are used irrespective of situation: the same characteristic forms may be used by a politician in a television interview, in a newspaper article or between friends. But this is not always so: an electric light bulb is, in the everyday spoken register of German, die (Glüh)birne, but in the specialist register of electricians it is die (Glüh)lampe. Similarly, doctors regularly use different terms for diseases or conditions when talking to other doctors from those they use to their patients. Although subject matter most obviously influences the choice of vocabulary, it is important to realize that, in modern German, it also affects grammar and sentence construction. Much non-literary writing in German favours forms and constructions which are found less often, for instance, in a modern novel. The passage in 1.6.4 gives many characteristic examples of these. Thus, there are forms which are generally regarded as more appropriate to talk or (especially) write about a particular range of subject matter.

1.1.3 Situation

The term situation refers to the whole context in which the language is being used - especially in speech, as there is naturally little inherent variation in written situations. With the important exception of letter-writing, which is a special case, a writer does not have a personal relationship to the reader. As a consequence, the most formal register variants are typically selected in writing, as was shown in 1.1.1. On the other hand, situation is the most important factor underlying register variation in speech, and it appears typically in the degree of formality in the words, expressions and constructions used.

This variation depends, first, on the context in which people are speaking. Some contexts are inherently more structured and formal

than others and may be taken as requiring a correspondingly high register level. Some typical cases were mentioned at the end of 1.1.2, but colleagues in an office, for example, often employ a greater degree of formality in a meeting with set procedures than they would in the normal course of everyday business. However, the notion of'speech situation' is usually defined more widely, to include the relationship between the people talking, and this plays a crucial part in the selection of a particular register.

In general, the use of more formal language when we speak is considered a mark of deference to the person addressed, and this forms part of social conventions of politeness. Conversely, the use of an inappropriately casual form may be interpreted as showing a lack of respect. Most of the factors which affect the choice of register are linked to norms of social behaviour in this way. This is certainly the case with gender differences. For example, many German men feel it appropriate to adopt a more formal mode of speech when addressing a woman than a man. Although this is less true than it was a hundred years ago, it is by no means unusual, particularly in the higher social classes, when the man in question does not know the woman personally, or among older people or in certain areas, like in Austria. More generally, though, there are numerous forms (especially vulgarisms such as Arschloch, Scheiße, vögeln, see 1.1.5) which are avoided by many Germans in mixed company, although they can be used fairly freely in exclusively male or female gatherings.

The role of age is similar. It is still taken as a mark of respect to use a more formal register when speaking to people older than oneself. This is perhaps more widely expected by adults from children and young people in the German-speaking countries than is the case in Britain or the USA, and failure to observe these conventions may be resented. On the other hand, a different form of speech, with simpler grammar and special words, is often used towards young (especially pre-school age) children. In general, too, a less formal tone is adopted towards all children up to the age of fourteen or so, with the universal use of du towards them, although this may be determined less by their age per se than by their social status as dependants.

In conversations between adults, the relative social status of the participants is often the crucial factor in setting the register level. People in a subordinate social situation, such as a shopkeeper to a customer, an employee to a boss, a student to a professor, often signal this more deferential relationship by the use of a more formal speech style than is normal between equals. Failure to do so may indeed have serious social consequences, e.g. Ich kaufe nicht mehr bei Meyer, der redet einen so grob an, as with the transgression of any other social conventions.

How someone wishes to be seen by the person he or she is addressing is also relevant here. People in a subordinate position, like those just mentioned, sometimes express themselves in a particular manner in

order to confirm their position to the person they are speaking to. Alternatively, by using different, more casual forms, they may assert a measure of equality, like an employee to a boss in the course of an industrial dispute. In this way, we can adopt roles and present ourselves in a particular manner through our speech. It has been noticed that some German politicians choose an especially earthy or racy casual register, very marked by regionalisms, when talking to rural constituents in order to appeal to them as equals. This is likely to be very different from the one they habitually use in the Bundestag. Some people signal their contempt for all social conventions by ignoring linguistic ones as well. They deliberately use the least formal register to everybody, including those who might be seen as their superiors. This attitude was particularly noticeable after 1968 among radical student groups in West Germany, and it may still be encountered. In general, though, the use of a less formal register most often marks a measure of equality and intimacy with the person addressed. One clear indicator of this in German is the switch from Sie to du.

1.1.4 Register and regionalism

There is a strong correlation between these varieties which depend on variations in usage and varieties which depend on variation in the users, which are explained in 1.2. As a rule, the extent of regionalisms in a German native speaker's speech increases in proportion to the degree of informality in the register. The most formal register, especially when written, is fairly uniform over the whole of the German speech area, with regional variation limited to a few items of vocabulary. The casual register of everyday speech, on the other hand, is widely characterized by regionalisms in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary.

1.1.5 Indicating register

There are no absolute, clear-cut divisions between different registers of German. However, for the practical purposes of giving information about register in this book it is useful to divide up the scale of register into three main types. We can describe these roughly as 'informal colloquial', 'neutral' and 'formal written', although the latter needs to be subdivided into 'literary' and 'non-literary'. In the rest of the book words and forms whose use is typically restricted to one of these registers are marked by using the labels Rl, R2 and R3 (if necessary split into R3a and R3b) to indicate these restrictions in register-dependent usage:

Rl: The typical register of everyday colloquial speech, usually referred to as Umgangssprache or Alltagssprache in German. It is used between equals in informal situations to discuss everyday topics, and it

is the natural mode of speech for most native speakers of German, irrespective of the degree of education. Articulation is rather careless, and unstressed syllables and words tend to be reduced or elided. Some grammatical forms, like the genitive case or the present subjunctive, are not found in this register, and there is some simplification in inflectional forms, as with the -en ending of weak masculine nouns, which is often dropped in this register (e.g. dem Polizist rather than dem Polizisten). Sentence construction is typically rather loose compared with the formal structures of writing. In spontaneous speech we hesitate, correct ourselves, have afterthoughts, repeat ourselves and break off sentences to go off along another track. Sentences are very often incomplete because much is understood by implication; we can rely on the person we are talking to to supply what is not said. In matters of vocabulary there is a fondness for exaggeration, and many words, like kriegen or klappen, are effectively restricted to this register because they are considered too 'casual' or 'colloquial' for writing. There may also be a lack of precision in the vocabulary, with all-purpose words being used when the speaker cannot think of an exact term. Informal speech usually has substantial regional colouring. In its characteristic form it is rarely written, although some writing (e.g. modern novels and the popular press) may imitate certain features of it.

This register has a wide range, from a normal conversational style which is socially quite acceptable to gross vulgarisms. The latter mainly concern items of vocabulary which correspond to the notorious four-letter words of English and which are indicated here by the label Rl*. Words designated like this are generally thought of as offensive. They tend to sound particularly objectionable when used with a foreign accent, and the foreign learner is best advised simply to note them and to avoid using them.

R2: This label indicates words, forms and expressions which are neutral in respect of register, i.e. those which are not specific to either informal colloquial speech or formal writing, and which can be used equally in all registers. In practice, most words, forms and expressions of German fall into this category, so that any form not specifically marked for register in this book is to be taken as belonging to it. Most modern introductory material for foreign learners tends to use a type of language which falls under this heading and is neither colloquial nor formal.

However, there are a fair number of words, forms and expressions whose use is best defined negatively, i.e. they are typically used over a range of register except in colloquial speech, or except in formal writing. Such usage is indicated in this book by the labels R2/3 or Rl /2 respectively. Other forms may be not absolutely restricted in their usage to a single register, but if they are particularly common in Rl or R3 this is indicated as 'esp. Rl ' or 'esp. R3\

R3: By this label we indicate the register of modern written German, with the complex sentence structures and elaborate vocabulary typical

of the written medium. Regionalism is minimal and is usually limited to a few items of vocabulary. It is spoken only in the most formal situations, and then typically from a prepared text. In this case, the pronunciation is much more careful and clear than in Rl. In grammar, the formal requirements of standard Hochdeutsch, as set out in the recognized authorities, is adhered to with very little deviation. The choice of words is more careful (because we have time to think about the best word for the context), and fine distinctions of meaning are observed which may be ignored in everyday usage. It is useful to distinguish two major types of this register, basically differentiated in terms of subject matter, as follows.

R3a: The literary language as established and codified from the late eighteenth century on, and still used in much formal writing, especially works of literature and the serious press. It may have a rather archaic or scholarly ring to it, but it enjoys great prestige through formal education, and it is still widely regarded as the only 'good' or 'correct' form of German, with deviations from it in other registers (even R3b) considered as deficiencies.

R3b: Modern non-literary prose of all kinds, as found in business letters, official documents, instruction manuals, popular scholarship, writing in science, philosophy, economics, etc. Its most striking feature is the preference for noun constructions over verb constructions; main clauses prevail as contrasted to the complex sentences with dependent clauses characteristic of R3a. Such features of R3b have been widely criticized by purists (who think that old-fashioned R3a is the only kind of German which ought to be used in writing) as Papierdeutsch or Beamtendeutsch, and at its worst this register can be ludicrously pompous and impenetrable. However, at its best it has a notable conciseness, and most Germans consider it appropriate for non-fictional writing of all kinds.

It must be stressed that these categories are a considerable simplification. The scale of register is continuous, and there are no natural divisions. Each of the categories above covers a wide range of often very different types of German. Rl, for example, ranges from wholly acceptable conversational language, as used every day by most German speakers, to the kind of gross vulgarisms indicated by Rl* in this book which are avoided except in very special cases. The other registers have no less wide a range: R3b includes, for instance, the very precise and considered expression of an editorial in Die Zeit and the unnecessary verbosity of an official pronouncement. But there is still enough similarity in some essential features to make these broad categorizations useful, whilst to try to identify a larger number of categories would simply be confusing.

Equally, these labels are only a very rough guide to usage. The scale of register is continuous; there are no natural divisions and language users are rarely consistent. However, the labels are handy and easy to

operate with, and they are useful in giving an initial indication of the restrictions on the use of particular forms. Much speech or writing cannot be assigned as a whole to one of the above categories, and more than anything it is a question of the greater or lesser use of those variants which are typical of one register or another. For example, a political discussion between friends in a cafe might drift between R2 and R1 (with more of the latter as the evening wears on), but with certain features of R3b if they use words and phrasing typical of the way their subject matter is treated in newspapers and in television broadcasts by practising politicians. Some modern novelists, like Günter Grass, use the lexical and syntactic elaborateness which is typical of R3a, but with a fair leavening of Rl, often vulgar, variants. Other recent writers try to avoid the complexity of R3a and aim at a more informal register level, using variants which are predominantly neutral R2.

1.2 Varieties according to user: regionalism

Other varieties of language relate to the social group(s) to which people belong. We can frequently observe people, quite unconsciously, using forms and expressions which indicate their membership of a particular group. Small groups of young people, say, at a particular school or college, often have a range of slang forms and expressions which are peculiar to the group; the use of these excludes outsiders and signals membership of this 'in' group.

Variation according to user is equally typical of very much larger social groups. Within the German speech area we come across linguistic variation which is related to the social class of a speaker and to the region which he or she comes from. Sometimes the two factors are linked, as is typically the case in England: Eliza Doolittle, in George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion, is marked by her speech as a lower-class Londoner. This is less frequent in Germany, where, especially in the South, regional variants are used by members of all social classes. In fact, in the German-speaking countries the influence of social class is most often seen in the ability (or willingness) to use a particular register, as we saw earlier, and less educated speakers may characteristically be less competent in more formal registers. Given the correlation between more colloquial registers and the degree of regionalism, this may have the secondary effect that such speakers use more regional varieties. However, it is important for English learners of German to be aware that, as a general rule, such local varieties, accents or dialects may be widely accepted and used by all sections of society in a way that is not found in England or some of the other English-speaking countries.The kind of social stigmatism which in England is commonly attached to broad accents like Eliza Doolittle's is much less usual in the German

Rl = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

speech area, although it is not unknown and may be increasing, especially in the large northern industrial conurbations like the Ruhrgebiet or Berlin. On the other hand, a standard German pronunciation lacks the clear association with prestigious social groups which is so characteristic of Received Pronunciation in Britain.

1.2.1 Regionalism and standard German

Regional variation is an important feature of German and the learner will encounter it at a much earlier stage and to a much greater degree than, say, in French. We need first to look at it in relation to the standard German which is taught to foreign learners. This variety (Hochdeutsch, die deutsche Hochsprache) arose from the time of Luther onwards as a written standard language for the whole of the German speech area. In the terms we are using, it was restricted to R3; even nowadays, it is still frequently referred to as Schriftdeutsch. In its modern form, which is labelled R3 in this book, it has a uniform spelling, which has been recently revised (see 6.1) and for which the Duden Rechtschreibung (2000) is regarded as authoritative. Its grammar also has a uniform codification of what is considered to be 'correct' German, and the Duden Grammatik (1998) is usually accepted as the standard authority for this. In these aspects of language, accepted regional variation is limited. There is more such variation in the realm of vocabulary, where there is no universally recognized authority. In particular there is considerable variation here between the various German-speaking countries, with different words being in current use in Austria and Switzerland from those in Germany. The most important of these are given in 1.5.2. Divergences also emerged between the DDR and the other German-speaking countries. Although these were mainly in the field of political and state institutions, a few, like Broiler for Brathähnchen and Plaste for Plastik, remain in common everyday use in the 'new' Bundesländer, even after unification. Only time will tell if these will ultimately survive as regional variants. However, there are many instances where no single word has ever gained full acceptance over the whole of the German speech area. The case of Northern Sonnabend and Southern Samstag is well known, but there are numerous others, although it is noticeable that they are more prevalent in areas of everyday life, such as food and drink and traditional trades, where the influence of the standard language may have made itself felt less strongly.

1.2.2 Regionalism and spoken German

Certainly until 1800, and in many parts of Germany until 1900, standard German (Hochdeutsch) was used for writing only. What people

spoke was their dialect, a language variety peculiar to a particular locality. In German this often differs from the standard language in so many respects - in pronunciation and grammar as well as in vocabulary - as to be all but incomprehensible to a speaker from another region, and certainly to the foreigner who has learnt only standard German. By the end of the eighteenth century, though, a spoken form of Hochdeutsch had arisen, based on a North German pronunciation of the written language, initially for very formal public speech, as in stage declamation, rather than for everyday purposes. This came to be used more widely in the course of the nineteenth century. It was eventually accepted for teaching in schools in all the German-speaking countries and codified for use on the stage in 1898. Largely because of its use in education, some form of this spoken supraregional standard was adopted in the course of the twentieth century by most Germans for everyday use, but the extent to which this is the case still varies considerably with region and register. The foreign learner is still most likely to encounter in Rl anywhere a variety of German coloured to a greater or lesser degree by regional features, and it must be emphasized again that the correlation between the degree of regional variation and social class is much less marked than in England and some other English-speaking countries.

As a general, if not invariable rule, such regionalism becomes stronger and the difference from standard German more marked as one proceeds from north to south. From Saxony, Hesse and the Rhineland southwards, and especially in Swabia, Bavaria and Austria, much natural everyday (Rl) speech is in dialect or a variety very close to dialect, especially outside the larger conurbations. In German-speaking Switzerland, the local dialects are used by all social classes in all speech situations except the most formal. Standard German is used almost only in writing or when talking to people who are not Swiss German.

In conclusion the close link between the degree of regionalism and the degree of formality in register must be stressed again. This means that an individual's speech often shows more local features in more casual speech, for instance at home or in the pub, than in formal situations. Many speakers have command over a considerable range in this way, from broad dialect to a slightly accented form of standard German.

1.2.3 Indicating regional variation

Regional variation in language can be extremely confusing for foreign learners, who may, for instance, encounter three or four apparently synonymous equivalents for a single English word and be uncertain which one to use because they are not initially aware that they are dealing with regional variants. In the main, they need merely to be aware which words and forms are regionally restricted and which are

standard. In practice, learners are probably best advised to avoid regional variants in their own usage, given the associations which might be evoked. Outside the area in which such regionalisms are used they can sound comical, whilst inside it they could sound patronizing or condescending if used by a stranger or a foreigner.

Regional forms will be specified in terms of the following large areas (see map on page 2). These are intended mainly to give a rough general indication of where a particular form is current, rather than be absolutely precise:

N: North of the river Main. If necessary, this area is split into NW and NE along the border of the new (post-1990) Bundesländer.

S: South of the river Main. If necessary, this area is split into SW and SE along the western borders of Bavaria and Austria.

Forms specified as S, SW, SE are also current in Switzerland and/or Austria unless a separate form is given, indicated as follows:

AU Austria CH Switzerland

It must be stressed that the above are very broad indicators. It would be impossible to give exact information about the regional distribution of many words without overburdening such a book as this with detail. It is also the case, in this age of mass communication, that words and forms which have been typical of a particular area become more widely known and often become fashionable in other areas. Over the last twenty or thirty years, for instance, N tschüss 'goodbye' has been spreading rapidly into southern Germany, displacing older regional variants like SW ade, especially among the younger generation in towns and cities.

1.3 Examples of variation: pronunciation

In this section we give some of the most frequently encountered variants in the pronunciation of modern German which are linked to register and regionalism, with the reservations explained in 1.1 and 1.2 that these cannot always be distinguished clearly.

Phonetic alphabet

The spelling of standard German gives a pretty clear guide to pronunciation (unlike English), at least for careful, standard speech. However, there are times when we need to indicate the sometimes very different sounds of colloquial or regional speech. As far as possible, such forms are given in this section in an adapted version of standard German spelling rather than in phonetic transcription, so that we

write, for example, kommdn to represent the pronunciation of standard German kommenden as it is often heard in fast colloquial speech. Spellings like these are never usually found in print, but they are used here for the sake of convenience and ease of recognition. However, there are occasions when we have to use the special alphabet of the International Phonetic Association (IPA) to make it quite clear exactly what sounds we are dealing with. The following table gives all the IPA symbols used here, with examples from German, (British) English or French. Phonetic symbols are always given between square brackets, e.g. Mann, pronounced [man].

1» Ger biVten, Engl heat Y Ger Fülle i Ger bitten, Engl bit y* Ger Mühle, Fr mur e: Ger b^ten, Fr ^couter ce Ger Hölle e Ger Betty Engl bed 0i Ger Höhle, Fr peu e: Ger wäre, Fr seme ai Ger fein, Engl fine a Ger Band, Fr passer au Ger Maus, Engl mouse a: Ger Vater, Engl father ceY Ger Mäuse o Engl hot 3 Ger bitte, Engl china 0 Ger kommen, Engl caught B Ger bitter o: Ger Booty Fr eau e Ger Pension, Fr pain Ü Ger Butter, Engl butcher a Ger Restaurant, Fr en u: Ger Kuh, Fr trow 0 Ger Balkon, Fr on

CONSONANTS

Rl = spoken colloquial

RL* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

P Ger fassen, Engl^ass 3 Ger Genie, Engl leisure b Ger bitte, Engl bit X Ger Buch, Scots loch t Ger fun, Engl ton 9 Ger mich, Engl Hugh d Ger dumm, Engl dumb h Ger holen, Engl Aole k Ger kommen, Engl come m Ger mich, Engl mine g Ger gut, Engl good n Ger neun, Engl nine f Ger faul, Engl foul Ger hing, Engl hung V Ger ipann, Engl van 1 Ger /aut, Engl /oud s Ger lassen, Engl sat K Ger rot z Ger saß, Engl zero j Ger ja, Engl year X Ger l i e ß e n , Engl sheet Y A sound between [x] and [g],

the voiced ch often heard in the N pronunciation of Wagen.

NOTES: (i) A subscript dot, e.g. [m], [n], indicates that the consonant forms a syllable, e.g. in Ger bitten [bitn], geben [geibm], Engl button [bAtn]. (ii) Stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark, e.g. ver'stehen (in phonetic transcription: |TA' Jteian]).

1.3.1 Regional variation in pronunciation

(a) The following pronunciations are used almost universally in the areas indicated, irrespective of register:

Area Regional Hochdeutsch

NORTH -g- pronounced as voiced -ch- [y] between vowels

Waghen [vaiyan] Wagen

initial^)/- pronounced as f-

Fund Pfund

-ung pronounced as -unk

Hoffnunk Hoffnung

long vowels pronounced short in words of one syllable

Ratt, gropp, Tach Rat, grob, Tag

-g pronounced as -ch at end of words or before consonants

taucht, Zeuch taugt, Zeug

long ä [e:] pronounced as eh [e:]

wehre, speht wäre, spät

SOUTH -ig pron as -ik dreißik dreißig [draisi9]

initial ch- pron as k- Kina China [91: na]

some long vowels pronounced short, especially before [K]+ consonant

Art [aKt], wird [viKt] Art [aiBt], wird [viiKt]

nasal vowels pronounced as simple vowel + n

Balkon [balkorn], Pension [pensjo:n]

Balkon [balko], Pension [pensjo]

unstressed -e pronounced as [e]

gute [gurte] gute [guita]

' stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

unstressed -e pronounced as [e]

' stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

different stress in some words

Tun'nel, Kaffee, Ta'bak

'Tunnel, 'Kaffee, 'Tabak

-

(b) The following pronunciations are mainly confined to Rl. They are not necessarily found in the whole of the areas indicated, and major exceptions and restrictions are noted:

Area Regional Hochdeutsch

NORTH initial sp-, st-pronounced with [s] (especially Hanover, Hamburg)

S-tein [stain], S-prung [sprorj]

Stein [Jtain], Sprung [Jprurj]

initial g- pron. as j-(NE, Rhineland)

jut, jemacht gut, gemacht

pronunciation of nicht nich nicht

-nd- pron as -nn- anners, Kinner anders, Kinder

SOUTH-WEST ich-Laut [9] pronounced as sch

Teppisch, siebzisch Teppich, siebzig

word-final -en pronounced as -e

komme, g(e)bliebe kommen, geblieben

medial and final st and sp pronounced as seht, schp

beschte, Weschpe, du bischt

beste, Wespe, du bist

SOUTH p, t, k pronounced as by dy g (also Saxony)

Abodehge, dodal Apotheke, total

w, ö pronounced as i, e (also Saxony)

Brieder, scheen Brüder, schön

a pronounced as 0 [0] or a [D]

Wässer, schlafen Wasser, schlafen

unstressed -e dropped in all words

heut, Leut heute, Leute

pronunciation of nicht net/nit nicht

ge-, be-, pronounced as g-,b-

gmacht, bstellt gemacht, bestellt

1.3.2 Register variation in pronunciation

Rl speech is characterized by less careful articulation. However, even rather more formal spoken language tends to simplification, especially of unstressed syllables. There is thus a gradual progression from the

most casual speech style, Rl, to the most formal, spoken R3, where every letter is given its full value. R3 is, of course, primarily a written register, and the extremely precise and distinct articulation it represents is only found in rather special situations, like reading a written text aloud in public or giving a lecture. Some German speakers may insist that foreign learners ought only to use and be taught this style of speech, as only it is 'correct'. But it can sound very stilted and artificial in any but the most formal situations. The table below gives the two extremes of pronunciation variation, but numerous intermediate forms exist which are used depending on the level of relative formality.

Rl R3

unstressed -en gebm [geibm] geben reduced and kommdn [komdn] kommenden assimilated to fahrn [faien] fahren preceding consonant eigng'n [aigrjn] eigenen

sinkng [zirjkrj] sinken

simplification and Norpol [noBpoil] Nordpol assimilation of Herbsflanse [heepsflansa] Herbstpflanze consonant groups, scho ma [Joma] schon mal especially at the ma tu doch [matudox] man tut doch beginning and end of fuf fz ig [fuftsi9] fünfzig words, and where dabbich [dabi£] da habe ich compound words are gewart [gavaet] gewartet joined u n a i s [ un B?IS] und er ist

a hap mir [e hap mi:e] er hat mir

reduction of hammer [hame] haben wir pronouns in simmer [simu] sind wir conjunction with wissnse [visnsa] wissen Sie verbs kommste [komsta] kommst du

isse [ is3] ist sie mussich [musig] muss ich

reduction of articles, da [dB], di [di], (d)s der, die, das pronouns and other (d)n, (d)m den, dem determiners n ,ne(N) /e (S) ,n 'n [nn] ein, eine, einen

nem/eim, ner einem, einer meim, unsem meinem, unserem

Rl = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

Rl contd R3 contd

articles fused with all common prepositions

ausn, bein mitn, in'n nachn, von'n mim, minnem minner durchn, durchn'n ausm, hinnem nachm

aus den, bei den mit den, in den nach den, von den mit dem, mit einem mit einer durch den, durch einen aus dem, hinter dem nach dem

unstressed -e dropped in verb endings

ich geh, ich komm ich tu, ich könnt ich sollt

ich gehe, ich komme ich tue, ich könnte ich sollte

unstressed -e dropped in basic form of some adjectives

blöd, feig, mild, trüb, zäh blöde, feige, milde, trübe, zähe

unstressed -e added in some numerals and other words when stressed

fünfe, sechse, neune, elfe, alleine, vorne fünf, sechs, neun, elf, allein, vorn

foreign words given German pronunciation

Schenie [Jeni:] Restaurang [restorarj]

Genie feeni:] Restaurant [restora]

denn reduced and suffixed to verb

Was machs'n du hier? Was machst du denn hier?

r pronounced as [B] (similar to the vowel of S. English but) after vowels and in the ending -er

wiä [vfe], Eäde [eeda] bessä [bese] wir, Erde, besser

1.4 Examples of variation: grammar

In this section we give some common examples of how the grammar of German varies depending on region and register.

1.4.1 Regional variation in grammar

Regionalism is perhaps less significant in grammar than in pronunciation and vocabulary. However, the following variant uses are widespread and are sometimes found in writing (especially in the case of S variants in Austrian and Swiss usage), although the foreign learner is advised to keep to standard forms. Some of them (indicated with an asterisk below) are beginning to be used outside their original geographical limits and are now found more generally in Rl.

Area Regional Hochdeutsch

NORTH sein in perfect of anfangen and beginnen

ich bin angefangen ich bin begonnen

ich habe angefangen ich habe begonnen

splitting da + preposition*

Da weiß ich nichts von

Davon weiß ich nichts

confusion of accusative and dative

Er hat mir gesehen Er hat mich gesehen

am + infinitive to express continuous action*

Mein Vater ist am Schreiben

Mein Vater schreibt gerade

more nouns have a plural in -s (see 3.1.3)

die Doktors, die Onkels

die Doktoren, die Onkel

nach used for zu Ich fahre nach dem Zoo

Ich fahre zum Zoo

SOUTH wo used as relative pronoun

das Auto, wo da kommt

das Auto, das da kommt

deviant verb forms gedenkt, gewunken, bräuchte

gedacht, gewinkt, brauchte/würde brauchen

nachdem used to mean 'as', 'since', 'because'

nachdem sie erst später kommen kann , . . .

da sie erst später kommen kann

sein used in perfect of liegen, sitzen and stehen (see 4.3.3)

Ich bin gelegen, gesessen, gestanden

Ich habe gelegen, gesessen, gestanden

no -n in dative plural of nouns*

mit den Bücher mit den Büchern

Area contd Regional contd Hochdeutsch contd

different plural forms used with some nouns

die Stiefeln die Stücker die Wägen

die Stiefel die Stücke die Wagen

some nouns used with different genders

die Bach der Butter der Gewalt der Kartoffel der Radio der Schokolad

der Bach die Butter die Gewalt die Kartoffel das Radio die Schokolade

no umlaut in present tense

er schlaft, lasst er schläft, lässt

dative used to mark possession

Das ist mir Das ist mein(e)s

definite article used with names*

der Peter, die Monika

Peter, Monika

double auxiliary in pluperfect tense*

Sie hat meinen Vater gesehen gehabt

Sie hatte meinen Vater gesehen

es hat in place of es gibt (SW)

Hat es einen Apotheke hier in der Stadt?

Gibt es einen Apotheke hier in der Stadt?

different verb valencies (see 4.1.4)

Er hat auf das Geld vergessen (SE)

Sie hat mir angerufen (SW)

Sie hat darauf gedacht

Er hat das Geld vergessen

Sie hat mich angerufen

Sie hat daran gedacht

1.4.2 Register variation in grammar

Usage is flexible with a number of these variants, but most German speakers take care to avoid specifically Rl forms in writing, and, in general, less casual spoken German (i.e. R2) tends to follow R3 norms. The table below gives the two extremes of Rl and R3, with variations and exceptions indicated.

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

Rl R3

no ending -en in singular of weak masculine nouns in Rl

den Mensch dem Mensch

den Menschen dem Menschen

genitive case rarely used in spoken German (R1/R2) (see 4.2.2)

meinem Vater sein Hut (Rl)/der Hut von meinem Vater (R1/R2)

trotz dem Regen (also R3 in CH) Ich erinnere mich an den Vorfall

(R2)

der Hut meines Vaters

trotz des Regens Ich erinnere mich des Vorfalls

no vowel change in imperative of strong verbs in Rl

Ess deine Möhren! Nehm's doch! Geb's her!

Iss deine Möhren! Nimm's doch! Gib's her!

demonstrative der used for personal pronoun in Rl

Ich habe den gesehen Die kommt heute nicht

Ich habe ihn gesehen Sie kommt heute nicht

das... hier or das... da used as demonstratives in Rl

das Buch hier die Stadt da

dieses Buch diese Stadt / (R3 only) jene Stadt

wer used for jemand in Rl

Es hat wer angerufen Es hat jemand angerufen

solch not used in Rl so 'ne Farbe so Ansichten (wie die)

eine solche Farbe solche Ansichten

was used with prepositions in Rl

An was denkst du? Von was lebt er?

Woran denkst du? Wovon lebt er?

wie and als confused in Rl

Die ist größer wie (die) Petra Die ist anders wie du

Sie ist größer als Petra Sie ist anders als du

double negatives used in Rl

Der hat nie nix gesagt Wir haben nirgends keinen Vogel

gesehen

Er hat nie etwas gesagt Wir haben nirgends einen Vogel

gesehen

tun used as an auxiliary verb in Rl

Sie tut gerade schreiben Ich tät's nicht machen

Sie schreibt gerade Ich würde es nicht machen

zu omitted after brauchen in Rl

Wir brauchen nicht so schwer arbeiten

Wir brauchen nicht so schwer zu arbeiten

Rl contd R3 contd

weil and obwohl followed by main clause word order in Rl

. . . , weil der kann kein richtiges Deutsch sprechen

. . . , weil er kein richtiges Deutsch sprechen kann

extended adjectives and participles only used in R3

die Sitzung, die auf Januar verschoben wurde (R2)

die Zahlung, die vor Jahresende geleistet werden muss (R2)

die auf Januar verschobene Sitzung

die vor Jahresende zu leistende Zahlung

main clauses used rather than relative clauses in Rl

Es gibt Leute, die freuen sich über die Fahrt

Es gibt Leute, die sich über die Fahrt freuen

wo + preposition used in Rl for preposition + relative pronoun

der Tisch, wo die Blumen drauf stehen

der Tisch, auf dem die Blumen stehen

da often used to begin sentences in Rl

Da kann man in dem Fall einfach nix machen

In diesem Fall kann man einfach nichts machen

elements are often placed after final verb in Rl

Sie hat Post bekommen von zu Hause

Sie hat von zu Hause Post bekommen

Pronouns and auxiliary verbs are often omitted in Rl

Hab' ich ihm schon gesagt Mal schauen, was da los ist

Willst mit uns kommen?

Das habe ich ihm schon gesagt Wir wollen mal schauen, was da

los ist Willst du mit uns kommen?

dislocated repetitions used for highlighting in Rl

Der Peter, den kann sie nicht leiden

Den hatt ich schon, den Wunsch

Peter kann sie nicht leiden

Den Wunsch hatte ich schon

past tense less frequent in Rl (especially in S) (see 4.3.2)

Dann sind sie nach Hause gegangen

Ich hab nicht gewusst, was sie gesagt hat

Dann gingen sie nach Hause

Ich wusste nicht, was sie sagte

the subjunctive is used in indirect speech only in R3 (see 4.5.3)

Sie hat gesagt, sie weiß es schon Er hat erklärt, dass er zu neuen

Verhandlungen bereit ist

Sie sagte, sie wisse es schon Er erklärte, dass er zu neuen

Verhandlungen bereit sei

1.5 Examples of variation: vocabulary

1.5.1 Regional variation in vocabulary

As with pronunciation, it is not always simple to disentangle regionalism from register in matters of vocabulary, and many regional words are limited to Rl. Others, including the familiar case of Sonnabend and Samstag, are used freely in all registers. This is especially true of Austria and Switzerland, where a South German (SE or SW) variant is often used, even in writing (R3).

The table below gives some of the most frequent regional variants, together with their more generally used equivalent(s). None are wholly restricted to Rl; although some are commoner there than in more formal registers it is difficult to give hard and fast rules. Standard German has sometimes adopted more than one regional variant, often with a distinction in meaning. For example, Pferd, Gaul and Ross were originally all regionally restricted words for 'horse'. But in standard German (Hochdeutsch) the general word is Pferd, whereas Gaul and Ross have the more specific meanings 'nag' and 'steed'. What were originally regional variants have also sometimes become register variants in general usage. For example, in much of South Germany, and especially in Austria, schauen is the everyday word for 'to see'. But for a majority of Germans it is a more formal (R3) word compared to sehen.

Area Regional Hochdeutsch

NORTH das Abendbrot das Abendessen evening meal abwaschen spülen to wash up die Apfelsine die Orange orange belämmern belästigen to pester buddeln graben to dig denn dann then doof dumm stupid der Eierkuchen der Pfannkuchen pancake der Fahrstuhl der Aufzug lift Gehacktes das Hackfleisch minced/ground

meat die Gören die Kinder children die Hacke die Ferse heel der Kasten die Schublade drawer klönen plaudern to chat kloppen schlagen to hit kucken, kieken sehen to look

Rl = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

Area contd Regional contd Hochdeutsch contd

[NORTH] langskommen vorbeikommen to drop in der Pott der Topf pot die Pulle die Flasche bottle der Schlachter, Schlächter der Fleischer butcher der Schlips die Krawatte tie

NORTH-WEST extra absichtlich on purpose flöten pfeifen to whistle malochen schwer arbeiten to work hard die Pinte die Kneipe pub es schellt (also SW) es klingelt the doorbell's ringing die Wurzel die Mohrrübe, die Karotte carrot

NORTH-EAST die Brause die Limonade fizzy drink der Broiler das Brathähnchen roast chicken die Fahrerlaubnis der Führerschein driving licence das Kompott der Nachtisch dessert plätten bügeln to iron Sonnabend Samstag Saturday die Stulle das belegte Brot sandwich

SOUTH arg sehr very aufdrehen anmachen to switch on der Bub der Junge boy der Christbaum der Weihnachtsbaum Christmas

daheim tree

zu Hause at home freilich natürlich of course der Gang (not AU) der (Haus)flur (entrance) hall die Geiß die Ziege goat die gelbe Rübe (not AU or CH) die Mohrrübe, die Karotte carrot gell? nicht wahr? isn 't it? gescheit intelligent clever geschwind schnell quick(ly) der Hafen der Topf pot halt eben just heim nach Hause home der Kamin der Schornstein chimney der Kasten der Schrank cupboard kehren fegen sweep das Kuvert der Briefumschlag envelope langen fassen, greifen to reach (for sth) es läutet es klingelt the doorbell's ringing das Mädel, das Mädle das Mädchen girl die Mappe (not AU) die Aktentasche briefcase

Area Regional Hochdeutsch

[SOUTH] der Metzger (not AU) der Fleischer butcher pressieren Eile haben be in a hurry der Rahm die Sahne cream der Randstein der Bordstein kerb schauen sehen to see, to look die Schnake (not AU) die Stechmücke midge die Schnur der Bindfaden string sieden kochen to boil die Stiege die Treppe stairs, steps sich verkälten (not AU) sich erkälten catch cold der Zahnweh die Zahnschmerzen toothache der Zins die Miete rent

SOUTH-EAST all(e)weil immer always Brösel Brotkrümel breadcrumbs deppert dumm stupid das Dirndl das Mädchen girl eh sowieso anyway der Erdapfel die Kartoffel potato finster (also Saxony) dunkel dark die Gasse die Straße street der Gehsteig der Bürgersteig pavement die Gösch der Mund mouth gschert dumm stupid heuer (also CH) dieses Jahr this year heute in der Frühe/ heute heute Morgen this morning

früh (also Saxony) der Knödel derKloss dumpling die Nachspeise der Nachtisch dessert der Schwamm der Pilz mushroom die Semmel (also Saxony) das Brötchen bread roll sperren schließen, zumachen to shut stad still quiet

SOUTH-WEST als immer always Brosamen Brotkrümel breadcrumbs das Gaul (not CH) das Pferd horse der Gehweg, das Trottoir der Bürgersteig pavement der Lauch der Porree leek die Mücke die Fliege fly das Nachtessen das Abendessen evening meal schaffen arbeiten to work schmecken riechen to smell springen laufen to run der Weck(en) das Brötchen bread roll

1.5.2 Austrian and Swiss words

Usage in Austria and Switzerland is a rather special case, and it is in many ways quite distinct from Germany. In the spoken register, dialect is widely used - in Switzerland exclusively, in Austria still predominantly, at least in informal registers outside the larger cities. In writing, standard German is used, but over the centuries of political separation from Germany independent traditions have grown up in these two countries, especially in matters of vocabulary. Thus, the regional words and grammatical forms (see 1.4.1 and 1.5.1) which are widespread in speech in southern Germany are in these countries commonly used in writing. Also, unlike in Germany, there has been no movement to eliminate foreign words, so that, in Switzerland, for example, we buy a Billett for the Tram, not a Fahrkarte or Fahrschein for the Straßenbahn. In addition, each country has a stock of words peculiar to itself which are almost always used in writing within the country and are not always familiar even to Germans. The following tables list of some of the most common. There are many more, though - Duden (2000b) lists over 900 words which are specific to High German as used in Switzerland. In some instances the Austrian or Swiss word can have the meaning it usually has in Germany as well as a specifically Austrian or Swiss meaning. For example, Mist can be used to mean 'dung' or 'rubbish' in Austria, whereas in Germany it only means 'dung'. In these cases only the specifically Austrian or Swiss meaning is given below.

AUSTRIA

Austria Germany Austria Germany

die Abwasch der Spülbecken sink fallweise (also gelegentlich now and CH) again

allfällig (also CH) gegebenenfalls if der Fauteuil der Sessel armchair necessary

der Anrainer der Anlieger neighbour fesch(Rl) schick chic aufscheinen vorkommen to appear die Gelse die Stechmücke midge ausschauen aussehen to look der Gendarm der Landpolizist rural

(as i f ) policeman außen draußen outside das Goal das Tor goal (soccer) das Beisel die Kneipe pub der Hausherr der Hausbesitzer

home-owner der Beistrich das Komma comma in Hinkunft in Zukunft in future der Corner der Eckball corner innen drinnen inside

(also CH) (soccer) da hier here inskribieren sich immatrikulieren to

register entlehnen entleihen to borrow Jänner Januar January

Austria Germany Austria Germany

diejause der Imbiss snack der Polster das Kissen cushion, pillow

kampieren zelten to camp der Professor der Studienrat high school teacher

der Karfiol der Blumenkohl raunzen nörgeln to grumble, to cauliflower whinge

die Kassa die Kasse cash desk, till die Retour- die Rückfahrkarte fahrkarte return ticket

der Kerker das Zuchthaus prison die Ribisel die Johannisbeere blackcurrant

komplett (voll) besetzt full das das Karousell Ringelspiel roundabout

die Marille die Aprikose apricot der Sack (also die Tasche pocket CH)

die Matura das Abitur school das Sackerl die Tüte (paper) bag certificate

die Maut der Straßenzoll road toll die Schale die Tasse cup die Mehlspeise der Nachtisch dessert die Schnalle die Klinke door-handle die Melange der Milchkaffee white das der Schnürsenkel

coffee Schuhband shoelace die Melanzane die Aubergine aubergine selchen räuchern to smoke

(meat) der Mist der Müll rubbish, der Sessel der Stuhl chair

nächtigen garbage

übernachten spend the skoren ein Tor schießen to score (also CH) night (also CH)

das Nachtmahl das Abendessen evening der Spagat der Bindfaden string meal

das Obers die Sahne cream der Spezi der Kumpel friend, mate ohneweiters ohne weiteres without das Spital das Krankenhaus

further ado (also CH) hospital die Palatschinke der Pfannkuchen der Sturm der neue Wein new wine

pancake der Paradeiser die Tomate tomato der Turnus die Arbeitsschicht shift

(also CH) der die Bürostunden office der Vorrang die Vorfahrt priority Parteienverkehr hours (traffic)

der Pensionist der Rentner pensioner die die Umgehungsstraße Umfahrung by-pass

der Plafond die Decke ceiling sich verkühlen sich erkälten catch cold das Zündholz das Streichholz match

SWITZERLAND NB: in Switzerland, unlike Germany or Austria, the letterß is not used, only ss> see 6.1.3.

Switzerland Germany Switzerland Germany

der Abwart der Hausmeister die Extrafahrt die Sonderfahrt caretaker special trip

der Anstösser der Anlieger der Fahrausweis der Führerschein neighbour driving licence

die Attikawohnung das Penthaus die Falle die Klinke penthouse door-handle

aufbegehren sich empören to der Fürsprech der Rechtsanwalt protest lawyer

Auffahrt Himmelfahrt glätten bügeln to iron Ascension Day

äufnen zusammenbringen to das Grosskind der Enkel grandchild collect

der Automobilist der Autofahrer car grüezi! (Rl) hallo! hello driver

beidseitig auf beiden Seiten on hässig verdrießlich morose both sides

das Billett die Fahrkarte ticket die Identitätskarte der Personalausweis identity card

bis anhin bisher until now innert innerhalb inside, within

bis und mit bis einschließlich up inskünftig in Zukunft in future to and including

die Busse die Geldstrafe fine das Kleid der Anzug suit der Camion der Lastwagen lorry, der Kondukteur der Schaffner

truck conductor der Car der Reisebus bus die Konfitüre die Marmelade jam der Chauffeur der Fahrer driver lärmig laut noisy der Coiffeur der Friseur das Lavabo der Waschbecken

hairdresser wash-basin das Departement das Ministerium leid unangenehm

ministry unpleasant einlässlich eingehend es macht kalt es ist kalt it is cold

thorough (ly) (weather) ennet jenseits on the other manche viele many

side of erst noch obendrein moreover merci! (Rl) danke! thank you der Estrich der Dachboden attic das Morgenessen das Frühstück

breakfast etwelche einige some das Motorfahrzeug das Kraftfahrzeug

motor vehicle

Switzerland Germany Switzerland Germany

nachten Nacht werden grow die Ständerlampe die Stehlampe dark standard lamp

nebstdem außerdem in addition streng anstrengend strenuous parkieren parken to park das Tram die Straßenbahn tram der Parkingmeter die Parkuhr parking urchig urwüchsig original,

meter native der Perron der Bahnsteig das Velo das Fahrrad bicycle

platform der Pneu der Reifen tyre verunfallen verunglücken to have

an accident das Poulet das Brathähnchen vorab besonders especially

roast chicken die Primarschule die Grundschule zum vornherein von vornherein from

primary school the outset der Redaktor der Redakteur editor der Vortritt die Vorfahrt priority

(traffic) das Retourbillett die Rückfahrkarte währschaft tüchtig solid, reliable,

return ticket genuine der Rodel das Verzeichnis list, der Wartsaal der Wartesaal

register waiting-room die Rösti die Bratkartoffeln weissein tünchen to whitewash

fried potatoes das Salär das Gehalt salary wischen fegen to sweep die Serviertochter die Kellnerin waitress zügeln umziehen to move

(house)

1.5.3 Register variation in vocabulary

The effect of register is perhaps most obvious to the foreign learner in respect of vocabulary. Many words are restricted to informal speech (Rl) or formal writing (R3), and when these are used they signal very clearly the degree of formality which the speaker or writer wishes to give the text. There are also words (indicated as R2/R3) which are characteristically rarely used in the most informal register, but are widely encountered outside that. Similarly, there are words which are widely used in all but the most formal written German (R1/R2). On the other hand, there is a large core vocabulary of neutral (R2) words which can be used equally in informal speech or formal writing and have no such characteristic effect. The following list, which is arranged in alphabetical order of the R2 words, gives some common examples of this register variation in vocabulary.

Some of the equivalents given are not absolutely identical in meaning. For example, the Rl word pumpen is used for 'to lend', 'to borrow', i.e. = leihen (R2) or borgen (R3), only in the context of money. Indications of such distinctions are given in some instances below, but not all details can be covered in a summary of this kind.

Rl R2 R3

das Abi das Abitur school leaving certificate

die Hochschul-reifeprüfung

losgehen anfangen (R1/R2), beginnen (R2/R3)

to begin, to start

anheben (R3a)

protzen angeben (R1/R2) to boast

prahlen, sich rühmen

Schiss haben (Rl*) Angst haben (R1/R2) to be afraid

sich furchten (R2/R3)

schuften (schwer) arbeiten to work (hard)

sich fuchsen sich ärgern to get annoyed

pleite broke arm poor mittellos, bedürftig

die Puste der Atem breath der Odem (poetic R3a)

sich aufhalten to stay (in a place)

weilen

aufmachen to open öffnen

cool, dufte, fantastisch, geil, prima, spitze, super

ausgezeichnet excellent

die Fisimatenten die Ausreden excuses

hinhauen, langen (S) ausreichen to be enough

genügen

unheimlich äußerst extremely extrem

die Backe cheek die Wange (R2 in AU)

verscharren begraben to bury beisetzen, bestatten

Rl R2 R3

kriegen bekommen to receive

empfangen, erhalten

eingeschnappt, verschnupft

beleidigt offended, hurt

gekränkt

der Sprit das Benzin petrol der Treibstoff fuel

anstänkern beschimpfen to abuse

schmähen

meckern sich beschweren to complain

schmieren bestechen to bribe korrumpieren

bescheißen (Rl*), mogeln, schummeln

betrügen to cheat

besoffen (Rl*), blau, voll

betrunken drunk berauscht

der Kahn, die Klappe das Bett bed

die Bitte request das Gesuch

anhauen bitten to ask, to request

ersuchen

käsig blass pale bleich (R2/R3)

bleiben to remain, to stay

verweilen

brauchen to need bedürfen, benötigen

dauern to last währen (R3a)

blöd (R1/R2), dämlich, doof

dumm stupid einfältig, töricht

der Blödmann, der Dussel, der Depp (SE)

der Dummkopf (Rl/R2)fool

der Tor

dunkel dark düster, finster (R2 in S)

miserabel dürftig wretched armselig

erfrischen to refresh erquicken

Rl contd R2 contd R3 contd

erlauben to allow, to permit

gestatten, zulassen

futtern, knabbern, mampfen, naschen

essen to eat speisen

die Fahrkarte ticket der Fahrausweis

türmen, verduften flüchten to flee fliehen (R2/R3)

der Kumpel der Freund friend

das Frühjahr spring der Frühling

die Kneipe die Gaststätte pub

das Kittchen, der Knast

das Gefängnis prison

die Strafanstalt, das Zuchthaus

gehen to go sich begeben

latschen, laufen (NE, SW)

gehen to walk

der Kies, die Kohle, die Moneten, das Zaster

das Geld money

klappen gelingen to succeed

die Fratze, die Fresse, die Visage

das Gesicht face das Angesicht (R3a), das Antlitz (R3a)

der Mief der Gestank smell der üble Geruch

Schwein haben Glück haben be lucky

die Pfote die Hand hand

der Arsch (Rl*) der Hintern backside das Gesäß

die Klamotten die Kleider clothes

die Birne, der De(e)z der Kopf head das Haupt

der Krach der Lärm noise

der Pauker der Lehrer teacher der Studienrat (Gymnasium)

pumpen (of money) leihen to lend, to borrow

borgen

Rl R2 R3

büffeln, pauken lernen to learn, to study

die Biene, die Mieze, die Puppe, die Tussi

das Mädchen girl

der Alte der Mann husband der Ehemann, der Gatte, der Gemahl

schief gehen misslingen to be unsuccessful

scheitern (R2/R3)

erschossen, fertig müde tired ermattet

die Fresse, die Klappe, das Maul (Rl*), die Schnauze

der Mund mouth

bloß nur only lediglich

der Löffel das Ohr ear

die Polente die Polizei police

piesacken quälen to torment peinigen

schicken to send senden

pennen, ratzen schlafen to sleep ruhen, schlummern

hauen schlagen to hit

mies schlecht bad Übel (R2/R3)

schmecken to taste munden

zumachen (R1/R2) schließen (R2/R3) to close, to shut

dreckig, schmuddelig

schmutzig dirty unsauber

die Penne die Schule school die Bildungsanstalt (R3b)

dichthalten, den Mund halten, das Maul halten (Rl*)

schweigen (R2/R3) to be silent

gucken sehen to see, to look schauen (R2 in S)

Rl contd R2 contd R3 contd

enorm, echt, unheimlich, verdammt (Rl*), verflucht (Rl*)

sehr very höchst, überaus

klauen, mausen, mitgehen lassen, mopsen, stibitzen

stehlen to steal entwenden

abkratzen, krepieren, verrecken, den Arsch zukneifen (Rl*)

sterben to die abieben, entschlafen, verscheiden, versterben

der Schwof der Tanz dance

saufen (R1/R2) (Alkohol) trinken to drink (alcohol)

trotzdem, dennoch nevertheless

gleichwohl, nichtsdestoweniger

kotzen (Rl*), brechen (R1/R2)

sich übergeben to vomit

(sich) erbrechen

überlegen to consider erwägen

baff, verdattert, verdutzt (R1/R2)

überrascht surprised befremdet

das Pech das Unglück bad luck, misfortune

das Missgeschick (R2/R3)

der Käse (N), der Quatsch

der Unsinn nonsense

verbieten to forbid untersagen

verpatzen, verpfuschen, versauen (Rl*)

verderben to spoil

vergessen to forget entfallen

losschlagen, verkloppen, verscheuern

verkaufen to sell veräußern

versohlen verprügeln to thrash züchtigen

R l = s p o k e n colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

Rl R2 R3

behämmert, bescheuert, meschugge, plemplem, übergeschnappt

verrückt mad geistesgestört (R2/R3)

verschwenden to waste

vergeuden

checken, kapieren, mitkriegen, schnallen

verstehen to understand

erfassen (R2/R3)

lauern (N), passen (S) warten to wait harren (R3a)

wieso? warum? why? weshalb?

abhauen, sich verpissen (Rl*)

weggehen to go away, to leave

sich entfernen

wehtun to hurt schmerzen

schmeißen werfen to throw

blechen, löhnen zahlen to pay

zeigen to show weisen

fackeln zögern to hesitate zaudern

1.6 Passages illustrating levels of register

In this section a selection of passages is given to show the reader how the differences in register outlined in earlier sections are reflected in longer texts. The progression is initially from least formal (Rl) to most formal (R3), concluding with contrasting passages from a serious and a popular newspaper. The most characteristic features are indicated briefly after each passage.

1.6.1 Telephone conversation (informal colloquial speech)

This passage illustrates characteristic features of spontaneous informal speech in private conversation between friends. Its specific linguistic features all belong to this register (Rl).

Frau A: Ach so! Und die Wohnung, em. Der Typ hat sich no nich entschieden, morgen ru/ ruft wohl noch jemand an, an dem er noch mehr Interesse hat als als an uns, ne.

Frau B: Ah so. Frau A: Aber wir sind ziemlich . . . , w e i l . . . Frau B: Naja, immerhin etwas. Frau A: Ich nehm auch an, wenn en Typ so auf morgen verschiebt, ne, hat

der au nich so'n großes Interesse, oder? Frau B: Wenn er das auf morgen ver/ ja, kann sein! FrauA: Guck ma, wenn ich ne Wohnung unheimig gut finde, dann/ da

geh ich doch das Risiko nich ein, dass der die Wohnung jemand anders gibt, ne?

Frau B: Jaja. Frau A: Naja, jedenfalls isses 110 Quadratmeter. Frau B: 110! Is ja irre! Wir ham nur 90! Frau A: In nem gepflegten . . . Altbau, ganz toll. Müssen wer allerdings

selber renovieren, ne, aber sie is nich in nem scheußlichen Zustand, sondern zwar nich/ also die is bewohnt, ne. Alles scheußliche Tapeten und so, aber sauber, ne, nich irgendwie in nem ekeligen Zustand. Naja, bin ma gespannt! Also, den Quadratmeterpreis, den gibts überhaupt nich ansonsten, ne.

Frau B: Toll, ja! U n das immerhin . . . doch direkt in der Innenstadt, ne? Frau A: Hm, günstig! Frau B: Na schön, ja! Frau A: U n es is, wie gesagt, für mich auch günstig nach Gummersbach,

ne. Muss ja ab 1.2. nach Gummersbach. Frau B: Ja. Freust dich drauf, oder findsdes schlimm? Frau A: Och, hab ich jetz noch keine Meinung zu. Frau B: Ja. Frau A: Ich mein, die erzählen immer viel von dieser Referendarzeit, ne.

Am Anfang soils wohl gemütlich sein, hinterher sehr anstrengend, ich mach mir da jetz keine Gedanken.

Frau B: Naja.

(Ruth Brons-Albert, Gesprochenes Standarddeutsch: Telefondialoge, Tübingen: Narr, 1984, pp. 59-60)

Pronunciation much ellipsis and elision no nich wir ham ich nehm in nem en Typ bin ma au nich un ne Wohnung findsdes isses jetz is soils

Grammar verb forms only present and perfect tenses; no subjunctive

Grammar

case genitive case not used

Grammar

demonstratives for personal pronouns

hat der au nich die is bewohnt

Sentence construction

repetitions mehr Interesse hat als als an uns Sentence construction highlighting den Quadratmeterpreis, den gibts

überhaupt nich ansonsten

Sentence construction

subordination Over 80% of clauses are main clauses

Sentence construction

initial da da geh ich doch das Risiko nich ein

Sentence construction

sentences beginning with und

Und die Wohnung, em

Sentence construction

ellipsis of pronouns, etc. (das) Müssen wer allerdings freust (du) dich drauf (ich) bin ma gespannt

Sentence construction

In general, sentence units are brief and emotive in tone

Vocabulary der Typ bloke ziemlich fairly so'n like that guck ma look unheimig very, very scheußlich awful ekelig awful

ansonsten anywhere else hinterher afterwards bin ma gespannt I can't wait irgendwie somehow gemütlich relaxed irre fantastic toll fantastic

Interjections, Extensive use of these is very typical of this register. particles and ach so allerdings fillers em zwar

ne überhaupt naja immer oder? wohl also kann sein hm guck ma och jedenfalls wohl noch und so immerhin günstig auch schön au nich wie gesagt doch ich mein

Regionalisms The speakers are from Cologne, which is in NW. nich (N) cf: net, nit (S) und so typical filler in NW wir, wer (N) cf: mir (S) (da) hab ich noch keine splitting da + prep (N)

Meinung zu jemand anders (N) cf: jemand anderer (S)

1.6.2 Radio discussion (unprepared speech in a formal context)

This passage illustrates unprepared speech in the formal situation of a radio discussion where the participants do not know one another. It shows fairly careful pronunciation, relatively elaborate sentence structures and a choice of vocabulary which is almost exclusively R2 or R3. Nevertheless, there are still several features which are typical of informal German Rl.

Herr A: Ich wollte ganz gerne, Herr L., wenn es gestattet ist, noch eine Anmerkung zu dem machen, was Herr Doktor S. sagte. Ich habe vor kurzem mit Wissenschaftlern der Technischen Universität Karlsruhe (die hier vor der Tür liegt) gesprochen, und die haben mir erzählt, dass sie solche Modellversuche zur Zeit in der Schweiz und auch im Lande Hessen, wo diese Richtgeschwindigkeiten etwa von achtzig bis einhundertzwanzig Kilometer - (Sie sehen das auf der Autobahn ja in der Nord-Süd-Richtung, wenn Sie da fahren) durchfuhren. Die sind also der Meinung, man brauche einen bestimmten Zeitraum, um überhaupt erst Erkenntnisse endgültig sammeln zu können, ob sich das bewährt hat. Wenn Sie mich als praktischen Verkehrsteilnehmer fragen würden, würde ich Ihnen sagen, ich habe immer den Eindruck, dass sich zumindest auf der Bundesautobahn an diesen Richtgeschwindigkeiten achtzig bis einhundertzwanzig meiner Meinung nach kaum jemand richtig hält.

Herr B: Ja also, wenn ich was sagen darf, ich halt von den Richtsatzgeschwindigkeiten auch nichts, oder (ich möchte es noch deutlicher sagen) gar nichts, denn es muss immer noch der Autofahrer eigenverantwortlich entscheiden, wie schnell er fahren k a n n , . . . wie überhaupt . . . So ist es auch nicht die objektive, absolute, gefahrene Geschwindigkeit, die eigentliche Unfallursache ist, sondern die relativ zu hohe Geschwindigkeit in dem konkreten Fall, und wenn man die Unfälle zusammenaddieren würde, die sich zum Beispiel bei höheren Geschwindigkeiten, als zum Beispiel hundertzwanzig ereignen, dann werden die sehr selten sein, (die liegen alle darunter),

und das zeigt eben, dass im konkreten Fall bei der Situation, (sagen wir), bei der Sicht, bei dem Abstand zu schnell gefahren wird, das können schon achtzig sein, wo s zu schnell is, was er nicht mehr sollte.

(Charles van Os (ed.), Texte gesprochener deutscher Standardsprache, Munich: Hueber, Düsseldorf: Schwann, 1974, vol. 2, pp. 54—5)

Pronunciation little ellipsis or elision - just three was instances ich halt

wo s zu schnell is

most often no ellipsis ich habe, ich wollte, etc.

Grammar tense

Konjunktiv II

indirect speech

case

demonstratives widely used for personal pronouns

mainly present and perfect tenses

one past tense

one future tense

mainly forms with würde except for modal verbs (möchte, sollte, wollte)

mainly in indicative

Konjunktiv I used once

genitive case used occasionally

Sie sehen das die haben mir

erzählt

was Herr Dr. S. sagte

dann werden die sehr selten sein

Wenn Sie mich . . . fragen würden, würde ich Ihnen sagen,...

ob sich das bewährt hat

man brauche einen bestimmten Zeitraum

mit Wissenschaftlern der Technischen Universität

die haben mir erzählt Die sind also der Meinung dann werden die sehr selten sein

Sentence afterthoughts (Sie sehen das auf der Autobahn . . . , wenn construction inserted in the Sie da fahren)

middle of the sentence (parenthesis)

strings of words or die objektive, absolute, gefahrene phrases Geschwindigkeit,... bei der Situation . . . ,

bei der Sicht, bei dem Abstand

extensive use of over 50% of all clauses in the text are subordinate clauses subordinate

a few broken, . . . , wo diese Richtgeschwindigkeiten etwa incomplete or von achtzig bis einhundertzwanzig truncated clauses Kilometer [speaker forgets to add a verb]

wie schnell er fahren kann,. . . wie überhaupt...

It is very noticeable in general that, although sentences are complete in the main, they are extremely long - Herr B's contribution consists of a single sentence! The sentences are also very loosely strung together, as the speakers expand what they have already said with afterthoughts and qualifications.

Vocabulary The vocabulary is characteristically technical and formal, with several compounds and many words typical of R3b. There are no Rl words at all. gestattet relativ solche Zeitraum objektiv bewährt Modellversuche sich ereignen eigenverantwortlich Verkehrteilnehmer Anmerkung Richt(satz)geschwindigkeit Erkenntnisse

Interjections, There are no also particles, and interjections and ja fillers noticeably few auch

particles. überhaupt

Each speaker defers wenn es gestattet ist to the other wenn ich was sagen darf participants by starting with a polite, formal filler.

Regionalisms These are lacking entirely, although the speakers are from SW.

1.6.3 Literary prose (Günter Grass, Die Blechtrommel)

Günter Grass's novel Die Blechtrommel was a best-seller in Germany and many other countries and is one of the most famous German post-war novels. This passage begins with the main character, Oskar, in a psychiatric unit after the war, and continues in the second and third paragraphs with recollections of his childhood in pre-war Danzig. The whole passage has the typically rich vocabulary and complex sentence structure of modern literary prose (R3a).

Fräulein Dr. Hornstetter, die fast jeden Tag auf eine Zigarettenlänge in mein Zimmer kommt, als Arztin mich behandeln sollte, doch jedesmal von mir behandelt weniger nervös das Zimmer verläßt, sie, die so scheu ist und eigentlich nur mit ihren Zigaretten näheren Umgang pflegt, behauptet immer wieder: ich sei in meiner Jugend kontaktarm gewesen, habe zu wenig mit anderen Kindern gespielt.

Nun, was die anderen Kinder betrifft, mag sie nicht ganz unrecht haben. War ich doch so durch Gretchen Schefflers Lehrbetrieb beansprucht, so zwischen Goethe und Rasputin hin und her gerissen, daß ich selbst beim besten Willen keine Zeit für Ringelreihn und Abzählspiele fand. Sooft ich aber gleich einem Gelehrten die Bücher mied, sogar als Buchstabengräber verfluchte und auf Kontakt mit dem einfachen Volk aus war, stieß ich auf die Gören unseres Mietshauses, durfte froh sein, wenn es mir nach einiger Berührung mit jenen Kannibalen gelang, heil zu meiner Lektüre zurückzufinden.

Oskar konnte die Wohnung seiner Eltern entweder durch den Laden verlassen, dann stand er auf dem Labesweg, oder er schlug die Wohnungstür hinter sich zu, befand sich im Treppenhaus, hatte links die Möglichkeit zur Straße geradeaus, die vier Treppen hoch zum Dachboden, wo der Musiker Meyn die Trompete blies, und als letzte Wahl bot sich der Hof des Mietshauses. Die Straße, das war Kopfsteinpflaster. Auf dem gestampften Sand des Hofes vermehrten sich Kaninchen und wurden Teppiche geklopft. Der Dachboden bot, außer gelegentlichen Debatten mit dem betrunkenen Herrn Meyn, Ausblick, Fernsicht und jenes hübsche aber trügerische Freiheitsgefuhl, das alle Turmbesteiger suchen, das Mansardenbewohner zu Schwärmern macht.

(Danziger Trilogiey Darmstadt: Luchterhand, 1980, pp. 79-80)

Grammar tense The narrative in the second and third paragraph is exclusively in the past tense, but the first paragraph is in the present tense to refer to the time of narration.

indirect speech Konjunktiv I used ich sei . . . kontaktarm gewesen, habe zu wenig... gespielt

case genitive case used freely

unseres Mietshauses des Hofes

demonstratives the typically R3a mit jenen Kannibalen demonstrative jener jenes.. . is used Freiheitsgefiihl

Sentence war... doch used War ich doch so durch Gretchen Schefflers construction in the sense 'but Lehrbetrieb beansprucht,...

then. . . '

use of phrases with von mir behandelt a participle

extensive use of over 50% of all clauses in the text are subordinate subordinate clauses

sentence length There are 32 clauses in 8 sentences. Most of the sentences have three or more clauses, and some are extremely complex, e.g. the single sentence of the first paragraph and the last sentence of the second.

Vocabulary The sheer range of vocabulary is striking.

The first paragraph has some rather technical and formal terms such as the psychiatrist Dr. Hornstetter would use: kontaktarm näheren Umgang pflegen

The second paragraph has much rather lofty typically R3a diction. In the mouth of this narrator, and linked to the very elaborate sentence construction, this gives it a pompous ring which does not sound wholly serious: betreffen Gelehrten Berührung mag meiden Lektüre gleich einem nach einiger heil zurückfinden

The vocabulary of the third paragraph of third-person narrative is rather less lofty, although it is all still characteristic of formal literary writing: sich befinden Ausblick jenes trügerische sich bieten Fernsicht Freiheitsgefuhl sich vermehren Schwärmer

A last noticeable feature is the extensive use of imaginative compounds, some of which will be the author's invention: Zigarettenlänge Buchstabengräber Turmbesteiger Mansardenbewohner

1.6 Passages illustrating levels of register 43

Interjections, particles and fillers

The use of these is very limited: typically the few that occur (nun, doch, aber) are in the second paragraph where a first-person narrator is 'speaking'.

Regionalisms Only Gören (N) children used deliberately to emphasize that these are rough brats.

1.6.4 Non-literary prose {Fachsprache)

This passage is a characteristic piece of modern specialist writing (Fachsprache) dealing with the situation of German as a minority language in Italy (South Tyrol). It has many features typical of this register (R3b); its complexity derives from the extensive use of noun constructions rather than from subordination. In der autonomen Provinz Bozen-Südtirol im Norden Italiens ist Deutsch gleichberechtigte Amtssprache neben Italienisch. Im ladinischen Teil ist zudem seit einigen Jahren Ladinisch dritte Amtssprache. Die Gleichberechtigung von Deutsch und Italienisch ist garantiert im Autonomiestatut von 1972, das eine Reihe von Bedingungen dafür festlegt, insbesondere

(1) den Proporz der beiden Sprachgruppen in der öffentlichen Verwaltung. Binnen 30 Jahren (ausgehend von 1972) sollen die öffentlichen Verwaltungsstellen proportional zur zahlenmäßigen Stärke der Sprachgruppen besetzt werden.

(2) Verwaltungsbeamte müssen zweisprachig sein in Italienisch und Deutsch, in den ladinischen Tälern dreisprachig.

(3) Deutsch und Italienisch werden in den Ämtern gleichberechtigt verwendet. Bei Sitzungen der Organe der Provinz sowie der Gemeinden und öffentlichen Körperschaften ist auch die Verwendung von Deutsch allein zulässig.

(4) Die Gleichberechtigung von Deutsch und Italienisch in den Schulen. Die Sprachgruppen haben jeweils getrennte Schulen; die ladinische Gruppe hat ein mehrsprachiges Schulsystem. Im zweiten Grundschuljahr kommt in den italienischsprachigen Schulen Deutsch und in den deutschsprachigen Schulen Italienisch als Pflichtfach hinzu und bleibt es bis zum Ende der Sekundarstufe. Hierdurch soll die generelle Zweisprachigkeit der Bevölkerung erreicht werden.

Südtirol war bis zum Ende des Ersten Weltkriegs Teil Tirols und damit Österreichs. Es war seit dem späten Mittelalter (1363) in Habsburgischem Besitz, mit nur kurzer Unterbrechung während der napoleonischen Zeit. Erst im Jahre 1919 wurde es von Österreich abgetrennt und - ohne Volksabstimmung und sicher gegen den Willen der Bevölkerungsmehrheit -Italien zugesprochen, gewissermaßen als Belohnung für Italiens Eintritt in den Krieg gegen die Mittelmächte. In der Zeit des italienischen Faschismus (1922-1943) war die öffendiche Verwendung der deutschen Sprache verboten. Durch repressive Sprachenpolitik gegenüber dem Deutschen und durch

gezielte Ansiedlung italienischsprachiger Bevölkerungsgruppen sollte das Gebiet italianisiert werden. Zur Ergänzung dieser Maßnahmen sollte das Geheimabkommen zwischen Hitler und Mussolini vom 23. Juni 1939 dienen, das die deutschsprachigen Südtiroler vor die Entscheidung stellte, entweder Südtirol zu verlassen oder die italienische Sprache anzunehmen.

(Ulrich Ammon, Die deutsche Sprache in Deutschland, Osterreich und der Schweiz. Das Problem der nationalen Varietäten, Berlin and New York:

Walter de Gruyter, 1995, p. 405)

Grammar tense exclusively the present and (in the final paragraph dealing with the history of the region) the past tense

passive extensive use of the sollte das Gebiet passive voice suits italianisiert the impersonal tone werden

Konjunktiv II two instances of the simple form of Konjunktiv II of the modal verb sollen, i.e. sollte.

No other subjunctive forms are used.

case genitive case used Bei Sitzungen der extensively (more Organe der Provinz genitives than im Norden Italiens accusatives)

Sentence construction

constructions with verbal nouns

Die öffentliche Verwendung der deutschen Sprache

Zur Ergänzung dieser Maßnahmen

'blocks' of noun phrases linked by the genitive or by prepositions

den Proporz der beiden Sprachgruppen in der öffentlichen Verwaltung

als Belohnung für Italiens Eintritt in den Krieg gegen die Mittelmächte

Ausklammerung of long phrases

. . . wurde es . . . Italien zugesprochen, gewissermaßen als Belohnung für Italiens Eintritt in den Krieg

use of phrasal verbs das die deutschsprachigen Südtiroler vor die Entscheidung stellte

The preference for noun constructions rather than verbs and subordinate clauses is very typical of this register (there are only two subordinate clauses). As a consequence, very few full verbs are used, and sein and haben make up a third of the verbs in the passage. The effect is to reinforce the factual, impersonal tone and give an impression of preciseness.

Vocabulary T h e vocabulary is highly specialized and abstract, consist ing exclusively of words which are R 2 or R3.

Gleichberechtigung Zweisprachigkeit Körperschaften zahlenmäßig in Habsburgischem Besitz zusprechen Verwaltung Ansiedlung

There are many words of foreign origin, of ten with specialized meanings:

autonom Provinz garantieren Proporz proportional Organe generell repressiv italianisieren

T h e r e are many compound words, of ten with foreign elements. These , too, of ten be long to specialist terminology:

Amtssprache Volksabstimmung Verwaltungsstelle Bevölkerungsgruppen Grundschuljahr Sprachgruppe Sekundarstufe Schulsystem Sprachenpolitik Pflichtfach Autonomiestatut Bevölkerungsmehrheit Verwaltungsbeamte Geheimabkommen italienischsprachig

As might be expected in this very formal written register, interjections, fillers and particles are entirely absent, and there are no regionalisms o f any kind.

1.6.5 Serious newspaper report: Die Welt

T h i s passage and the fol lowing one (1.6.6) provide contrasting examples o f the register o f journalism in the form of reports o f the same incident from a 'broadsheet' newspaper (Die Welt) and a 'tabloid' (Bild).

After the striking headlines, which are designed to catch the eye, the account in Die Welt maintains the serious and objective tone o f a factual report, with the aim of informing the reader fully about the event and its causes as known at the t ime o f writing. T h e register shares characteristics o f R3a and R3b (although tending more to the latter), and many o f the linguistic features are comparable to those found in the factual writing o f 1.6.4, with relatively s imple sentence construction, blocks of noun phrases and wide use o f technical terminology.

Beide Triebwerke ausgefallen: Todesangst im Urlauberjet

Flug 3378 musste mit 150 Menschen an Bord notlanden - Elf Verletzte - Osterreichische Behörde vermutet Pilotenfehler

Die Rückkehr aus dem Urlaub wurde am Mittwoch fur 142 deutsche Touristen zum Albtraum: Nur knapp konnte die achtköpfige Crew ihres Airbus A310-300 mit der Flugnummer H F 3378 mit einer Notlandung in Wien-Schwechat eine Katastrophe abwenden. Als die Maschine um 13 Uhr auf Rückweg von Kreta nach Hannover gerade die ungarische Hauptstadt Budapest überflog, meldete der Pilot Treibstoffverlust und Probleme mit beiden Triebwerken. Schon beim Start hatten die Piloten Sorgen mit dem Fahrwerk. Es ließ sich nicht einfahren. U m 13.10 Uhr ersuchte der Pilot um Erlaubnis zur Notlandung in Wien-Schwechat.

Zu spät, wie die österreichischen Behörden meinen. Sie fuhren die Bruchlandung des Airbus 310 auf einen Pilotenfehler zurück. Der Pilot habe sich zu spät zu einer Notlandung entschlossen, nachdem er das Fahrwerk nach dem Start nicht mehr habe zurückfahren können, sagte der Sprecher des zuständigen Verkehrsministeriums. Die Maschine sei auf Grund des dadurch höheren Luftwiderstandes der Treibstoff ausgegangen. „Der Pilot hatte den höheren Verbrauch ausrechnen können", sagte der Sprecher. Es sei daher unklar, warum der Pilot nicht schon in Zagreb oder Graz eine Notlandung versucht habe.

Denn um 13.31 Uhr ging die Maschine, die den letzten Tropfen Treibstoff verbraucht hat und mit ausgefallenen Triebwerken unterwegs ist, im Gleitflug zur Notlandung in Wien-Schwechat über. Der Pilot setzte aus Sicherheitsgründen neben der Landepiste auf. Der Airbus drehte sich um die eigene Achse, verlor das Fahrgestell, die linke Tragfläche bricht. Die Maschine kam auf einer Wiese neben der Landebahn 34 zum Stillstand.

Feuerwehr und Rettungswagen rasten zum Unglücksort knapp drei Kilometer vom Hauptgebäude des Flughafens entfernt. Der Flugbetrieb wurde für eine halbe Stunde zur Gänze eingestellt. Über aufgeblasene Notrutschen verließen die schwer geschockten und großteils unverletzten Passagiere das Flugzeug. Sie wurden medizinisch untersucht, elf von ihnen mussten zur Beobachtung in Krankenhäuser der Umgebung gebracht werden. Die wenigen Augenzeugen sagten im österreichischen Rundfunk, die Maschine sei ungewöhnlich niedrig und geräuschlos geflogen. Sie habe buchstäblich mit letzter Kraft die Umzäunung des Flughafens überflogen. Dies wurde als Beweis dafür gewertet, dass beide Triebwerke bereits ausgefallen waren.

(Die Welt, 13 July 2000, p. 36)

Grammar formal and correct in all respects

tense The report is predominantly in the past tense.

pluperfect used to ausgefallen waren indicate remoter past time

The 'historic' unterwegs ist present or perfect verbraucht hat tenses give an effect die linke Tragfläche of immediacy at the bricht dramatic highpoint of the event.

complex verbal forms nachdem er das used Fahrwerk . . . nicht

mehr habe zurückfahren können

passive wide use of the Der Flugbetrieb werden-passive in wurde eingestellt the last paragraph, Sie wurden giving an medizinisch impersonal tone untersucht

passive equivalent Es ließ sich nicht with sich lassen used einfahren

indirect speech consistent use of Der Pilot habe Konjunktiv I sich. . .

entschlossen die Maschine s e i . . .

niedrig und geräuschlos geflogen

der Sprecher des zuständigen Verkehrsminis-teriums

Krankenhäuser der Umgebung

Sentence construction

Subordination relatively little subordination (about 20% of all the clauses are subordinate)

strings of main characteristic use of strings of main clauses clauses placed side by side without any linking

conjunctions - the succession of short main clauses at the highpoint of the event enhance the dramatic effect of the presentation

case genitive case used freely (similar proportion to passage 1.6.3)

sentence length Sentences are not unduly long (about 14 words per sentence on average, with the longest having 28 words). This corresponds to the norm in R3b.

constructions with Der Pilot habe sich zu spät zu einer verbal nouns Notlandung entschlossen

. . . meldete der Pilot Treibstoffverlust

phrasal verbs . . . ging die Maschine . . . zur (compare 1.6.4) Not landung. . . über

Die Maschine kam auf einer Wiese . . . zum Stillstand

extended adjective auf Grund des dadurch höheren constructions Luftwiderstandes

die schwer geschockten und großteils unverletzten Passagiere

Vocabulary The vocabulary is relatively formal, with a high proportion of words and phrases which are used exclusively in R3. eine Katastrophe abwenden sich zu einer Notlandung

entschließen der höhere Verbrauch sich um die eigene Achse drehen zur Gänze einstellen großteils unverletzt zur Beobachtung Umzäunung

um Erlaubnis ersuchen das zuständige

Verkehrsministerium aus Sicherheitsgründen Unglücksort schwer geschockt medizinisch untersuchen geräuschlos als Beweis fur etwas werten

Several specialist terms relating to air travel are used, as appropriate to the subject matter of the report. A significant number of these are foreign words or compounds: Crew Treibstoffverlust Fahrwerk Pilotenfehler Gleitflug Tragfläche

Flugnummer Triebwerk einfahren Luftwiderstand Landepiste Flugbetrieb

Notlandung Start Bruchlandung Treibstoff Fahrgestell Notrutsche

As in other formal varieties of German, interjections, fillers and particles are entirely absent, and there are no regionalisms of any kind.

1.6.6 Tabloid newspaper report: Bild

This report in Bild of the same incident as that dealt with in Die Welt in 1.6.5 is significantly different in tone and register. It is presented in a much more dramatic, sensational and less objective fashion, to make the readers feel as if they are experiencing the incident directly. The emphasis is on the emotional responses as much as on the factual event.

Ferien-Airbus: Kein Sprit mehr, Triebwerkausfall

Pilot rettet 142 Urlauber Notlandung! Triebwerkausfall! Die Passagiere an Bord waren wie gelähmt.

Stewardessen halfen, die Gurte fest anzuziehen, trösteten zitternde Urlauber. Auf dem Flug HF3378 von Chania (Kreta) nach Hannover fielen in 9000

Meter Höhe beide Triebwerke aus. 142 Urlauber litten Todesangst - und feiern jetzt den Piloten wie einen Helden.

Er brachte den 122-Tonnen-Airbus A310 im Gleitflug runter! U m 11.55 Uhr war das Flugzeug gestartet, Minuten später die erste

Alarmmeldung: Das Fahrwerk ließ sich nicht einfahren. Der erfahrene Pilot Wolfgang Arminger (55, Münchner, 20 000 Flugstunden) und Flugsicherung entschieden: Weiterflug, aber außerplanmäßige Zwischenlandung in Wien-Schwechat.

13.12 Uhr im Landeanflug, 25 Kilometer vor dem Wiener Airport, der Notruf: „Flug H S 3378,9000 Meter, short on fuel!" Das heißt: kein Sprit mehr! Eine Minute später: beide Triebwerke fielen aus! „Austro Control, wir gehen in Gleitflug", funkte der Pilot. Die Fluglotsen antworteten: „Wir räumen alles frei. Wir sind bei euch!"

Großalarm auf dem Boden, Feuerwehr und Krankenwagen fuhren auf. Fluglotsen beobachteten auf dem Radarschirm, wie die deutsche Maschine immer mehr an Höhe verlor.

13.32 Uhr, die Notlandung auf Piste 34: „Der Jet flog sehr tief an, unheimlich leise, wie ein Segelflugzeug. Wackelte mit dem Heck. Er setzte vor der Piste im Gras auf, kam gerade so über den Zaun", sagte die Flughafenangestellte Anita Arshay.

Ein Feuerwehrmann: „Fahrwerksteile rissen weg, die Maschine drehte sich um 180 Grad, der linke Flügel brach ab, der Jet schlidderte übers Gras."

„Als er stand, sind meine Leute hingestürmt. Wir hörten die Passagiere rufen. Dann schössen die Luftkissen der Notrutschen hervor. Innerhalb von drei Minuten hatten wir alle Passagiere raus. Ein Glück, dass es nicht gebrannt hat", sagte Dr. Bernhard Sigall, Einsatzleiter der Rettungskräfte.

BILANZ: Nur elf Passagiere verletzt, doch die meisten standen unter Schock.

(Bild, 13 July 2000, p. 3)

A significant characteristic of this text is that, although most of its features are still predominantly those of written German (R3, especially R3b), a significant number are more typical of less formal Rl, so that a deliberate impression is given of a kind of language much closer to spontaneous colloquial speech (and thus to the everyday usage of the intended readership). We have indicated the relevant register of all the features listed below.

Grammar tense The report is exclusively in the past (or pluperfect) tense, as would be expected in R3.

Present and perfect tenses only used in quoted speech:

Wir räumen alles frei Ein Glück, dass es nicht gebrannt hat

passive

quoted speech

case

Sentence incomplete sentences construction

sentence length

subordination

The past tense is also used in much of the quoted speech. This would not be the case in actual spoken Rl, esp. in AU.

Fahrwerksteile rissen weg, die Maschine drehte sich um 180 Grad, der linke Flügel brach ab, der Jet schlidderte übers Gras

No passives with werden are used; the event is not being presented in an impersonal, objective fashion (Rl).

Passive equivalent with sich lassen (typically R3b) used once:

Das Fahrwerk ließ sich nicht einfahren

There is no indirect speech, and thus no Konjunktiv I (this mood is restricted to formal R3). All quotations are given in direct speech (although, as the past tense is used, these cannot be the actual words and forms employed by the people being reported).

The genitive case is used sparingly (Rl) - only twice:

die Luftkissen der Notrutschen Einsatzleiter der Rettungskräfte

Many 'sentences' are simply nouns or phrases without a verb. This is typical of Rl, and here it gives a breathless, urgent tone to the report, emphasizing the drama of the situation.

All sentences are very short, as in Rl (about 8 words per sentence on average; the longest has 20 words).

The text consists chiefly (over 90%) of main clauses, with only two subordinate clauses and one infinitive clause. This is typical of both Rl and R3b:

. . . , wie die deutsche Maschine immer mehr an Höhe verlor

Als er stand, sind . . . Stewardessen halfen, die Gurte fest

anzuziehen

Vocabulary

strings of main As in 1.6.5, there are several strings of main clauses clauses placed side by side without any

linking conjunction (Rl and R3b): Fahrwerksteile rissen weg, die Maschine

drehte sich um 180 Grad, der linke Flügel brach ab, der Jet schlidderte übers Gras

ellipsis of pronoun This is typical of Rl (see 1.6.1): . . . Wackelte mit dem Heck

Some typical R3b constructions found in 1.6.5 are lacking entirely. There are no constructions with verbal nouns, phrasal verbs or extended adjective constructions.

The vocabulary is predominantly neutral (i.e. R2); typically, the R2 word Flügel is used, for example, rather than R3b Tragfläche as found in 1.6.5. However, there are several colloquial (Rl) words and phrases. These are often expressive or have a high emotional content: . . . wie gelähmt brachte . . . runter Großalarm wackeln hinstürmen Todesangst kein Sprit mehr unheimlich leise

schliddern hervorschießen feiern . . . wie einen Helden Wir sind bei euch kam gerade so über den Zaun übers Gras . . . hatten wir alle . . . raus

Some specialist R3b terminology is employed, as in 1.6.5, with some of the typical anglicisms used in aviation. It will be assumed that the paper's readership is familiar with these (or would like to think they are).

Airport Austro Control Einsatzleiter der Rettungskräfte Gleitflug Fahrwerk außerplanmäßige Zwischenlandung Notruf Fluglotsen

Notlandung starten einfahren Landeanflug short on fuel Notrutsche Triebwerkausfall Alarmmeldung Weiterflug

There are no interjections, fillers and particles, and no regionalisms.

Punctuation The exclamation mark is used liberally, both after single words and sentences. This serves to heighten the sense of urgency and the emotional, subjective tone of the report.

2 Words and meanings

2.1 Problems of meaning

M o r e than two-thirds o f errors made by advanced English-speaking learners o f German involve matters o f vocabulary. T h e central problem is that different languages reflect a different perspective o f the world in their vocabulary. Each language divides up things, ideas, events, etc. in terms of words from a quite different viewpoint, categorizing and drawing distinctions in an individual way. T h e result is not just that there are words in German which are 'untranslatable', such as gemütlich, but that for m u c h of the vocabulary we do not find any one- to -one correspondences between an Engl ish word and a German word. Cases o f exact equivalence, such as Baum/tree or Tisch/table are relatively rare. Learning German involves learning how to break out of the Engl ish framework of meaning and operate in the framework peculiar to German. As we are dealing with individual words, there are no rules; each word has to be taken on its o w n terms and there may be contexts where more than one will serve equally for a particular Engl ish word.

T h e fol lowing sections aim to explain some of the most confus ing cases where the range of meaning o f a word or group of words in one o f the languages does not correspond to that of the nearest equivalents in the other.

2.1.1 Problems of meaning: English-German examples

T h i s section gives, in alphabetical order, a selection o f c o m m o n Engl ish words which have a number o f German equivalents because they cover a wider area of meaning than any single word in German. It aims to help English-speaking learners to choose the word which best suits what they want to say by explaining briefly the differences in meaning between the possible German equivalents. T h e r e are, o f course, many more such words than can be dealt with here - more information is to be found in the companion vo lume Using German Synonyms (Durrel l 2000) - but the examples given will help learners with other groups o f words by showing the kind o f information which needs to be looked for w h e n using a dictionary.

Rl = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

2.1 Problems of meaning 53

ACCEPT etw akzeptieren

jdn akzeptieren etw annehmen

jdn [in etw] aufnehmen

etw einsehen etw gelten lassen etw hinnehmen etw über' nehmen ) etw auf sich nehmen J

to accept, agree with sth (e.g. suggestion)

to accept sb (e.g. as a friend) to accept sth (i.e. take sth offered)

to admit sb [to sth] (e.g. to a club)

to recognize, realize sth to take sth as valid (e.g. excuses) to put up with sth

to take sth on (e.g. task) ' stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

etw akzeptieren

jdn akzeptieren etw annehmen

jdn [in etw] aufnehmen

etw einsehen etw gelten lassen etw hinnehmen etw über' nehmen ) etw auf sich nehmen J

to accept, agree with sth (e.g. suggestion)

to accept sb (e.g. as a friend) to accept sth (i.e. take sth offered)

to admit sb [to sth] (e.g. to a club)

to recognize, realize sth to take sth as valid (e.g. excuses) to put up with sth

to take sth on (e.g. task)

ACCIDENT der Unfall

das Unglück

das Malheur (Rl)

das Missgeschick (R2/R3)

less serious, not necessarily fatal

fairly major, disaster (e.g. rail, plane)

minor mishap (possibly embarrassing)

mishap, misfortune

ACCIDENTALLY versehentlich) aus Versehen) zufallig

inadvertently

by chance

ACCOMPLISH-MENT

die Durchführung (R3b) die Fertigkeit die Leistung die Vollendung (R3b)

execution, implementation skill (learned or acquired) achievement, performance completion

ACTUALLY see really

ADMIT etw zugeben jdn (zu etw) zulassen j jdn (in etw) hin-/hereinlassen i

to confess (to) sth

to admit sb to sth, let sb in

ADVISE jdm von etw abraten jdn beraten

jdm raten jdn von etw in Kenntnis \ setzen (R3b)

jdn von etw verständigen / jdm zuraten, etw zu tun 1

to advise sb against sth to advise sb at length (esp professionally)

to advise sb (general sense) to inform sb of sth

to advise sb in favour of doing sth

ADVERTISING/ die Annonce \ ADVERTISE- die Anzeige > small ad MENT das Inserat )

das Plakat poster, bill, placard die Reklame commercial advertisement

der Werbespot television commercial

die Werbung advertising (general sense)

AFRAID see fear

AGAIN noch einmal one more time nochmals | once again, stressing repetition wiederum) once again, stressing repetition

wieder once more as before

AGE das Alter length, stage of life; old age das Zeitalter (historical) period

AGREE etw (mit jdm) abmachen (Rl) ) etw (mit jdm) ausmachen (Rl))

to agree (on) sth (with sb)

sich (zu etw) bereit erklären to be prepared (to do sth) etw billigen (R3) to approve (of) sth (sich) (mit jdm) einig/

einverstanden sein to be of the same opinion as sb

mit etw einverstanden sein not to object to sth sich (mit jdm) einigen to reach an agreement (with sb) in etw einwilligen to consent to sth übereinkommen to reach an agreement on a course

of action (mit jdm/etw) übereinstimmen to agree with sb/sth (i.e. to

concur with sb, to tally with sth) etw verabreden (R1/R2) 1 etw vereinbaren (R2/R3)J to agree (on) sth (e.g. dates, plan)

jdm/etw zustimmen to be in agreement with sb's opinion or with a proposed course of action

zugeben, dass . . . to admit tha t . . .

ALTER see change

APPEARANCE der Anschein (R2/R3) der Auftritt

das Aussehen das Äußere(s)

das Erscheinen die Erscheinung

der Schein

impression (judged to be true) entrance, appearance (e.g. on

stage, TV) general look of sb or sth outward appearance (e.g. clothes,

face) action of becoming visible appearance, phenomenon, vision

(i.e. what is seen, referring to persons or events)

outward look (often false)

ASK jdn/etw anfordern (R2/R3) to request, require sb/sth (to be provided)

(bei jdm/CH: jdn) anfragen to enquire (of sb) (simple enquiry) jdn (zu etw) auffordern to challenge, require sb (to do sth) jdn ausfragen to interrogate sb jdn befragen to question sb (fully) jdn (um etw) bitten | jdn (um etw) ersuchen (R3) J to request (sth) of sb, ask sb (for sth)

jdn einladen to invite sb etw erfordern (R3) to require, call for sth (of a thing) sich nach jdm/etw \

erkundigen (R3) / nach jdm/etw fragen J

to enquire about sb/sth

(um etw) flehen (R3a) to plead (for sth) etw fordern to demand, require sth (with

insistence) jdn fragen to ask sb (a question) (jdm) eine Frage stellen to ask (sb) a question (bei jdm) nachfragen to enquire (of sb) (repeated

questioning) etw verlangen to demand, require, want sth

AVOID

' stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

jdm/etw ausweichen sich jdm/etw entziehen (R3a) jdn/etw meiden (R3) 1 jdm/etw aus dem Weg gehen )

etwum1 gehen

etw vermeiden

to steer clear of sth (e.g. danger) to elude, evade sb/sth

to keep clear of sb/sth

to find a way round sth (e.g. obstacle)

to manage not to do sth \\\\\ V 77/7/r

56 2 Words and meanings

BAD arg(R3;S)

böse schlecht

schlimm

übel

bad (possibly with serious consequences)

evil, wicked, nasty not good, of sth which can possibly

be good given other conditions inherently bad, of sth which cannot

possibly ever be good (accident, serious illness)

bad, nasty, repulsive, sick

BANK der Abhang die Bank der Damm die Sandbank, Wolkenbank das Ufer

slope financial establishment embankment sandbank, cloudbank shore of river, lake, etc.

BEHAVE sich aufführen (R1/R2)

sich benehmen

sich betragen (R3) sich verhalten

to behave (making a particular good or bad impression on others)

to behave well, observe accepted standards

to conduct oneself to behave (act in a particular way

in response to sb or sth)

BELONG etw angehören jdm gehören zu etw gehören

to be a member of sth (e.g. club) to be the possession of sb to be a part of sth, be one of sth

BLAME jdn beschuldigen jdm die Schuld (an etw) geben jdn tadeln (R3a) jdm etw vorwerfen

to accuse sb, fix the blame on sb to blame sb (for sth) to censure sb to reproach sb with sth, accuse sb of sth

BOX die Büchse

die Dose der Karton das Kästchen

can, tin, box (with lid) (less common than Dose, except in CH)

small box; tin can cardboard box small wooden box, casket (e.g. for

jewels)

der Kasten solid, fair-sized box or case; crate (for bottles) (S also: cupboard)

die Kiste wooden packing-case or chest (e.g. for tea, cigars)

die Schachtel flat, flimsy box, packet (e.g. for matches, chocolates)

BREAK ein Ei aufschlagen to break an egg (etw) brechen to break cleanly, of solid objects

(e.g. arm, mast, branch) kaputt sein (Rl) to be broken kaputtgehen (itr) (Rl) to break (almost anything) etw kaputtmachen (Rl) to break sth (almost anything) (etw) reißen to snap (sth), of non-hard things

(e.g. string); to rip or tear (e.g. cloth)

etw unterbrechen to interrupt sth (e.g. journey) (etw) zerbrechen to break (sth) into fragments (e.g.

window) (etw) zerreißen to tear (sth) into little pieces

(non-hard things) etw zerschlagen to smash sth into fragments (esp

deliberately) jdn/etw zerschmettern to smash, shatter, crush sb/sth

BRIGHT glänzend gleaming (e.g. of metal, prospects) heiter cheerful (e.g. of weather, day,

person) hell not dark (of light) intelligent clever leuchtend glowing (of colours) strahlend shining (e.g. of sun, eyes, jewel)

BRUSH der Besen broom, for sweeping die Bürste stiff brush, for cleaning (e.g. hair,

shoes) der Pinsel soft brush for applying sth (e.g.

paint)

58 2 Words and meanings

CALL jdn/etw abholen to call for sb, pick sb up jdn (CH: jdm) anrufen to call sb on the telephone jdn besuchen | bei jdm vorbeikommen (Rl) J to call on sb, visit sb

heißen to be called jdn/etw herbeirufen to summon sb/sth (e.g. doctor, taxi) jdn etw nennen to call, name sb sth (etw) rufen to shout (sth) out jdm etw zurufen to call sth out to sb (from a distance)

CARE die Fürsorge (R3b) care (of a sick or elderly person) die Obhut (R3) care, safe keeping die Pflege looking after sb/sth die Sorge worry, anxiety die Sorgfalt attentiveness, carefulness die Vorsicht attention, caution, prudence

CAREFUL behutsam (R2/R3) cautious, careful, considerate sorgfaltig painstaking, taking care in doing sth umsichtig circumspect, prudent vorsichtig cautious, avoiding mishaps

CARELESS leichtsinnig foolishly thoughtless nachlässig negligent (opposite of sorgfältig) sorglos carefree, unworried unvorsichtig not paying attention

CASE see box

CASTLE die Burg medieval fortress das Schloss stately home, palace

CATHEDRAL der Dom within German-speaking countries die Kathedrale outside German-speaking countries das Münster in a few specific cities mainly in SW

(e.g. Strasbourg, Basle, Freiburg, Ulm, Essen)

CAUSE der Anlass cause, occasion (immediate cause or trigger for sth)

der Grund reason, motivation die Ursache sth producing an effect (i.e.

Wirkung)

CHANGE sich/etw ändern to change (sth) a lot, typically quickly and producing a striking difference

sich/etw verändern to alter (sth) less radically, esp in gradual process - typically a person's appearance

etw tauschen to swap sth for one of the same value 'umsteigen to change (trains, buses, planes, etc.) etw 'umtauschen to exchange sth (e.g. goods in a shop,

money) sich 'umziehen to get changed (clothes) jdn/etw verwandeln to transform sb/sth completely (e.g.

magic) etw wechseln to substitute sth for another of the

same kind (e.g. job, topic, money)

CLEVER begabt gifted clever (esp Rl) smart, sharp gescheit (esp S) shrewd, quick-witted geschickt skilful, dexterous intelligent mentally gifted, bright klug sensible, clear-headed schlau astute, ingenious

CLIMB etw besteigen to climb, ascend sth (not necessarily right to the top)

etw ersteigen to reach the top of sth (e.g. mountain) auf/über etw klettern to climb, clamber up/over sth, using

hands steigen to climb, ascend (intr) auf etw steigen climb up (onto) sth, ascend sth

CLOSE etw dichtmachen (Rl) to shut sth (esp shop) etw schließen (R2/R3) ) etw zumachen (R1/R2)J to shut, close sth

etw sperren to close sth off (e.g. road); (SE): to shut sth

zugehen (Rl) to shut

COAT see jacket

COLLECT jdn/etw abholen

etw ansammeln

sich ansammeln etw aufsammeln

etw einnehmen ) etw kassieren (R1)J etw einsammeln

sich/etw häufen etw sammeln

sich sammeln

sich versammeln | zusammenkommen)

to pick sb/sth up (e.g. at station, airport)

to accumulate, amass sth (indiscriminately)

to gather (crowds) to collect sth up (things lying

around)

to collect sth (money, taxes)

to collect sth up/ in (things lying around, or one thing from each person in a group)

to pile (sth) up to collect things to keep (e.g.

stamps) or for use (e.g. berries, mushrooms, wood)

to collect (of things, or of people assembling casually in a place)

to assemble in a place (of people, for a specific purpose)

COMPLAIN sich (über jdn/etw) beklagen sich (über etw) beschweren) (etw) reklamieren ) (über etw) klagen (R2/R3)

meckern (Rl)) nörgeln J

to express annoyance about sb/sth

to make a complaint (about sth)

to express concern, dissatisfaction (about sb/sth)

to moan, grouse

CONTENT(S) der Gehalt

der Inhalt

content in terms of ideas; proportion of sth in sth

contents, what is physically in sth

CONTINUE fortfahren, etw zu tun etw fortsetzen (R3)J etw weiterfuhren J weitermachen (Rl)

to continue to do sth

to continue sth

to carry on (intr)

NOTE: the most natural German equivalent of'to continue', 'to carry on doing sth' is most often weiter with an appropriate verb, see 5.2.4.

COPY die Kopie das Exemplar

replica, exact copy one of a number (e.g. book)

COW/CATTLE die Kuh das Rind das Rindvieh das Vieh

cow, i.e. the female animal head of cattle (Rl also: beef) cattle as species (Rl*: term of abuse) livestock, esp, but not only, cattle

CROSS NOTE : the most idiomatic R2 equivalent of'to cross' used transitively is über etw gehen, fahren, etc.; used intransitively it is hinübergehen, hinüberfahren, etc.

etw durch1 queren (R3) sich kreuzen etw passieren etw über1 queren (R3) etw überschreiten (R3)

to go across sth of wide area (e.g. desert) to pass one another (e.g. trains, letters) to pass through or over sth (e.g. frontier) to go from one side of sth to the other to step over sth (esp a line, e.g. railway)

CRY (etw) brüllen (esp Rl)

heulen (Rl) (etw) rufen schluchzen (etw) schreien

weinen

to yell, roar (sth), esp in excitement or rage

to bawl, howl (esp children) to call (sth), usually articulate to sob to shout, scream, yell (sth), often inarticulate (e.g. in fear)

to weep, cry

DAMAGE etw beschädigen to cause actual physical damage to sth jdm/etw schaden to be bad for sb/sth jdn/etw schädigen to be to the disadvantage of sb/sth (e.g.

reputation, business)

DARK dunkel düster (R3)

finster (R3)

trübe

not bright (opposite of hell) gloomy, with little light and thus unpleasant

pitch black, with no light and thus sinister; S: dark, not bright

dull, dim (e.g. of light), murky (e.g. of water)

1 stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

62 2 Words and meanings

DECIDE etw beschließen etw bestimmen sich (fur etw) entscheiden

sich zu etw entschließen

jdn veranlassen etw zu tun

to reach a decision to do sth to fix, determine sth (e.g. time, place) to decide (on sth) by choosing from the

available alternatives to reach a firm decision to do sth after

due consideration to make sb decide to do sth

DEMAND see ask

DENY etw ableugnen (R2/R3)

etw in Abrede stellen (R3b) etw bestreiten etw dementieren (R3b) (etw) leugnen

jdn/etw verleugnen etw verneinen jdm etw verweigern

to deny sth forcefully (with the implication that the denial is not credible)

to deny, dispute sth (accusation) to deny, dispute, contest sth to deny sth officially to declare sth to be untrue (with the

implication that the denial is not credible)

to disclaim a connection with sb/sth to answer a question in the negative to refuse sb sth

DIE abkratzen (Rl) ) den Arsch zukneifen (Rl*) l ins Gras beißen (Rl) ( krepieren (Rl) / entschlafen (R3)) verscheiden (R3) f sterben 'umkommen (R2/R3)l ums Leben kommen i

to croak, kick the bucket, snuff it

to pass away (euphemistic)

to die (general sense)

to be killed (e.g. in an accident)

DIFFERENT ander unterschiedlich verschieden

not the same as before, another varied not the same as each other, various

DOUBT etw anzweifeln etw bezweifeln

an jdm/etw zweifeln

to cast doubt on sth (e.g. sb's honesty) to doubt sth which has been taken to be

true or accurate to have doubts about sb/sth

2.1 Problems of meaning 63

ENTRY/ ENTRANCE

die Aufnahme der Auftritt die Einfahrt der Eingang die Einreise der Eintrag der Eintritt der Zugang der Zutritt

admittance (e.g. to a club) as a member entrance on stage way in for vehicles way in (on foot) entry to a country entry in book (e.g. dictionary, ledger) act of entering, admission (point of) access right of entry, admittance

EVENT die Begebenheit (R3) das Ereignis

der Fall das Geschehen

die Veranstaltung der Vorfall der Vorgang

das Vorkommen

das Vorkommnis (R3) der Zwischenfall (R3)

chance occurrence, esp extraordinary event, incident (i.e. significant

ocurrence) case (cf. im Falle eines Krieges) events, happenings (esp sequence of

events) organized function unexpected incident event seen as process (pi Vorgänge =

sequence of events) occurrence (e.g. precious metals minerals, etc.)

single occurrence, often unpleasant incident, esp political or diplomatic

EXAMINE etw kontrollieren etw prüfen jdn prüfen

to check, scrutinize sth (e.g. passport) to test sth for genuineness or accuracy to subject sb (e.g. candidate) to an examination

to subject sb/sth to careful scrutiny, investigate sb/sth

' stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

jdn/etw untersuchen

to check, scrutinize sth (e.g. passport) to test sth for genuineness or accuracy to subject sb (e.g. candidate) to an examination

to subject sb/sth to careful scrutiny, investigate sb/sth

EXPERIENCE die Erfahrung das Erlebnis

knowledge, skills acquired over time event, sensation which one has

experienced

FALL fallen stürzen

to fall (general sense) to fall violently, usually causing injury or

damage (e.g. from height, off bicycle)

64 2 Words and meanings

FAT dick corpulent, large, hefty (of people) fett containing fat (Rl also = fat - of

people in pejorative sense) fettig greasy, covered in fat

FEAR/ Angst haben (R1/R2) to be rather afraid, uneasy (fairly FRIGHTEN weak)

jdm Angst machen ) to scare, frighten sb jdn in Angst versetzen (R3)J to scare, frighten sb

etw befürchten to be afraid that sth unpleasant will happen

(vor jdm/etw) erschrecken (R3) to be physically frightened NOTE: strong verb, see 3.3.4 (suddenly) jdn erschrecken to startle sb, frighten sb suddenly NOTE: weak verb, see 3.3.4 furchten, dass . . . (R1/R2) to be afraid that (sth unpleasant

will happen) jdn/etw furchten (R2/R3) to be in awe, dread of sb/sth sich (vor jdm/etw) furchten to be frightened of sb/sth (fairly

strong) (es) graut jdm (vor jdm/etw) sb has a dread (of sb/sth) (R3)

es tut mir Leid(, dass . . . ) I am sorry, I regret (that. . .)

FEEL sich + adj anfühlen (of things) to feel + adj, e.g. hard, hot, damp (to the touch)

etw betasten to feel sth to test quality etw empfinden (R2/R3) to be sensitive to sth (e.g. cold);

feel emotions (e.g. joy, sorrow, respect)

etw fühlen to perceive sth through the senses sich + adj fühlen (of people) to feel + adj, e.g. well,

sick, tired meinen(, dass . . . ) to feel, be of the opinion (that...) etw spüren to be aware of sth, notice, sense

sth (nach etw) tasten to grope, feel (for sth) searchingly

FIGHT etw bekämpfen to combat sth (e.g. disease, fascism)

boxen to box fechten to fence

2.1 Problems of meaning 65

sich hauen (Rl)] sich prügeln ? sich schlagen ) (gegen jdn/etw) kämpfen sich (mit jdm) streiten

to have a fight

to fight (sb/sth), esp prolonged struggle to argue, quarrel (with sb), possibly, but not necessarily, physically; (R3) to fight

FINALLY im Endeffekt (Rl) endgültig endlich

letztendlich ) letzten Endes J

schließlich zum Schluss zuletzt

in the end, in the final analysis for ever, definitive(ly) at last, after a long time (often

impatient)

ultimately, in the final analysis

eventually, after all in the end, in conclusion finally, in the end (last of a series of

events)

FIRE der Brand

das Feuer

a fire, causing damage (e.g. house, forest)

fire as element

(AT) FIRST erst erst mal (Rl)) zunächst ) erstens

erstmals ) zum ersten Malf zuerst

first (followed by dann in series)

initially, for the moment

first(ly) - in list, followed by zweitens, drittens, etc.

for the first time

before the rest

FLOW fließen strömen

to flow (general senses) to pour out, flow in large masses, stream

FOLLOW etw befolgen to act in accordance with sth (e.g. orders)

etw besuchen to attend sth (e.g. course) (jdm/etw) folgen (R2/R3) to follow (sb/sth) NOTE: in the neutral sense of'to follow' an appropriate verb of motion prefixed by nach- or hinterhere.g. jdm nachlaufen, hinterherlaufen, is the most frequent equivalent in Rl and R2

66 2 Words and meanings

[FOLLOW] auf jdn/etw folgen

aus etw folgen (jdm/etw) nachfolgen

jdn verfolgen etw verfolgen

jdn/etw verstehen

to succeed sb/sth in chronological sequence

to follow from sth (logically) to come after/behind sb/sth (i.e. come

on later); to succeed sb to pursue sb (e.g. thief); persecute sb to follow sth keenly (e.g. aims, TV

series) to understand sb/sth (e.g. 'Do you

follow me?')

FOOD das Essen der Fraß das Futter das Gericht die Kost (R2/R3) die Lebensmittel (pl) ) die Nahrungsmittel (pl) f die Nahrung die Speise

food (i.e. what is eaten for a meal) animal food; (Rl) (lousy) grub food for animals; (Rl) grub dish

fare, type of food

foodstuffs, comestibles

nourishment, sustenance dish (usually in compound, e.g. Süßspeise; in R3 and S also = nourishment)

FORCE jdm etw aufzwingen jdn/etw bezwingen etw (von jdm) erzwingen jdn (zu etw) zwingen

to force sth on sb to overcome sb/sth (e.g. enemy, fear) to force sth (from sb) to force, compel sb (to sth)

FREEZE einfrieren

etw einfrieren

erfrieren es friert ich friere (N) ) mich friert (es) (R3; S) 1 frieren ) gefrieren (R3)) zufrieren

to freeze up (e.g. pipes), freeze in (ships)

to freeze sth (e.g. food, post in institution)

to freeze to death there is a frost, it is freezing

I am cold

to turn to ice

to freeze over (e.g. of lake)

FRUIT die Frucht das Obst

fruit (general sense) edible fruit (e.g. apples, pears)

2.1 Problems of meaning 67

GARAGE die Garage die Tankstelle die Werkstatt

place to store cars, etc. petrol station, gas station repair shop for cars, etc.

GATHER see collect

GRASP etw begreifen ) etw erfassen (R2/R3) j

sich jds/etw (gen) bemächtigen (R3)

jdn/etw ergreifen (R3)

jdn/etw fassen

to comprehend sth

to seize hold of sb/sth (e.g. radio station)

to grasp, take hold of sb/sth in sudden movement (also: opportunity, power, etc.)

to take hold of sb/sth (also of ideas, usually in negative)

nach etw grapschen (Rl) \ nach etw greifen ? nach etw langen (Rl) ' jdn/etw greifen (R3, S) jdn/etw packen (R1/R2) jdn/etw schnappen (Rl)

to grasp, snatch at sth

to seize, grasp, take hold of sb/sth to grab (hold of), seize, catch sb/sth to grab sb/sth quickly, to catch sb (esp of police)

GREET jdn/etw begrüßen (jdn) grüßen

jdn willkommen heißen (R3)

to greet, welcome sb/sth to say hello (to sb); give one's regards

to sb to welcome sb

GRIN feixen (Rl) grinsen

lächeln

schmunzeln

to smirk to grin, smirk, esp scornfully or

unpleasantly to smile (can be pleasant or unpleasant)

to grin in a friendly or pleasant way

GROW (UP) etw anbauen aufwachsen (R2/R3) erwachsen werden groß werden (R1/R2) heranwachsen (R3) wachsen adj + werden

to grow, cultivate sth (agriculture) to grow up, spend one's childhood to become adult to grow (of children) to grow up, stressing development to grow (general sense) to grow, get, become + adj (e.g. large,

red)

[GROW (UP)] etw ziehen to grow sth (plants) zunehmen to increase in size or quantity etw züchten to cultivate sth (plants)

GUESS etw erraten to guess sth correctly (etw) raten to have a guess (at sth) etw schätzen to estimate sth (e.g. weight) auf etw tippen (Rl) have a guess at sth, predict sth etw vermuten to suppose sth

HAPPEN/ OCCUR ausbleiben to fail to happen (against expectations) ausfallen not to take place, to be cancelled sich begeben (R3a) to happen, come to pass (significant

event) sich ereignen to happen (unusual or remarkable

event) erfolgen to take place (as a result, or in the

normal course of events), ensue (jdm) geschehen to happen, occur (to sb) (jdm) passieren (R1/R2) to happen, occur (to sb) (typically sth

unpleasant or harmful) stattfinden to take place (organized event) vorfallen (R2/R3) to happen (rather unexpectedly) vorgehen to be going on vorkommen to occur (i.e. be found); take place

(often repeatedly) 1 stressed syllables are preceded by a stress

jdm wider* fahren (R3a)) jdm zustoßen (R3) f

to befall sb

mark sich zutragen (R3a) to take place, occur (noteworthy event)

HARM see damage

HILL see mountain

HIRE see rent

HOLIDAY(S) der Feiertag public, bank holiday die Ferien (pi) institutional break (e.g. from school) der Urlaub leave (from work), vacation

NOTE: the distinction between Urlaub and Ferien is not always maintained in Rl, and both are frequently used in the sense of 'vacation'.

2.1 Problems of meaning 69

IDEA die Absicht die Ahnung der Begriff der Einfall

der Gedanke die Idee die Meinung die Schnapsidee (Rl) die Vorstellung

intention, plan of action inkling, suspicion concept, generic idea idea, plan which occurs to one

suddenly thought notion, thought; philosophical idea opinion nutty idea image in the mind, idea one has of sth

IMAGINE sich etw denken (R1/R2) | sich etw vorstellen j

sich etw einbilden

to make oneself a mental picture of sth, possibly correct, possibly not

merely to imagine sth which is quite illusory

IMPROVE jdn/etw bessern (R3)

sich bessern

(jdn/etw) korrigieren etw verbessern

sich verbessern

to make sb/sth rather better (in a limited way; of people often in a moral sense, 'reform')

to become rather better (esp. health, morals, social conditions, situation in life, etc.)

to put (sb/sth) right, correct (sb/sth) to correct sth, bring sth nearer to ideal,

improve on sth (e.g. quality of product)

to better oneself (in career); do better (in sport); correct oneself

INCIDENT see event

INHABITANT(S) die Bevölkerung

der Bewohner

der Eingeborene(r) der Einheimische(r) der Einwohner

inhabitants of a city, etc. seen as a collective whole

inhabitant, occupier, sb who happens to live in a particular place, road, house

primitive, aboriginal native native, sb who belongs to a place resident, permanent inhabitant (e.g. of

a city) with some legal or official status

70 2 Words and meanings

JACKET dasJäckchen jacket (short, esp woman's) die Jacke jacket (general sense) das Jackett j der Rock (S))

jacket, coat (man's, also of suit)

der Mantel (over-)coat der (AU das) Sakko jacket (man's, separate)

JOB die Anstellung (position of) employment, appointment

die Arbeit work in general (esp manual), piece of work

die Aufgabe specific task set sb der Auftrag order, commission, specific piece

of work relating to one's trade or profession

der Beruf profession, employment of a professional nature, (skilled) trade

die Berufstätigkeit (R3b) j die Erwerbstätigkeit (R3b) S

(gainful) employment

der Job (Rl) casual or part-time job der Posten specific post, esp in

administration or commerce die Stelle paid job, position of employment die Stellung situation in general

KEEP etw aufbewahren (R3) to keep sth safe etw aufheben to keep, look after sth jdn/etw behalten not to give sth away, not to allow

sb to go etw beibehalten retain sth (rather emphatic) etw bewahren (R2/R3) to preserve, maintain sth (esp sth

abstract, in difficult conditions) etw einhalten (R2/R3) to keep, adhere to, observe sth

(appointment, promise, rules, etc.)

t

jdn/etw erhalten to keep, maintain, preserve sb/sth (i.e. prevent deterioration or loss)

jdn/etw halten to keep sb/sth (i.e. not allow to move or change), to observe, stick to sth

1 stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

sich halten

etw unter1 halten

jdn versorgen jdn/etw zurückhalten

to remain in good condition (e.g. food), maintain a course or position

to keep sth going, maintain sth (e.g. building)

to provide for sb (e.g. family) to keep sb/sth back, detain sb, withhold sth

KNOW bekannt sein jdn/etw kennen eine Sprache können (etw) wissen

to be known to be familiar with sb/sth to be able to speak a language to have knowledge (of sth)

KNOWLEDGE die Erkenntnis

die Kenntnis die Kenntnisse (pi)

das Wissen

knowledge, recognition, realization (knowledge with clear understanding)

specific (piece of) knowledge specialized knowledge in a certain field

knowledge in general, total knowledge which a person possesses

LEARN etw erfahren to learn sth by chance, find sth out etw erlernen to learn sth completely (e.g.

language, skill) (etw) lernen to learn (sth) by effort, through

study

LEAVE abfahren | losfahren (Rl)j to depart (in vehicle, by train, etc.)

jdn/etw dalassen (Rl) not to take sb/sth with one, leave sb/sth behind

jdn/etw hinterlassen to leave sb/sth behind (after death; for sb, as sign that one has been there)

etw lassen to allow sth to remain (in a particular place or in a certain condition)

etw liegen lassen to leave sth behind (inadvertently)

losgehen (Rl)) (weg)gehen ) to depart

72 2 Words and meanings

[LEAVE] jdn/etw stehen lassen

jdm etw über'lassen

etw verlassen jdn/etw weglassen (Rl) jdn/etw zurücklassen

to leave sb/sth behind (usually intentionally)

to leave sth in sb's care, entrust sth to sb

to go away from sb/sth to leave sth out, let sb go leave sb/sth behind (intentionally, or leave a trace, or on death)

(AT) LAST see finally

LIFT jdn/etw aufheben etw erheben (R3)

etw erhöhen

jdn/etw heben etw hochheben

to pick sb/sth up (off the ground) to raise sth up high (e.g. hand,

glass) to make sth higher (e.g. wall,

prices) to move sb/sth higher to lift sb/sth up (in the air)

LIKE etw gefallt jdm (see 4.1.1)

jdn/etw gern haben

jdn/etw nicht leiden können jdn/etw lieben jdn lieb haben

sb likes sth (esp on the basis of a first impression)

to like sb/sth (esp an established affection)

not to be able to stand sb/sth to love sb/sth to be fond of sb

jdn/etw mögen (see 4.6.1) to like sb/sth (esp people or food) etw schmeckt jdm sb likes sth (food)

NOTE : referring to people and food, gern haben and mögen are very similar in meaning. With verbs, e.g. 'to like doing sth', German most often uses gern with an appropriate verb, see 5.2.4, e.g. Ich reite gern 'I like horse-riding'.

LITTLE see small

LIVE leben to be alive, have a certain lifestyle wohnen to dwell

LOCK (etw) abschließen ) (etw) absperren (SE) S to lock (e.g. house, car, door)

jdn/etw einschließen \ jdn einsperren I etw wegschließen )

to lock sb up, lock sth away

etw verschließen to lock sth (small, e.g. case, box)

LOVE see like

MAN der Mann male human, as opposed to woman

der Mensch man as species, as opposed to animals

MARRY heiraten to get married jdn heiraten to marry sb jdn trauen to marry sb (i.e. perform the

ceremony) sich (mit jdm) verheiraten \

(R2/R3) [ get married (to sb) sich (mit jdm) vermählen (R3) / verheiratet sein to be married

MEAN etw bedeuten to signify sth etw besagen to make sth clear, express sth etw heißen to have a certain meaning (e.g.

foreign word) jdn/etw meinen to have sb/sth in mind, intend

sb/sth (esp in questions, e.g. 'Who/What do you mean?')

etw vorhaben to mean to do sth

MEET jdn abholen to pick sb up jdm begegnen (R3) to meet, encounter sb (by chance) jdn kennen lernen to meet sb for the first time jdn sehen to see, meet sb (frequent

equivalent in Rl) jdn treffen to meet sb (by chance or

arrangement) auf jdn/etw treffen to come across sb/sth sich (mit jdm) treffen (R1/R2) to meet (sb) by arrangement (mit jdm) zusammenkommen to collect, assemble, meet (in a (R3) previously agreed place for a

specific purppose) (mit jdm) zusammentreffen to have a meeting (with sb) (often (R3) important people)

zusammentreten to meet, convene (public bodies, etc.)

74 2 Words and meanings

MEMORY das Andenken

die Erinnerung das Gedächtnis der Speicher

souvenir; (R3) remembrance, memory (solemn, e.g. of deceased)

remembrance, recollection faculty of remembering memory of computer or calculator

MISS etw auslassen to miss sth out fehlen to be missing etw über'hören not hear sth (deliberately or not) etw über'sehen not see sth (deliberately or not) etw verfehlen not to get the right sth (e.g. path,

purpose) jdn/etw vermissen to notice, regret the absence of sb/sth etw verpassen to come too late for sth (e.g. train), let sth

slip (e.g. opportunity) etw versäumen (R2/R3) not to do sth one ought to have done (e.g.

miss an opportunity)

NOTE: in R1/R2 the German equivalent of English 'miss' is often daneben with an appropriate verb, e.g. er hat daneben geschossen.

MISTAKE der Fehler der Fehlgriff der Irrtum der Patzer (Rl) j der Schnitzer (Rl) i

error, fault, defect mistake (esp wrong choice or judgement) mistaken belief or judgement

boob, goof, blunder

MOUNTAIN der Berg der Hang der Hügel (esp N) das Gebirge der Gipfel

mountain, hill slope, incline rather small hill, often solitary mountains, hills (range) summit

NARROW eng

schmal

constricted, difficult to get through (opposite of weit)

of small width or breadth (opposite of breit)

NECK das Genick ) der Nacken i der Hals die Kehle

nape, back of neck

whole neck or throat, also of bottles throat (front of throat, inside or outside)

2.1 Problems of meaning 75

NOISE see sound

NOTICE jdn/etw bemerken etw merken

etw spüren

to become aware of sth to perceive, realize sth abstract

(e.g. intention, deceit) to sense, feel sth (e.g. smell, pain,

cold)

NUMBER die Anzahl die Nummer

die Zahl die Ziffer

rather vague, indefinite number numbers in series applied to sth

(e.g. house, car, telephone) quite specific number actual digit (e.g. 4, 7)

OCCUR see happen/occur

OCCURRENCE see event

ODD absonderlich (R3) eigenartig eigentümlich (R2/R3) fremd fremdartig komisch (R1/R2) merkwürdig (R2/R3)

seltsam sonderbar ungerade (Zahl) unheimlich wunderlich (R2/R3)

peculiar, abnormal peculiar, difficult to comprehend peculiar, unusual unfamiliar, strange, foreign, alien strange, unfamiliar, exotic funny, peculiar strange, strikingly out of the ordinary

odd, peculiar, unusual strange, odd, disconcerting odd (number) uncanny, weird strange, odd, very peculiar

OFFER jdm etw anbieten (jdm) etw bieten

to hand sth to sb for acceptance to afford sth, make sth available

(to sb) (usually sth abstract, e.g. opportunity)

OFFICER der Beamte(r)

der Offizier

civilian official (incl e.g. policeman), civil servant (officer of the state)

military officer

76 2 Words and meanings

ONLY bloß (R1/R2)) lediglich (R3) f nur ' erst

limiting (i.e. that number and no more, at that time and only then, see also 2.6)

indicating more to follow, that there is time left, or that sth is not happening before a certain time (see also 2.6)

OPEN aufgehen aufhaben (Rl) etw aufmachen (R1/R2) etw aufschlagen

etw aufschließen etw eröffnen

sich/etw öffnen (R3)

to open, come open to be open (shops, etc.) to open sth to crack sth open (egg, nut), to open sth (book, newspaper, (R3a) eyes)

to unlock sth to perform the opening of sth (e.g. school, exhibition, proceedings)

to open (sth)

ORDER etw anordnen

jdm (etw) befehlen | (jdm) etw gebieten (R3a) j

etw bestellen

etw ordnen

to decree, instruct sth (esp of official); to arrange sth according to a system

to command, order sb (e.g. to do sth)

to make an order to be provided with sth (e.g. in shop)

to sort sth into order, organize sth

ORGAN das Organ die Orgel

part of body, etc. musical instrument

PACKET das Päckchen

die Packung

das Paket

packet, pack, package (of goods, quite small); small postal parcel (under 2 kilos)

small package or packet (e.g. for tea, cigarettes)

large package, packet; large postal parcel

PAINT etw (an)streichen

(jdn/etw) malen

to put paint on sth (e.g. house, fence)

to paint a picture (of sb/sth)

PATH see street

etw begleichen (R3b) (jdn/etw) bezahlen (etw) blechen (Rl) | etw löhnen (Rl) }

etw entrichten (R3b) bei jdm zahlen

(etw für etw) zahlen

PAY etw begleichen (R3b) settle, pay sth (bill, invoice, debt) to pay (sb/for sth) to fork (sth) out (excessive sum of money)

to pay sth (fees, dues, taxes, etc.) to pay sb (i.e. waiter, bus conductor)

to pay (sth - i.e. a sum of money -for sth)

NOTE: the distinction between etw bezahlen 'pay for sth' and etw fur etw zahlen 'pay sth (i.e. a sum of money) for sth' is no longer consistently upheld, esp in Rl, and the two verbs are used almost interchangeably.

PEOPLE die Leute (pl)

die Menschen (pl) das Volk

people (seen as making up a specific group)

people as a number of individuals people as a nation or community; the 'common' people

NOTE: in Rl the distinction between Leute and Menschen is blurred, and Leute is used more generally. Neither Leute nor Menschen is used as widely as English 'people', which often corresponds to man (e.g. Man sagt... 'People say . . . ' , see also 3.5.5 and 4.4.5).

PERSUADE

' stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

jdn (dazu) bewegen, etw zu tun (R3)

jdn (zu etw) breitschlagen (Rl) jdm etw einreden jdn über'reden, etw zu tun jdn von etw über'zeugen

to induce sb to do sth

talk sb round (to sth) to talk sb into believing sth to talk sb into doing sth to convince sb of sth

PLACE der Ort

die Ortschaft der Platz

die Stelle

place, spot, locality, location in general, not precise

village, settlement place to do sth specific (e.g. to sit down, to play sth, etc.); square (in town); room, space (of sufficient size to do sth)

precise spot, usually with a certain relevance or in relation to surroundings

POUR (jdm etw) einschenken (R2/R3) to pour (sb sth, i.e. a drink) sich ergießen (R3)

(etw) gießen etw schütten etw streuen

strömen

to pour (out) (large flow, also of people)

to pour (sth) (only liquids) to pour sth in large quantities to pour, strew sth (having grains,

e.g. sand) to pour (out), stream, flow (large

quantities of liquid; also air, light, people)

POWER die Gewalt

die Kraft die Macht

die Stärke

power exercised, force, violence, might

physical strength power, ability to control (esp

latent) measurable strength, size,

intensity

PRESENT aktuell

anwesend augenblicklich derzeitig (R3) gegenwärtig vorhanden

topical, current, relating to the present

in attendance current, existing at the moment current, of the present time of/at the present moment existing in a place, available

PREVENT jdn von etw abhalten jdn/etw behindern jdn an etw hindern etw verhindern etw verhüten

to stop, prevent sb doing sth to obstruct, hinder sb/sth to stop, impede sb in sth to make sth impossible to prevent, stop sth (undesirable)

PUSH (jdn/sich) drängeln (Rl) | (jdn/sich) drängen j

(jdn/etw) drücken

(jdn/etw) schieben

jdn schubsen (Rl) (jdn/etw) stoßen

to push, shove, jostle (sb) (of people, esp in a crowd)

to apply pressure (to sb/sth, e.g. door, button)

to move (sb/sth) by pushing (esp along a surface)

to shove, push, nudge sb to give a short, violent shove (to

sb/sth); CH also to push (doors,

2.1 Problems of meaning 79

PUT etw hängen to put sth so that it then hangs (i.e. hängt; e.g. picture on wall)

etw in etw (hinein)geben to add sth to sth (e.g. salt to cooking pot) jdn/etw legen to put sb/sth so that it then lies (i.e. liegt;

e.g. book on table, person on couch) jdn/etw setzen to put sb/sth so that it then sits (i.e. sitzt;

e.g. child on chair, pot on stove) jdn/etw stellen to put sb/sth so that it then stands (i.e.

steht; e.g. chair in corner, bottle, plate on table)

jdn/etw stecken to put sb/sth so that it is then hidden from view (i.e. steckt; e.g. hand in pocket, letter in mailbox)

NOTE : in Rl, tun commonly replaces these more specific words.

QUIET leise ruhig still

not loud calm (of people or things), undisturbed silent, not talkative

RAISE see Lift

READY bereit fertig

prepared, willing finished, completed (and ready to go)

REALIZE jdm aufgehen etw begreifen etw (be)merken etw einsehen etw erkennen etw feststellen jdm klar werden etw verwirklichen

to become apparent to sb to comprehend sth to notice sth (see NOTICE)

to acknowledge, accept, see sth to recognize sth to discover sth, find sth out to become clear to sb to make sth real (e.g. plans, aims)

REALLY/ ACTUALLY

echt

eigentlich

tatsächlich | in der Tat J

wahrhaftig (R2/R3)

wirklich

real, genuine, not faked; esp Rl: really, very

actual(ly), real(ly) (in actual fact, possibly despite the appearances)

in actual fact, in reality (as opposed to imagination or illusion)

really, truly; (as adjective, R3 only) truthful

real(ly) (actually in existence)

80 2 Words and meanings

REFUSE etw ablehnen (jdm) etw versagen (R3)j (jdm) etw verweigern ) sich weigern (, etw zu tun) etw nicht (tun) wollen

to decline sth, turn sth down

to refuse, not to grant (sb) sth

to refuse (to do sth - of people) to refuse (to do sth - of things)

RENT etw mieten etw vermieten

to rent, hire sth (from sb) to rent, hire sth (to sb)

RISE aufstehen ) sich erheben (R3) J steigen

to get up, rise

to rise upwards, ascend

ROAD see street

ROOM das Gemach (R3a) die Kammer der Raum

der Saal die Stube (R3a, S) das Zimmer

chamber, apartment (e.g. in palace) box-room; (R3a, S) chamber, bedroom space (in most senses, e.g. for sth to fit

into); room (in public building) very large room, hall (e.g. for concerts) room (esp living-room, parlour) room in private house

ROPE das Seil der Strick

das Tau

rope thin rope, esp for tying things (also

hangman's rope) thick rope, hawser (esp on ships)

SAME der gleiche another identical one derselbe the very same one NOTE: in Rl derselbe and der gleiche are used interchangeably.

SATISFY jdn/etw befriedigen etw entsprechen (R3) etw erfüllen

jdm/etw genügen (R2/R3) gesättigt sein (R3)j satt sein f jdn (von etw) überzeugen sich mit etw zufrieden

geben (mit jdm/etw) zufrieden sein

jdn zufrieden stellen

to fulfil sb's wishes, needs, desires, etc. to fulfil, meet, comply with sth to satisfy, meet, fulfil sth (e.g.

condition, requirement, equation)

to comply with sth; be enough for sb

to have had enough to eat

to convince sb (of sth) to (have to) be content, satisfied with

sth

to be satisfied, happy (with sb/sth)

to make sb contented (e.g. customer)

SAVE etw aufsparen etw ersparen jdm etw ersparen

sich etw ersparen jdn (vor etw) retten etw schonen

etw sparen

to put sth to one side for later to save (money) to save sb sth (esp unpleasant details)

to avoid sth (e.g. trouble) to save sb (from sth, e.g. danger) to go easy on sth (e.g. eyes, clothes)

not to use sth (e.g. money, time)

SECRET geheim heimlich

deliberately kept from public view (kept) hidden, invisible, clandestine

SEIZE see grasp

SHINE glänzen

leuchten

scheinen

to reflect light, gleam, sparkle (esp of things which do not give out their own light)

to give out or reflect light (esp in dark surroundings)

to give out light (of sun, moon, lamps)

SHUT see close

SHY scheu

schüchtern

timorous, esp used of animals or expressions of emotion (smile, glance, etc.)

of a reserved, introverted nature (of people)

SIMPLE einfach einfältig) simpel ) leicht schlicht

simple, plain

simple-minded

uncomplicated, easy plain, straightforward (not negative sense)

SKIN das Fell die Haut die Schale

animal skin with fur skin of human or animal (no fur) skin, peel, rind (e.g. fruit,

vegetable)

SMALL gering klein

slight, low, small in value or importance small in size

SMELL der Duft der Geruch ) der Geschmack (SW)J der Gestank

pleasant smell, fragrance

smell (general sense)

unpleasant smell, stench

SOUND das Geräusch

der Klang der Krach der Lärm der Laut

der Schall

der Ton

any indistinct sound or noise (general sense)

resonant, musical sound crashing noise (in Rl also used for Lärm) loud, unpleasant noise sound made by humans or animals (e.g.

speech sound) sound as a physical phenomenon (e.g. Schallgeschwindigkeit); (R3) clear and distinct sound (e.g. bell)

single musical note; tone (of voice)

SPACE see room and place

SPEND Geld ausgeben etw verbrauchen

etw verbringen) etw zubringen i

to spend money to use sth up, consume sth (e.g. strength,

energy)

to pass sth (e.g. time)

SPREAD sich/etw ausbreiten

sich/etw ausdehnen

sich/etw ausweiten

sich/etw dehnen sich erstrecken

sich/etw erweitern

um sich greifen

to spread (sth) (out), extend sth (evenly in all directions, e.g. wings, map on floor)

to expand, extend (sth), stretch (sth) out (in time or space, esp over a wide area)

to expand, spread, extend (sth) (esp increasing in significance, e.g. riots, plague)

to stretch, lengthen, extend (sth) to extend, stretch over an area (without movement, e.g. forest to horizon)

to expand, enlarge, widen (sth) (i.e. make larger in area; also of abstract things)

spread out from centre (esp of pernicious things, e.g. disease, fire, trouble)

2.1 Problems of meaning 83

etw (auf etw) schmieren | etw (auf etw) streichen J

sich/etw verbreiten

sich/etw verteilen

to spread sth (on sth, e.g. butter on bread)

to disseminate sth, i.e. spread sth patchily over wide area (e.g. disease, panic)

to distribute sth (e.g. forces, payments, cushions round room)

STEP der (Fuß)tritt der Schritt die Stiege (S, esp AU)) die Treppe i die Stufe

sound of human step pace (of person); stride

stairs, staircase, flight of steps

individual step or stair

STOP jdn von etw abhalten etw abstellen

(jdn/etw) anhalten

jdn/etw aufhalten (mit etw) aufhören etw einstellen

halten

stehen bleiben

stillstehen

(jdn/etw) stoppen (R1/R2)

to stop sb from (doing) sth to switch sth off (e.g. motor, machine)

to stop (sb/sth) (person or vehicle in motion, esp temporarily or unexpectedly)

to prevent sb/sth from continuing to cease (sth, e.g. an activity) to suspend sth (e.g. work,

payment, production) to come to a halt (esp of scheduled stop for vehicles; also of people)

to come to a halt (people, machines, vehicles)

to come to/be at a standstill, stop working

to stop (sb/sth) (most senses)

STRANGE see odd

STREET die Gasse der Pfad

die Straße der Weg

lane, alley; (AU) street in town path, track (narrow, not for

vehicles) surfaced street or road way, path, track (unsurfaced, but well-defined)

84 2 Words and meanings

STRENGTH see power

STRING der Bindfaden (N) \ die Schnur (S) \ der Spagat (AU) J

die Saite

string (for tying things)

string (of musical instrument)

SUSPICIOUS argwöhnisch (R3a)

misstrauisch stutzig (only used with sein or

werden) suspekt ) verdächtig)

inclined to have suspicions, distrustful

suspicious, distrustful suspicious (as a reaction to sth)

arousing suspicion

TAKE etw brauchen

jdn/etw wohin bringen

jdn/etw nehmen

to take sth (of time, e.g. to take two hours to do sth)

to convey, accompany sb/sth to a place (e.g. cases upstairs, sb to station)

to remove, take hold of, receive sb/sth

TALL groß ) lang(Rl)/

hoch

tall (of people)

tall (of things, e.g. tree, tower)

THEN damals dann

denn (see also 2.6.2)

then (i.e. at that time in the past) then (for sequences of events, or

referring to present or future) then (in questions, i.e. 'What are

you doing, then?')

THICK dicht

dick

packed together, dense (e.g. trees, hair, traffic); not leaky

measuring a long way through (e.g. book, layer, wall); also of soup

THING das Ding

das Dings/Dingsbums/ Dingsda (Rl)

der Gegenstand

in sing: concrete object; in pi: concrete objects; matters of a serious nature

thingummy, whatsit

object

[THING] die Sache in sing: matter, affair, business; in pl: personal belongings; matters, affairs of a rather nebulous, less serious kind

das Zeug/Zeugs (Rl) things, stuff, gear (often pejorative)

NOTE: the German equivalent of thing(s) is often an adjective used as a noun, e.g. das Wichtige 'important things', see 3.4.4.

THINK jdn/etw als jdn/etw \ betrachten (R3) /

jdn/etw fur jdn/etw halten/

to take sb/sth for sb/sth; think that sb/sth is sb/sth

(etw) denken to form (sth) in the mind, have (sth) in the mind as an idea

sich (dat) etw denken ) sich (dat) etw vorstellen) to imagine sth

(etw) glauben to believe (sth) viel (usw) von jdm/etw halten to think a lot (etc.) of sb/sth (etw) meinen to hold (sth) as an opinion

NOTE: glauben and meinen are close in meaning and interchangeable in many contexts. (über jdn/etw) nachdenken to reflect (on sb/sth), consider

(sb/sth) sich (etw) über'legen to consider, deliberate sth (e.g.

decision)

THREATEN (jdm) etw androhen to threaten (sb with) sth abstract (e.g. punishment, revenge)

(jdm mit etw) drohen to warn, threaten (sb with sth) in general way, not necessarily involving force

jdn (mit etw) bedrohen to threaten sb/sth (with sth), involving direct, physical force; endanger sb/sth

TIME das Mal occasion die Zeit time as duration, fourth

dimension

TOUCH jdn/etw anfassen | to touch (and get hold of) jdn/etw angreifen (S)j sb/sth with the hand

jdn/etw nicht anrühren not to touch sb/sth (e.g. me, food, (usually in the negative) money)

86 2 Words and meanings

[TOUCH] jdn/etw berühren to come into (slight) contact with sb/sth

jdn bewegen (R3)| jdn rühren j to move sb emotionally

an etw rühren (R3) to make contact with sth (slightly)

TURN abbiegen to turn off (e.g. from one road into another)

sich/etw (von jdn/etw) to turn (sth) away (from sb/sth) abwenden

sich/etw drehen to spin, revolve (sth) (e.g. knob, key, wheel)

wohin (ein)biegen to turn off straight course in new direction

sich/etw herumdrehen turn (sth) (right) round/over etw wohin kehren (R3) turn sth (esp part of the body) in a

particular direction sich/jdn/etw 'umdrehen to turn (sb/sth)

(over/round/upside down - esp on its own axis or round a centre)

'umdrehen to turn round, back 'umkehren to turn round and go back (etw) 'umkippen to turn (sth) upside down (e.g. car,

plate) sich/jdn/etw wenden (R2/R3) to turn (sth) onto the other side or

1 stressed syllables are preceded by a stress

to face in another direction (e.g. steak, page, car, glance, head)

mark wenden to turn (vehicles) to turn (vehicles)

UNDER- die Einsicht insight, realization, STANDING understanding of sth specific

das Einverständnis consent die Vernunft good sense, reasonableness der Verstand ability to understand, wit(s),

intellect, reason die Verständigung mutual understanding, agreement

USE etw (auf etw) anwenden etw (aus)nutzen (N), (aus)nützen (S)

sich jds/etw bedienen (R3) 1 etw benutzen (N), benützen (S) f etw gebrauchen

etw verbrauchen etw verwenden

to apply sth (to sth) to make full use of sth, exploit sth

to make use of sb/sth

to find a use for sth in accordance with its intended purpose

to use sth up, consume sth to utilize sth, often for a purpose

for which it was not intended N O T E : benutzen, gebrauchen and verwenden are very close in meaning; in Rl and R2 they are often used interchangeably.

etw verwerten (R3) to find a use for sth (e.g. left-overs, ideas)

VIEW der Anblick sight (i.e. sth seen, often with reference to the reaction of the person seeing it)

die Ansicht view of sb/sth; opinion der Ausblick outlook from a place, perhaps

restricted die Aussicht (panoramic) view from a place,

prospect der Blick look, glance, view (in general) die Meinung opinion die Sicht range of vision (e.g. in Sicht

kommen)

WAKE (UP) aufwachen \ to wake up (become wide awake)

WAKE (UP) erwachen (R3) > wach werden (R1/R2) j

to wake up (become wide awake)

jdn (auf)wecken j to wake sb up jdn erwecken (R3)J to wake sb up

etw erwecken (R3) to awaken, arouse sth (e.g. emotions)

wachen to stay awake, be awake, keep watch

WALL die Mauer outside wall of brick, stone, etc. der Wall (R3) rampart, fortification die Wand wall of building, inside or outside

88 2 Words and meanings

WASH (UP) (etw) abwaschen to wash (sth) off, down; (N, AU) to wash (sth) up (i.e. dishes)

(etw) spülen (NW, SW) to wash sth (up) (i.e. dishes) etw wohin spülen to wash sth up in a place (of

waves, river) sich/jdn/etw waschen to wash (sb/sth) (general sense)

WELCOME see greet

2.1.2 Problems of meaning: German-English examples

Mark Twain wrote that the word Zug had so many meanings you could always use it in German if you didn't know the right word for the context. This is something of an exaggeration, but many German words have two or more quite distinct English equivalents. Such words are called homonyms, like English bank (e.g. bank of a river, or bank which deals in money, see 2.1.1). They can be confusing if you only know one of the meanings and this section gives a selection of common homonyms in German to help you to sort them out.

NOTE: With some of these words, you can use a compound if the simple word is ambiguous. If this is so, the appropriate compound is given below in italics. However, in all registers - and especially Rl - the simple word is often preferred where there is no chance of ambiguity in the context.

der Absatz heel (i.e. of shoe: Schuhabsatz) paragraph half-landing (i.e. on stairs:

Treppenabsatz) (R3b) sales (i.e. of goods or services)

etw annehmen to accept sth to presume, assume sth

anziehen etw anziehen sich anziehen jdn/etw anziehen

to put sth on (clothes) to get dressed to attract sb/sth

etw bemerken to notice sth to remark on sth

das Blatt leaf sheet (of paper) hand (of cards)

2.1 Problems of meaning 89

der Boden ground, soil floor (Fußboden) bottom (e.g. of cup, sea) (N) loft (Dachboden)

die Decke ceiling blanket (Wolldecke) quilt, duvet (Steppdecke) covering (e.g. surface of road: Straßendecke)

dicht dense (e.g. trees, fog) thick (e.g. hair, feathers) heavy (e.g. traffic) close (to sth = an etw) (water-, air-) tight (wasserdicht, luftdicht) (Rl) shut (e.g. of shop)

dick fat (of people) thick (e.g. tree-trunk, wall, soup) (Rl) big (e.g. car, business, wallet)

einfallen einfallen (intr)

in etw einfallen jdm einfallen

to join in (e.g. singing) to cave in (R3a) to fall (e.g. night, winter) to invade sth (e.g. country) to occur to sb

etw erklären to explain sth to declare sth

erst first (if followed by dann, see 2.1.1) only (see 2.1.1) (also used as modal particle, see 2.6)

das Fach compartment (e.g. in bag) pigeon-hole subject (e.g. at school: Schulfach, Studienfach)

der Fall fall case, instance

die Farbe colour paint

fertig finished ready (Rl) tired out

fremd strange foreign someone else's

der Gang corridor, passage gait, way of walking course (e.g. of events, of meal) gear (in car) operation (e.g. of machine)

die Geschichte story history (Rl) matter, affair, business

gleich same equal(ly) immediately, at once

der Grund reason bottom (e.g. of sea) ground

der Hahn cock, rooster tap, faucet (e.g.: Wasserhahn, Gashahn)

hell bright (of light) light, pale (of colours)

der Himmel sky (am Himmel — in the sky) heaven (im Himmel = in heaven)

die Kapelle chapel band

die Karte card (Spielkarte) ticket (Fahrkarte, Eintrittskarte, etc.) map (Landkarte) menu (Speisekarte)

das Kissen cushion pillow

kosten kosten (etw) kosten

to cost to taste (sth)

das Kreuz cross small of the back

das Land country (as opposed to town) country (i.e. a state or nation) land (as opposed to water) German province (Bundesland)

die Landschaft countryside landscape scenery

der, die, das Letzte the last the latest

meinen meinen, (dass...) jdn/etw meinen

to think, be of the opinion (that. . .) to mean sb/sth

der, die, das Nächste the next the nearest the shortest, quickest (e.g. way)

packen jdn packen (Rl) etw packen

to grab, grip sb to pack sth (e.g. suitcase) (Rl) to manage (to do) sth

die Politik politics policy

der Preis price prize

der Rat advice council (e.g. of town: Stadtrat) councillor, official

raten jdm raten (etw) raten

to advise sb to guess (sth)

reichen reichen (itr)

jdm etw reichen

to extend, stretch to be enough to pass sb sth

der Schein appearance certificate banknote (Geldschein) light, glow (e.g. of sun: Sonnenschein) (esp R3b) ticket (Fahrschein)

scheinen to seem, appear to shine (see 2.1.1)

das Schloss castle, mansion, stately home lock

sicher safe, secure sure, certain

92 2 Words and meanings

die Stimme voice vote

der Stock stick storey, floor (in building = das Stockwerk)

der Stoff material, fabric substance subject, topic (e.g. of discussion)

tragen jdn/etw tragen etw tragen

to carry sb/sth to wear sth (clothes) to bear sth (e.g. name, costs)

treffen jdn treffen jdn/etw treffen

to meet sb (see 2 .1.1) to hit sb/sth

'umziehen umziehen sich umziehen

to move (house) to get changed (clothes)

unter'halten jdn/etw unterhalten jdn unterhalten sich unterhalten

to maintain, support sb/sth to entertain sb to have a talk, to enjoy oneself

der Versuch try, attempt experiment, test

vorstellen sich etw vorstellen jdn (jdm) vorstellen

to imagine sth to introduce sb (to sb)

wählen jdn/etw wählen (jdn) wählen

jdn wählen wählen

to choose sb/sth to vote (for sb) to elect sb to dial (on telephone)

weit wide, broad long (e.g. way, journey) far away (weit entfernt)

die Wirtschaft economy pub (Gastwirtschaft)

zeigen jdm etw zeigen auf jdn/etw zeigen

to show sb sth to point at sb/sth

der Zug train draught (Luftzug) procession (Straßenzug) feature, trait (Charakterzug)

2.2 Easily confused words

2.2.1 Easily confused words: similar form - different meaning

Some German words are easily confused because they look so much alike. A selection of such words is given in this section, grouped into pairs or sets. A number of these words are similar because they are built up from the same root, often using the prefixes and suffixes explained in 2.3. To help you recognize these sets more easily, some of them are arranged according to the root, rather than in alphabetical order; it is important to look at and learn each group of words as a whole.

R l = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

die Achsel die Achse shoulder axle

der Akt die Akte act; nude (painting);(AU also = file) file

der Antrag der Auftrag application order

etw beantragen jdn (mit etw) beauftragen to apply for sth (= jdm etw auftragen (R3)

to instruct sb to do sth

die Auffuhrung die Ausfuhrung performance carrying out (task, etc.)

die Aufgabe die Ausgabe task issue; edition

aufrüsten jdn/etw ausrüsten to arm (i.e. get weapons) to equip sb/sth

jdm etw ausrichten etw einrichten to tell sb sth to furnish sth

etw verrichten to perform sth (e.g. task)

der Ball der Ballen ball bale

der Band (see 2.2.2) volume

das Band ribbon

die Bande gang

der Verband bandage; association

die Verbindung connection

der Bund (see 2.2.2) confederation

das Bund bundle, bunch

das Bündnis alliance

die Verbundenheit solidarity

die Verbindlichkeit obligingness

bedingungslos unbedingt unconditional absolute

der Beruf die Berufung profession calling; vocation; (legal) appeal

etw beurteilen jdn verurteilen to judge sth to condemn sb

etw bezeichnen etw verzeichnen to indicate, mean sth to record, note sth

das Bild die Bildung picture, image education; formation

die Ausbildung training

jdn ausbilden etw herausbilden to train sb to form, develop sth

jdn um etw bitten (bat - gebeten) beten (betete - gebetet) to ask sb for sth to pray

jdm etw bieten (bot - geboten) betteln (bettelte - gebettelt) to offer sb sth to beg

blinken (Rl) blinzeln to indicate (in car) to blink

jdn blenden to blind sb

böse boshaft wicked, bad; angry spiteful

böswillig malicious

' stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

etw brauchen etw gebrauchen to need sth to use sth

der Brauch der Gebrauch custom use

etw verbrauchen gebraucht to consume sth used; second-hand

der Verbraucher gebräuchlich consumer customary

der Busch die Böschung bush slope

das Cafe der 'Kaffee (SE der Kaffee) cafe coffee

der Dank der Gedanke thanks thought

dauern etw/jdn bedauern to last; (R3) to pity to regret sth; to feel pity for sb

bedauerlich bedauernswert regrettable pitiful (R3)

die Decke der Deckel ceiling; blanket (see 2.1.2) cover; lid

die Deckung das Gedeck cover (to hide in) place (laid at table)

denken etw bedenken to think to consider sth

jds/etw gedenken (R3) to remember sb/sth

durch etw dringen jdn drängen to penetrate sth to push sb (in crowd)

auf etw dringen auf etw drängen to insist on sth to press for sth

jdn bedrängen to put pressure on sb

etw drücken etw drucken to press sth to print sth

etw ausdrücken etw eindrücken to express sth to push sth in

jdn beeindrucken to impress sb

der Ausdruck der Eindruck expression impression

die Ehre die Ehrfurcht (R3) honour reverence

der Ehrgeiz ambition

ehrbar (R3) ehrenhaft respectable honourable

ehrlich ehrwürdig honest venerable

die Eigenschaft die Eigenart quality; feature individuality

das Eigentum die Eigentümlichkeit property peculiarity

einfach einfaltig simple simple (-minded)

einheitlich einig uniform in agreement

einsam einzig lonely only (adjective)

einzeln vereinzelt single; individual occasional, sporadic

jdm einfallen auf jdn/etw hereinfallen (Rl) to occur to sb to be taken in by sb/sth

empfanglich empfindlich receptive; susceptible sensitive

endlos endlich endless at last; finally

unendlich infinite

der Entschluss die Entschlossenheit decision determination

erst (see 2.1.1) erstens first; only first(ly)

zuerst erstmals at first for the first time

die Etikette das Etikett etiquette (AU, CH also: label) label

der Fahrer der Führer driver leader; guide

etw fordern jdn/etw fördern to demand sth to support sb/sth

etw erfordern (R3) jdn/etw befördern to necessitate sth to promote sb; to transport sth

die Forderung die Förderung demand; claim support; encouragement;

promotion

der Fotograf die Fotografie photographer photograph, photography

geistig geistlich intellectual; mental spiritual

geistreich witty

die Gelegenheit die Angelegenheit opportunity matter; affair

die Gemeinheit die Gemeinschaft meanness community

die Gemeinsamkeit common ground

etw gewohnt sein sich an etw gewöhnen to be used to sth to get used to sth

der Gläubige(r) der Gläubiger believer creditor

gleich gleichfalls same; immediately (see 2.1.2) likewise

zugleich gleichmäßig at the same time even; regular

gleichgültig gleichviel (R3) indifferent none the less, all the same

das Grab der Graben grave ditch

(etw) graben jdn begraben to dig (sth) to bury sb

grausam grauenhaft cruel atrocious, appalling

gründlich grundsätzlich thorough fundamental

jdn grüßen jdn begrüßen to say hello to sb, salute sb to welcome sb

der Hahn die Henne cock, rooster; tap, faucet hen (i.e. female chicken)

das Huhn chicken

der Handel die Handlung trade action, plot

das Herd die Herde stove (for cooking) herd

die Höhe die Anhöhe height high point, hilltop

der Inder der Indianer Indian Native American (Red Indian)

der Kegel die Kugel skittle; cone ball; sphere

kostbar köstlich precious exquisite

die Kost (R3) die Kosten (pi) food, fare cost(s)

jdm kündigen etw verkünden (R3) to give notice to sb, fire sb to announce sth

sich erkundigen to inquire

künstlich künstlerisch artificial artistic

lebendig lebhaft live, living, alive lively, vivacious; vivid

etw legen (legte - gelegt) liegen (lag - gelegen) to put, lay sth to lie, be lying (down)

lügen (log - gelogen) to tell lies

das Leid das Leiden sorrow, grief suffering; illness

die Leidenschaft passion; enthusiasm

die Lerche die Lärche lark larch

das Mahl (R3a) die Mahlzeit meal, repast meal

der Gemahl (R3a) husband

etw mieten etw vermieten to rent, hire sth (from sb) to rent, hire sth (to sb)

der Muskel die Muschel muscle (sea-)shell

namentlich nämlich by name; in particular namely; because

namhaft renowned

offiziell offiziös (R3b) official semi-official

ein paar ein Paar a few a pair

der Pfeil der Pfeiler arrow pillar

die Post der Posten post (i.e. mail), post office post (i.e. job)

der Pfosten post (i.e. upright)

der Rahmen der Rahm (esp S) frame cream

rascheln rasseln to rustle to rattle

rauschen rasen to roar (of water) to race; to rave

rau roh rough raw

das Recht die Berechtigung right, law entitlement

die Rechtfertigung die Gerechtigkeit justification justice

reisen etw reißen to travel to tear, break sth

römisch romanisch Roman Romanesque, Romance

die Sammlung die Versammlung collection assembly

schadhaft schädlich faulty, defective harmful

der Schal die Schale shawl bowl; peel; (AU) cup

der Schlager der Schläger hit (record) tennis racket

schlecht schlicht bad simple

die Seite die Saite side; page string (violin, guitar, etc.)

sonderbar sonderlich peculiar particularly

springen etw sprengen to jump to blow sth up; to break sth apart

das Stadium das Stadion stage (in development) stadium (sports)

jdn/etw stützen etw stutzen to support sb/sth to trim sth

stutzen (intr) to hesitate

stürzen (intr) jdn/etw stürzen to fall heavily; to rush to fling sb/sth

das Tablett die Tablette tray tablet

etw tauschen jdn täuschen to change sth to deceive sb

2.2 Easily confused words 101

jdm/etw trauen jdm (or auf jdn) vertrauen to trust sb/sth to have confidence in sb

jdm etw anvertrauen to confide, entrust sth to sb

der Tropfen der Tropf (Rl) drop dope; rascal

übrigens im Übrigen by the way otherwise

ungewöhnlich außergewöhnlich unusual out of the ordinary

unglaublich unglaubwürdig unbelievable implausible; unreliable (of

person)

das Verhalten das Verhältnis behaviour relationship

jdn/etw verschonen (R3) etw verschönen to spare sb/sth to improve sth (appearance)

der Versuch die Versuchung attempt temptation

vorher vorhin previously; beforehand just now

der Wagen der Waggon car, cart, carriage goods truck (railway)

etw wahren (R3) währen (R3) to preserve sth to last

jdn vor etw bewahren sich bewähren to protect sb from sth to prove one's worth

etw gewahren (R3) jdm etw gewähren (R3) to notice sth to grant sb sth

etw aufbewahren sich wehren to keep, store sth to defend oneself

wieder wider (R3) again against

wunderbar wunderlich wonderful strange; odd

verwunderlich astonishing

sich wundern jdn verwundern to be amazed, astonished to astonish sb

jdn/etw bewundern jdn verwunden to admire sb/sth to wound sb

2.2.2 Easily confused words: different gender - different meaning

A number of words in German have two meanings which are differentiated by gender. For example, the masculine der See means 'lake', but the feminine die See means 'sea'. The following is a selection of the most common of these:

der Band volume das Band (ribbon (pi "er) (see 2.2.3) \bond (R3, pi -e)

die Band [bend] band, (pop) group

der Bulle bull (Rl also = cop) die Bulle (papal) bull

der Bund confederation das Bund bundle (e.g. twigs); bunch (e.g. radishes)

der Erbe heir das Erbe inheritance

der Flur (N) entrance hall (in die Flur (R3a) meadow house)

der Gang corridor; gait (see 2.1.2) die Gang [gerj] (Rl) gang (e.g. robbers)

der Gefallen favour das Gefallen (R3) pleasure

der Gehalt content; (AU also = das Gehalt salary salary)

der Golf gulf (on coast) das Golf golf

der Gummi rubber (eraser) das Gummi rubber (material)

das Harz resin der Harz Harz mountains

der Heide heathen die Heide heath

2.2 Easily confused words 103

der Hut hat die Hut guard (in the R3 phrase auf der Hut sein)

der Junge (N) boy das Junge young (of animals)

der Kiefer jaw die Kiefer (N) pine

der Kunde customer die Kunde (R3) news

der Laster (Rl) lorry; truck das Laster vice

der Leiter leader die Leiter ladder

der Mangel lack; fault die Mangel mangle

die Mark Mark (currency) das Mark (bone-)marrow

die Marsch (N) fen der Marsch march

das Maß measure die Maß (SE) litre (of beer)

der Mensch human being das Mensch (Rl*) woman (pejorative)

der Messer surveyor das Messer knife

der Moment moment das Moment (R3b) factor; element

der Otter otter (also: Fischotter) die Otter adder (also: Kreuzotter)

der Pack pile; pack das Pack rabble

das Pony pony der Pony fringe (hair)

der Schild shield das Schild sign; (number-)plate

der See lake die See sea

der Single single (unmarried) die Single single (record) person das Single singles (tennis)

die Steuer tax das Steuer steering wheel; tiller

der Stift pen; pencil; peg das Stift foundation; institution (esp religious)

der Tau dew das Tau rope; (ship's) cable

m \ v / / / / / r

der Tor (R3) fool das Tor gate

der Verdienst earnings das Verdienst merit

das Wehr weir die Wehr defence (mostly in compounds, e.g. Feuerwehr, and phrases, e.g. sich zur Wehr setzen)

2.2.3 Easily confused words: different plural - different meaning

A few words which have more than one meaning have different plural forms for each meaning. These are some of the most common:

der Abdruck offprint impression

die Abdrucke offprints die Abdrücke impressions

das Band (see 2.2.2) ribbon (R3a) bond

die Bänder ribbons die Bande bonds

die Bank bench bank

die Bänke benches die Banken banks

das Land country (R3) region

die Länder countries die Lande (R3) regions

die Mutter mother nut (for bolt)

die Mütter mothers die Muttern nuts

der Rat council, official advice

die Räte councils, officials die Ratschläge pieces of advice

der Stock stick storey

die Stöcke sticks die Stockwerke storeys

der Strauß bunch (of flowers) ostrich

die Sträuße bunches die Strauße ostriches

das Wort word die Wörter words (in isolation) die Worte words (connected, e.g.

in phrase) NOTE: in Rl the distinction between Wörter and Worte is often ignored and only Wörter is used.

2.2.4 Easily confused words: different form - same meaning

Several German words appear to have two distinct forms, so that, for example, the learner often receives confusing answers from native speakers or reference books as to whether the German for 'toe' is der Zeh or die Zehe. These are called 'doublets', i.e. words with alternative forms. However, few German doublets are totally interchangeable. Often there are regional or register variations involved, and sometimes the forms may replace one another freely in one meaning but not in another. In all cases the most frequent variant is given on the left.

die Backe (-n) der Backen (-) (S) cheek

die Ecke (-n) das Eck (-e; AU -en) (S) corner NOTE: das Eck is used generally in compounds, e.g. das Dreieck, das Viereck.

der Felsen (-) der Fels (-en) (R3) rock NOTE : in general R2 use a difference is usually made between der Fels 'rock as a substance' and der Felsen 'individual rock'.

der Fleck (-e) der Flecken (-) stain, spot NOTE : in practice, der Fleck is the commonest form in the singular and die Flecken in the plural. In R3a der Flecken can also mean 'market town'.

der Karren (-) (S) die Karre (-n) (N) cart (Rl also: old crock)

der Korken (-) der Kork (-e) (N) cork NOTE: der Kork is generally used to refer to 'cork' as a substance, whereas der Korken always refers to an individual cork in a bottle.

der Nutzen der Nutz (R3a) use NOTE: der Nutz is only found nowadays in set phrases, e.g. zu Nutz und Frommen ('to the greater good of).

nutzen nützen to be of use NOTE: nützen was originally S and nutzen N, but the forms with and without umlaut are both widespread (also in derived verbs like benutzen/benützen).

106 2 Words and meanings

der Pack ("e or -e) der Packen (-) pile, stack

die Ritze (-n) der Ritz (-e) (S) crack

das Rohr (-e) die Röhre (-n) pipe, tube NOTE: das Rohr and die Röhre are interchangeable in the most general sense, but for specific types of'pipe' or 'tube', usage has become fixed, e.g.: -rohr: Gas-, Wasser-, Seh-, Fern-, Blas-, Kanonen--röhre: Back- (= oven), Fernseh-, Röntgen-, Glas-, Luft-, Harn-,

die Ruine (-n) der Ruin ruin NOTE: die Ruine is used to refer to a building, der Ruin for economic ruin.

der Schreck der Schrecken (S) scare, fright NOTE : in the meaning 'terror', only der Schrecken is used.

schwätzen (S) schwatzen (Rl) to chatter

die Socke (-n) der Socken (-) (S) sock

der Spalt (-e) die Spalte (-n) gap, opening NOTE : only der Spalt is used in the phrase einen Spalt offen (= ajar); die Spalte also = 'column' (in newspaper).

das (CH der) Taxi (-S)

die Taxe (-n) (Rl) taxi

die Truppe (-n) der Trupp (-s) troop NOTE: die Truppe usually refers to a large company of soldiers, etc.; der Trupp is usually smaller, e.g. a squad of soldiers or group of people.

die Tür (-en) die Türe (-n) (CH, AU) door

der Typ (-en) die Type (-n) type, character (Rl also bloke, guy) NOTE: die Type is mainly used in the sense of'(printers') type' or '(odd) character', or in AU in the meaning 'model' (of car, aeroplane, etc.).

der Zeh (-en) die Zehe (-n) (R3; N) toe

2.3 Word formation

Rl = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

An understanding of German word formation can help you to expand your vocabulary because the meaning of a German word can often be understood from the sum of its parts. This is more true of German than of English. For example, the relationship of Frage to fragen or Dankbarkeit to Dank is quite clear, unlike that of question to ask or gratitude to thanks.

Complex German words can be made up by adding suffixes at the end of a word, e.g. gesund 'healthy' —• die Gesundheit 'health'), or prefixes at the beginning, e.g. besser 'better' -> verbessern 'to make better, improve'. Sometimes the vowel is changed, especially by umlaut, e.g. der Hammer 'hammer' —> hämmern 'to hammer'. This section shows you more of the common ways in which words are constructed in modern German.

2.3.1 F o r m i n g n o u n s

(a) By adding suffixes

-chen, diminutives (from nouns) (umlaut is usually added), e.g.: -lein (esp R3a) die Stadt —> das Städtchen little town

das Auge —> das Äuglein (poetic R3a) little eye

-e (i) an action or an instrument (from verbs), e.g.: pflegen —• die Pflege care bremsen —• die Bremse brake

(ii) a quality (from adjectives) (with umlaut), e.g.: groß -> die Größe size stark —> die Stärke strength

-er (i) a person who does sth, or an instrument (from verbs), e.g.: lehren —> der Lehrer teacher bohren -> der Bohrer drill

(ii) the inhabitant (from town names), e.g.: Wien —• der Wiener Viennese Zürich —• der Zürcher person from Zurich

-erei (esp Rl), G e . . . e

repeated, irritating action (from verbs), e.g. fragen die Fragerei, das Gefrage lots of annoying questions

-heit, -(ig)keit a quality (from adjectives), e.g.: bitter —• die Bitterkeit bitterness geschwind die Geschwindigkeit heftig -> die Heftigkeit violence

speed

-in forms the feminine (from nouns) (with umlaut), e.g.: der Arzt —> die Arztin lady doctor

-ler a practitioner (from nouns), e.g.: die Kunst —> der Künstler artist

-ler can have a pejorative sense, e.g.: der Kriegsgewinnler war profiteer

-ling (i) the person sth is done to (from verbs), e.g.: prüfen -» der Prüfling examinee strafen der Sträfling prisoner

(ii) person of that quality, sometimes derogatory (from adjectives), e.g.: feige -> der Feigling coward fremd —> der Fremdling stranger

-mittel, -stoff, things used for sth (from verbs), e.g.: -zeug heilen —• das Heilmittel cure

waschen -> das Waschmittel detergent brennen -> der Brennstoff fuel kleben —• der Klebstoff glue fahren —> das Fahrzeug vehicle rasieren das Rasierzeug shaving tackle

-schaft, - tum collective or quality (from nouns), e.g.: der Beamte -> das Beamtentum civil servants der Freund -> die Freundschaft friendship der Student die Studentenschaft student body

-ung action or process (from verbs), e.g.: bilden —• die Bildung formation verwarnen —> die Verwarnung warning

-wesen collective organization of sth (from nouns), e.g.: die Erziehung das Erziehungswesen education system

(b) By adding prefixes

Erz- (Rl), augmentative, intensive, e.g.: Riesen- (Rl) der Reaktionär —• der Erzreaktionär dyed-in-the-wool reactionary

der Erfolg —> der Riesenerfolg enormous success NOTE: Rl is very rich in other augmentative and intensive prefixes, e.g.: Bombengeschäft, Heidenlärm, Höllendurst, Mordsapparat, Scheißapparat (Rl*), Spitzengehalt, Superhit, Topmanager

Fehl-, Miss- opposite, negative, e.g.: die Einschätzung —> die Fehleinschätzung (R3b) false estimation der Erfolg -> der Misserfolg failure

Grund- (R3b) basic, essential, e.g.: die Tendenz —• die Grundtendenz basic tendency

Haupt- main, e.g.: der Bahnhof -> der Hauptbahnhof main station

Nicht- non-, e.g.: der Raucher der Nichtraucher non-smoker

Un- opposite, abnormal, e.g.: die Ruhe -> die Unruhe unrest das Wetter —• das Unwetter bad weather

Ur- original, e.g.: die Sprache —> die Ursprache original language

2.3.2 Forming adjectives

(a) By adding suffixes

-bar -able (from verbs), e.g.: brauchen —• brauchbar usable

-(e)n, -era made of sth (from nouns), e.g.: das Gold -> golden golden das Holz -> hölzern wooden

-haft like sth (from nouns), e.g.: der Held —> heldenhaft heroic

-ig (i) having sth (from nouns), e.g.: (sometimes with das Haar —> haarig hairy umlaut) (ii) like sth (from nouns), e.g.:

der Riese riesig giant (iii) duration (from time expressions), e.g.:

zwei Stunden zweistündig lasting two hours

-isch (i) having that quality (from nouns), e.g.: das Kind —> kindisch childish

(ii) origin (from geographical names), e.g.: England —• englisch English

(iii) relating to sth (from foreign nouns), e.g.: die Biologie -> biologisch biological

-lich (i) relating to a person or a thing, e.g.: (often with umlaut) der Arzt —• ärztlich medical

der Preis preislich in respect of price (ii) having that quality (from nouns), e.g.:

der Fürst —> fürstlich princely (iii) frequency (from time expressions), e.g.:

zwei Stunden —• zweistündlich every two hours (iv) -able (from verbs), e.g.:

begreifen —> begreiflich understandable (v) rather (from adjectives), e.g.:

rot rötlich reddish

-(s)los lacking in sth (from nouns), e.g.: die Hoffnung —• hoffnungslos hopeless

-mäßig (esp R3b) (i) according to sth, e.g.: der Instinkt —• instinktmäßig instinctive

(ii) with regard to sth, e.g.: der Verkehr —> verkehrsmäßig relating to traffic

(iii) like sth, e.g.: der Fürst —• furstenmäßig like a prince

Especially in R3, a large number of suffixes which were originally separate words are now in common use, e.g.:

having sth: protected from sth: -haltig koffeinhaltig -dicht schalldicht -reich erlebnisreich -echt kussecht -stark charakterstark -fest hitzefest -(s)voll rücksichtsvoll -sicher kugelsicher

lacking sth: similar to sth: -arm nikotinarm -artig kugelartig -frei alkoholfrei -förmig plattenförmig -leer gedankenleer -gleich maskengleich

capable of sth: needing sth: -fähig strapazierfähig -bedürftig korrekturbedürftig

worth(y of) sth: -wert lesenswert -würdig nachahmenswürdig

(b) By adding prefixes un- opposite, e.g.:

wahrscheinlich —> unwahrscheinlich improbable ur- original, e.g.:

deutsch —> urdeutsch typically German

NOTE: many more intensifying adjective prefixes are found, especially in Rl. Most of these come from separate words, e.g. erzkonservativ, extralang, hochintelligent, saudumm (Rl*), scheißklug (Rl*), superklug, tiefernst, todunglücklich, vollautomatisch.

2.3.3 Forming verbs - prefixes

The prefixes used to form verbs in German fall into two groups. Most prefixes are 'separable'; they detach from the verb and go the end of the clause, e.g.:

ankommen 'to arrive': Ich komme heute an 'I am arriving today' 'Inseparable' prefixes, on the other hand, always stay with the verb, e.g.:

erwarten 'to expect': Ich erwarte sie morgen 'I expect her tomorrow' The prefixes be-, emp-, ent-, erge-, ver- and zer- are always inseparable, and they are explained in section 2.3.4. Separable prefixes are dealt with in section 2.3.5, and those few prefixes which are sometimes separable and sometimes inseparable are treated in section 2.3.6.

2.3.4 Inseparable verb prefixes

The seven prefixes be-, emp-, ent-, er-, ge-, ver- and zer- are always inseparable, emp- is a form of ent- used before roots in f-, e.g. empfinden, empfehlen. ge- is now rare and only found with a few verbs, e.g. gefallen, geschehen. The others are very widely used, and their main senses are detailed below (although not all verbs with these prefixes fall into these patterns). Sometimes the suffix -ig- is added.

be- (a) used with a verb, be- makes an intransitive verb transitive or converts a prepositional object into an accusative object (see 4.1). The meaning often changes slightly: Er dient dem König Er bedient den König Er drohte mir Er bedrohte mich Er hat auf meinen Brief nicht Er hat meinen Brief nicht

geantwortet beantwortet Sie kämpfen gegen das Unrecht Sie bekämpfen das Unrecht

(b) used with a noun, be- makes a verb with the idea of providing something. Sometimes the suffix -ig- is added: etw beklecksen (Rl) to splatter sth (i.e. to provide with

spots) etw belichten to expose sth (e.g. film) (i.e. to

provide with light)

etw bewässern to irrigate sth (i.e. to provide with water)

jdn benachrichtigen to notify sb (i.e. to provide with news)

(c) used with an adjective, be- makes a verb with the idea of providing a quality. Sometimes the suffix -ig- is added: etw befeuchten to moisten sth (i.e. to make sth

moist) jdn befreien to liberate sb (i.e. to make sb free) jdn beunruhigen to disturb sb (i.e. to make sb

uneasy) etw begradigen to straighten sth (i.e. to make sth

straight)

ent- (a) with verbs of motion, ent- gives the idea of 'going away' or 'escaping from sb/sth': jdm entgleiten to slip away from sb (e.g. vase from

hands) jdm/etw entlaufen to run away, escape from sb/sth jdm etw entreißen (R3a) to snatch sth from sb etw entsteigen (R3) to get /ie climb] out of sth (e.g. car,

train)

(b) with nouns, adjective or verbs, ent- has the sense of removing something (cf. English de-, dis-): etw entgiften to decontaminate sth (i.e. to take

poison away) jdn entmutigen to discourage sb (i.e. to take

courage away) etw entschärfen to defuse sth (e.g. situation), (i.e. to

make not sharp) jdn/etw entspannen to relax sb, slacken sth (i.e. to make

not tense)

er- (a) with verbs and nouns, the sense of er- is often of getting something or finishing something off. The root vowel often has umlaut: etw erarbeiten to acquire sth by working for it (i.e.

to gain by work) etw erbitten to ask for sth (i.e. to gain by

asking) etw erkämpfen to win sth (i.e. to gain through

struggle) jdn erschießen to shoot sb dead (i.e. to finish off by

shooting)

(b) with adjectives, er- has the sense of becoming sth, or giving sth a certain quality. The root vowel often has umlaut: erblinden to lose one 's sight (i.e. to become

blind) erröten to blush (i.e. to become red) jdn ermuntern to liven sb up (i.e. to make sb

cheerful) etw erwärmen to heat sth (i.e. to make sth warm)

ver- This is the most frequent inseparable prefix. It has a wide range of meanings, but it very often carries the idea of a change of state or of the end of a process.

(a) with verbs, ver- often gives the idea of finishing or going away: verblühen to fade (of flowers) (i.e. to finish

blooming) etw verbrauchen to use sth up, consume sth (i.e. to

finish using) jdn/etw verdrängen to oust, replace sb/sth (i.e. to press

away) verklingen to fade away (of sounds) (i.e. to

finish sounding)

(b) with some verbs ver- expresses the idea of'wrongly' or 'to excess': etw verbiegen to bend sth out of shape etw verlernen to forget (how to do) sth (i.e. to

un-learn it) etw versalzen to oversalt sth (i.e. to put in excess

salt) sich verwählen to misdial (i.e. to dial wrongly)

(c) with nouns and adjectives ver- has the sense of becoming sth, or giving sth a certain quality: verarmen to become poor vereinsamen to become isolated etw verlängern to lengthen sth (i.e. to make it

longer) jdn versklaven to enslave sb (i.e. to make sb into a

slave)

(d) with many nouns ver- gives the idea of providing with something: etw verglasen to glaze sth (i.e. to provide with

glass) etw vergolden to gild sth (i.e. to provide with

gold) jdn verwunden to wound sb (i.e. to provide with

wounds) jdn verzaubern to enchant sb (i.e. to provide with

magic)

zer- zer- (usually with verbs) always has the idea of'into pieces': etw zerbeißen to crunch sth (i.e. to bite into

pieces) zerfallen to disintegrate (i.e. to fall into

pieces) etw zerstreuen to scatter, disperse sth (i.e. to strew

pieces about)

2.3.5 Separable verb prefixes

ab-

Most separable verb prefixes derive from prepositions or adjectives and their meanings are quite transparent. A selection of the most common is given below.

usually has the idea of'away', 'down' or 'off' - finishing sth in the widest sense: etw abdrehen sich/etw abkühlen Schuhe ablaufen jdm etw ablisten

to switch sth off to cool (sth) down to wear shoes out to trick sb out of sth

an- beginning sth, or doing sth partially: anbrennen to catch fire, get scorched etw andrehen to turn sth on anfaulen to begin to go rotten etw anfressen to nibble at sth

auf- 'up' or 'on', or a sudden start: etw aufessen auflachen aufleuchten etw aufpolieren

to eat sth up to burst out laughing to light up polish sth up

aus- expresses completion: (etw) ausbrennen ausdorren ausreifen

to burn (sth) out to dry up to ripen, mature

ein- getting used to sth: sich einarbeiten etw einfahren sich einleben

to get used to the work to run sth in (e.g. car) to get settled in a place

los- starting off or releasing sth: losgehen etw loslassen losquatschen (Rl)

to set o f f , start to let go of sth to prattle away

vor- demonstrating (i.e. doing sth for sb to copy), performing: vorbeten to lead the prayers etw vorführen, vormachen to demonstrate sth etw vorlesen to read sth out

zusammen- 'up' or 'together': etw zusammenfalten jdn zusammenhauen (Rl) sich zusammenrollen zusammenrücken

to fold sth up to beat sb up to curl up to move closer together

2.3.6 Verb prefixes which can be separable or inseparable.

A few prefixes can be used separably or inseparably, usually with a clear distinction in meaning. The prefix is stressed in pronunciation if the verb is separable, but unstressed if it is inseparable - this is the way the difference is indicated here, as in most reference books and dictionaries of German.

durch-

separable or inseparable

separable

always has the idea of'through', whether separable or inseparable.

Many verbs form separable or inseparable compounds with durch-. The meaning of the separable verbs is always 'right the way through', whilst the inseparable verbs express penetration into sth, rather than stressing coming out the other side. But the distinction in meaning is often barely noticeable, e.g.: Er ritt durch den Wald durch Er durchritt den Wald Er schnitt das Brot durch Der Fluss durchschneidet die

Ebene

Many verbs form compounds with durch- which are only separable:

He crossed the forest on horseback He rode through the forest He cut the loaf in two The river cuts through the plain

' stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

'durchblicken to look through

'durchfallen to fall through; to fail

'durchfuhren to carry out 'durchhalten to hold out, to survive

'durchkommen to get through, to succeed

'durchkriechen to crawl through

'durchrosten to rust through 'durchsehen to look through

inseparable

über-inseparable

separable

separable or inseparable

A very small number of verbs form compounds with durch- which are only inseparable: durchdenken think through durch1 leben experience durch1 löchern make holes in

hinter- Verbs with hinter- are normally inseparable. Separable verbs are restricted to S:

inseparable hinter'gehen to deceive hinterlassen to leave, bequeathe hinter'fragen to analyse hinterlegen to deposit

separable 'hinterbringen (S) to take to the back

'hintergehen (S) to go to the back

miss- miss- is normally inseparable except in the infinitive form of missverstehen to understand: misszuverstehen.

1 stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

Many verbs only form inseparable compounds with über-, with the following meanings: repetition

more than enough

failing to notice

über'arbeiten to rework über'prüfen to check überfordern to overtax (ability,

strength) übertreiben to exaggerate über'hören to fail to hear über1 sehen to overlook über1 denken to think over über1 fallen to attack

Very few verbs only form separable compounds with über-. They are all intransitive verbs, with the literal meaning 'over': 'überhängen to overhang 'überkippen to keel over 'überkochen to overcook

Where verbs form both separable and inseparable compounds with über-, the separable verbs are mainly intransitive, with the meaning 'over', and the inseparable verbs are transitive and have a more figurative meaning similar to that with verbs which only form inseparable compounds:

überfahren überfuhren übergehen überlaufen überlegen

separable to cross over to transfer to turn into sth to overflow; desert to put sth over sb

inseparable to knock sb down to convict sb (R3) to leave sth out to overrun sb to consider sth

übersetzen to ferry across to translate sth überspringen to jump over to skip sth übertreten to change over to infringe sth (i.e.

law) überziehen to put sth on to cover sth

um-inseparable

separable

separable or inseparable

unter-inseparable

Inseparable verbs with urn- have the meaning of'encircling' or 'surrounding': um1 armen to embrace um1 ringen to surround um1 fassen to embrace, encircle um1 segeln to sail round,

circumnavigate um1 geben to surround um'zingeln to surround, encircle

Separable verbs with urn- have the meaning of'turning round', 'turning over', 'changing' or 'switching': 'umblicken look round 'umfallen fall over ' umbringen kill ' umschalten switch 'umdrehen turn round 'umsteigen change (trains, etc.)

Where verbs form both separable and inseparable compounds with um-, the difference in meaning usually corresponds to that given above, i.e. the inseparable verbs express 'surrounding' and the separable verbs 'changing' or 'switching', etc.:

separable inseparable umbauen to rebuild to enclose umfahren to run down to travel round umgehen to circulate to avoid umreißen to tear down to outline umschreiben to rewrite to paraphrase umstellen to rearrange to surround (R3a)

Many verbs only form inseparable compounds with unter-, with the following meanings: less than enough

'under'

miscellaneous figurative meanings

unter'bieten to undercut unterschätzen to underestimate unterschreiten to fall short unterdrücken to suppress unter'liegen to be defeated unterschreiben to sign unter'stützend support unterbleiben (R3) to cease unterbrechen to interrupt unter'richten (R3) to teach unter'suchen to investigate

separable

separable or inseparable

' stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

Rl = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

Many verbs form separable compounds with unter-, all with the literal meaning 'under': 'unterbringen to accommodate 'unterkriegen to bring down 'untergehen to sink, decline 'untersetzen to put underneath 'unterkommen to find accommodation

Where verbs form both separable and inseparable compounds with unter-, the separable verbs are mainly intransitive, with the meaning 'under'. The inseparable verbs have more figurative meanings similar to that with verbs which only form inseparable compounds.

unterbinden untergraben unterhalten unterlegen unterschieben unterschlagen unterstellen unterziehen

separable to tie underneath to dig in to hold underneath to put underneath to foist sth on sb to cross (i.e. legs) to keep, store to put on underneath

inseparable to prevent (R3) to undermine to entertain to underlay to insinuate (Rl) to embezzle (R3) to assume (R3) to undergo

voll-separable

inseparable

The many separable verbs with the prefix voll- all express the meaning 'full': 'vollbekommen to manage to fill 'vollstopfen to cram full 'vollschreiben to fill with writing 'volltanken to fill up (car with

fuel)

Inseparable verbs with voll- all mean 'complete' or 'accomplish' and are restricted to R3: voll'bringen to achieve,

accomplish voll'enden to complete

voll'strecken to execute, carry out

voll'ziehen to execute, carry out

wider- Most verbs with wider- are inseparable: inseparable wider'legen to refute wider'stehen to resist separable !

Only two verbs with wider- are separable: 'widerhallen (R3) to echo, 'widerspiegeln to reflect

reverberate wieder- Almost all verbs with wieder- are separable: separable 'wiederkehren to return 'wiedersehen to see again

inseparable Only one verb with wieder- is inseparable: wieder'holen to repeat

2.4 Idioms

Idiomatic expressions are a notorious pitfall for foreign learners because their overall meaning cannot be understood from their individual parts. The learner has no way of knowing that when Germans say, for instance, schwer auf Draht (literally: 'heavy on wire'), they mean 'on the ball'. The use of expressive idioms is most characteristic of Rl, but some are restricted to more formal registers. Even in serious newspapers idioms and what would normally be regarded as Rl expressions can be used to enliven an argument or a factual account, and much of the colloquial tone of popular newspapers derives from their wide use of idiomatic expressions. Given below is a selection of some frequent current idioms which differ markedly in phrasing from their English equivalents, or which have no simple English equivalent. They are arranged in alphabetical order of the key word.

A

mit Ach und Krach bei jdm gut/schlecht angeschrieben sein den Anschluss verpassen sich schwarz ärgern jdn auf den Arm nehmen (N) jdm unter die Arme greifen etw aus dem Ärmel schütteln beide Augen zudrücken unter vier Augen

B

etw auf die lange Bank schieben Ich fresse einen Besen in die Binsen gehen den Bock zum Gärtner machen Das sind für mich böhmische Dörfer Ich habe ein Brett vor dem Kopf ein dicker Brocken

D

jdm aufs Dach steigen etw unter Dach und Fach bringen die Daumen drucken an die Decke gehen mit jdm unter einer Decke stecken auf gut Deutsch (gesagt) Das geht nicht mit rechten Dingen zu schwer auf Draht

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

by the skin of your teeth to be in sb's good/bad books to miss the boat to get really mad to pull sb's leg to help sb out to produce sth from nowhere to turn a blind eye in confidence

to put sth off I'll eat my hat to go down the pan to choose someone totally unsuitable I can't make head or tail of it I can't think straight a tough nut

to have a go at sb to get sth all wrapped up and finished to keep one's fingers crossed to hit the roof to be hand in glove with sb in plain English (i.e. bluntly) That's a bit odd on the ball

E

etw aus dem Effeff können im Eimer

jdn/etw zum alten Eisen werfen

F

Das ist nicht mein Fall Es passt wie die Faust aufs Auge Dann ist Feierabend ins Fettnäpfchen treten Du bist eine Flasche zwei Fliegen mit einer Klappe schlagen die Flinte ins Korn werfen Sei doch kein Frosch G

hinter schwedischen Gardinen Darauf kannst du Gift nehmen Der Groschen ist gefallen

H

Haare lassen an den Haaren herbeigezogen der Hahn im Korbe sein fur jdn die Hand ins Feuer legen Da liegt der Hase im Pfeffer etw über den Haufen werfen gleich mit der Tür ins Haus fallen aus dem Häuschen sein aus der Haut fahren etw auf dem Herzen haben Mir fallt ein Stein vom Herzen auf dem Holzweg mit jdm (noch) ein Hühnchen zu rupfen

haben Da liegt der Hund begraben wie Hund und Katze leben Das ist ein dicker Hund Das kannst du dir an den Hut stecken

K

Das war für die Katz' die Katze aus dem Sack lassen Die Katze lässt das Mausen nicht eine Katze im Sack kaufen

to be able to do sth standing on one's head gone west, broken to throw sb/sth on the scrap-heap

It's not my cup of tea It's totally out of place Then it's all over to put one's foot in it You're a dead loss to kill two birds with one stone to throw in the towel Be a sport, join in

behind bars You can bet your life on it The penny's dropped

to come off badly far-fetched to be the only man in female company to vouch for sb There's the catch to throw sth out to say sth straight out to be out of one's mind to hit the roof to have sth on one's mind That's a load off my mind on the wrong track still to have a bone to pick with sb

That's the snag, the trouble to lead a cat and dog life It's a bit much You can keep it

It was a waste of time to let the cat out of the bag The leopard doesn't change its spots to buy a pig in a poke

wie die Katze um den heißen Brei herumgehen

Nachts sind alle Katzen grau etw auf dem Kerbholz haben das Kind beim Namen nennen Mit dem ist nicht gut Kirschen essen wie auf glühenden Kohlen sitzen jdn vor den Kopf stoßen sich den Kopf zerbrechen jdm einen Korb geben jdn/etw aufs Korn nehmen Jetzt geht's ihm an den Kragen Dagegen ist kein Kraut gewachsen in Teufels Küche kommen Was macht die Kunst?

L

Ich kann auch ein Lied davon singen mit dem linken Bein zuerst aufstehen Das mache ich mit der linken Hand auf dem letzten Loch pfeifen wie ein Loch saufen Er geht gleich in die Luft etw unter die Lupe nehmen (R2/R3)

M

Das ging mir durch Mark und Bein eine Mattscheibe kriegen Er hat eine Meise in den Mond gucken jdm mit gleicher Münze heimzahlen

N

die Nase (gestrichen) voll haben der Nase nachgehen jdn mit der Nase auf etw stoßen gelb vor Neid Der ist eine Niete Null-Acht-Fuffzehn

O

bis über die Ohren verliebt sich (dat) etw hinter die Ohren

schreiben es faustdick hinter den Ohren haben jdm einen Floh ins Ohr setzen Der ist schwer in Ordnung

to beat about the bush

All cats are grey in the dark to have done sth wrong to call a spade a spade It's best to stay out of his way to be like a cat on a hot tin roof to antagonize sb to rack one's brains to turn sb down to hit out at sb/sth Now he's for it There's no cure for that to get into a mess How's things?

I can tell you a few things about that to get out of bed the wrong side I can do that with my eyes shut to be on one's last legs to drink like a fish He's on a short fuse to look closely at sth

It went right through me not to be able to think straight He's crackers to go empty-handed to pay sb back in his own coin

to be fed up to follow one's nose to make sth crystal clear to sb green with envy He's a dead loss run of the mill, bog standard

head over heels in love to be sure to remember sth

to be fly to put an idea into sb's head He's OK

P

Ich kenne meine Pappenheimer Es ist keinen Pappenstiel wert in der Patsche/Tinte sitzen jdm den schwarzen Peter zuschieben nach seiner Pfeife tanzen Ich pfeife darauf Er hat die Pfoten überall drin Bei dir piepst's wohl wie ein begossener Pudel dastehen Er hat das Pulver nicht erfunden

R

das fünfte Rad am Wagen sein jdm einen Strich durch die Rechnung

machen aus der Rolle fallen Rosinen im Kopf haben jdm in den Rücken fallen

S

mit Sack und Pack jdn mit Samthandschuhen anfassen sein Schäfchen ins Trockene bringen sein Scherflein zu etw beitragen Das ist zum Schießen jdn auf die Schippe nehmen (S) aus dem Schneider sein etw in den Schornstein schreiben vom alten Schrot und Korn jdm etw in die Schuhe schieben Wo drückt der Schuh? schwarzarbeiten ins Schwarze treffen aus dem Stegreif reden den Stier bei den Hörnern packen sich an einen Strohhalm klammern sich zwischen zwei Stühle setzen

(R2/R3)

T

Er hat nicht alle Tassen im Schrank Hier geht's zu wie im Taubenschlag auf Teufel komm raus den Teufel an die Wand malen

I know what those people are like It's not worth a bean to be in the soup to leave sb holding the baby to dance to his tune I couldn't care less He's got a finger in every pie You're off your head to stand there looking pathetic He won't set the Thames on fire

to be out of place to spoil sb's plans

to act out of character to have big ideas to stab sb in the back

with bag and baggage to handle sb with kid gloves to see oneself all right to do one's bit towards sth That's hilarious to pull sb's leg to be out of the wood to write sth off of the old school to put the blame for sth on sb What's the matter? to moonlight to hit the bull's-eye to speak impromptu to take the bull by the horns to clutch at a straw to fall between two stools

He's a few short of a full set It's like a madhouse here Come hell or high water to tempt fate

unter den Tisch fallen vom Regen in die Traufe kommen zwischen Tür und Angel

W

jdm auf den Wecker fallen Die Weichen sind gestellt (R2/R3) Unter Wölfen muss man heulen (R2/R3) aus allen Wolken fallen jdm die Würmer aus der Nase ziehen Jetzt geht's um die Wurst

Z

to go by the board to fall out of the frying-pan into the fire in passing

to drive sb up the wall The course is set When in Rome do as the Romans do to be taken aback to extract information from sb This is the crunch

jdm auf den Zahn fühlen to sound sb out, grill sb jdn in die Zange nehmen to put the screws on sb Zier dich nicht! Don't be shy! auf keinen grünen Zweig kommen to get nowhere

2.5 Prepositions

Being able to use prepositions confidently is a real marker of competence in a foreign language, and time spent working on them is always worthwhile. Some German prepositions, like hinter 'behind' or ohne 'without' are pretty straightforward and have a clear normal English equivalent, but the meaning and use of many of the common ones often seems very difficult to pin down. Apart from this, each German preposition is followed by (i.e. 'governs') a noun in a particular case, and this can sometimes vary according to context or register.

For these reasons, it is essential to memorize prepositions in contexts, learning phrases and sentences in which they occur. In sections 2.5.1 to 2.5.4 the German prepositions are explained according to the cases they govern, giving details of their most typical meanings. Section 2.5.5 lists the commonest English prepositions in alphabetical order and gives the German equivalents for their most frequent meanings. For each German and English preposition a selection of widely used expressions is given where the choice of a particular preposition is idiomatic and there is no parallel between the two languages. The use of prepositions with verbs, so-called 'prepositional objects', e.g. warten auf jdn 'to wait for sb', is treated separately in 4.1.4.

Since German prepositions govern particular cases, some familiar English constructions are not possible in German, for instance: (a) The same noun cannot be governed by two prepositions, as it can

in English. In German, the sentence has to be split into separate phrases, e.g.:

Rl = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

I was rather astonished by and Ich war von dieser plötzlichen pleased at this sudden turn of Wende etwas überrascht und events freute mich sehr darüber

(b) In general, two prepositions cannot be used with a single noun in German. The commonest alternative to this in German is to replace one of the English prepositions with a directional adverb (i.e. a compound of hin- or her- plus preposition), e.g.:

He looked across at me Er schaute zu mir herüber The water poured down through Das Wasser strömte durch das

the hole Loch hinunter He pulled it from under the bed Er zog es unter dem Bett hervor She looked in at the window Sie schaute zum Fenster herein

2.5.1 German prepositions with the accusative case

The common prepositions which govern the accusative case are: bis, durch, fur, gegen, ohne, um

Less widely used, but worth noting, are: per, pro, wider

BIS

(a)

NOTE: bis is never followed by an article or any other determiner. It is used on its own only with names, adverbs and some time words. Otherwise it always has another preposition with it, and it is this preposition which determines the case of the following noun. bis expressing place = as far as, (up) to

(b)

bis (nach) Rostock bis dorthin bis zu meinem Hausl bis an mein Haus ] bis aufs Dach bis expressing time = until, by von Montag bis Freitag bis morgen bis dahin bis auf weiteres Kinder bis zu zehn Jahren

as far as Rostock (to) there, as far as that up to, as far as my house

right onto the roof

from Monday to Friday until tomorrow, by tomorrow by then, between now and then until further notice, for the present children up to the age of ten

(C) bis auf can express exclusion = but for, down to (this can be ambiguous, as the example shows)

The bus was full down to the last Der Bus war bis auf den letzten

Platz besetzt seat

The bus was full but for the last seat

DURCH (a)

(b)

durch expressing place = through durch das Feuer durch die ganze Stadt mitten durch den Park durchs Examen fallen (Rl) durch expressing means, cause = by, through (for the use of durch in the passive, see 4.4.4)

through the fire throughout the town through the middle of the park to fail the exam

the invention of the internal com-bustion engine by Benz and Daimler

I got to know him through a friend

by activating the mechanism

(c)

die Erfindung des Verbrennungsmotors durch Benz und Daimler

Ich lernte ihn durch eine Freundin kennen

durch Betätigung des Mechanismus (R3b)

durch expressing time = throughout (often reinforced by adding hindurch) durch das ganze Leben throughout one's whole life (hindurch)

das ganze Jahr durch (Rl) throughout the year

FÜR (a) für in most senses = for für meine kranke Schwester for my sick sister für sein Alter for his age für den Fall, dass . . . in case . . . ein Sinn, ein Beispiel fur etw a sense, an example of sth

(b) fur expressing time = for (i.e. a period of time from 'now') Ich habe das Haus fur sechs I've rented the house for six Monate gemietet months

Tag für Tag day after day Schritt für Schritt step by step

to swim against the current

to hold sth up to the light to bump into the table

GEGEN (a) gegen expressing place = against, into Möbel gegen die Wand stellen to put furniture against the wall gegen den Strom schwimmen

(also fig) etw gegen das Licht halten gegen den Tisch stoßen

(b) gegen expressing opposition = against, for, compared with gegen meinen Willen against my wishes ein Mittel gegen Asthma a medicine for asthma Gegen deinen Bruder ist er He is small compared with your klein brother

(c) gegen expressing approximation = towards, about gegen vier Uhr towards/about four o'clock Es waren gegen 50 000 There were about 50,000 Zuschauer im Stadion spectators in the ground

126 2 Words and meanings

OHNE ohne = without ohne mein Wissen without my knowing ohne Mantel without a coat, without his coat Ohne mich! (Rl) Count me out! NOTE: ohne is used mainly without any following indefinite article or possessive.

UM (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

urn expressing place = round um die Ecke round the corner (rund/rings) um die Kirche (right) round the church um die Stadt (herum) (right) round the town um expressing time = at (with clock times), about (with other time phrases) um zwanzig nach sechs at twenty past/after six ungefähr um sieben at/about seven (o'clock) um Weihnachten (herum) around Christmas einen Tag um den anderen one day after another um expressing measurement = by um die Hälfte teurer dearer by half um nichts besser no better um in the sense of'concerning' = for; about ein Streit um etw a quarrel about sth (es ist) schade um etw (it's a) pity about sth um nichts in der Welt for nothing in the world

A few less widely used prepositions govern the accusative case.

PER per = by (mainly commercial R3b; often followed by the dative case) per Einschreiben by registered mail per 31. Dezember by, for 31 December It has come to be widely used in Rl in some phrases, e.g.: per Auto, per Bahn by car, by train mit jdm per du sein to call sb 'du' per Anhalter fahren to hitch-hike

PRO pro = per (originally commercial R3b, but now widely used in Rl; often used with a dative) 50 Cent pro Stück 50 cents each 5 Euro pro Person 5 euros per person

WIDER wider = against (R3a, now rarely used except in a few set phrases) wider alles Erwarten against all expectations wider Willen against my (his, her, etc.) will wider besseres Wissen against my (his, her, etc.) better

judgement

2.5.2 German prepositions with the dative case

The common prepositions taking the dative are: aus, außer, bei, gegenüber, mit, nach, seit, von, zu

Less widely used, but worth knowing, are: ab, binnen, gemäss, laut, zufolge

AUS (a) aus expressing place = out of, from Sie kommt aus dem Haus Er kommt aus Sachsen

She came out of the house He comes from Saxony (i.e. that is

his native region) to drink out of the bottle from close by at first hand to get out of practice You'll never come to anything

(b)

(c)

aus der Flasche trinken aus der Nähe aus erster Hand aus der Übung kommen Aus dir wird nichts werden

(Rl) aus expressing material = (made) of aus Holz, Stahl, Eisen made of wood, steel, iron aus expressing cause, motive = for, from, out of aus Furcht vor etw for fear of sth aus diesem Grund for this reason aus Überzeugung from conviction aus Mitleid out of pity

AUSSER (a) außer expressing restriction = except (for), but for, besides, apart from Apart from/Besides his salary he

receives an allowance Nobody saw her except (for) me

(b)

Außer dem Gehalt bekommt er noch einen Zuschuss

Niemand hat sie gesehen außer

außer expressing place = out of In modern usage außer is mainly used in this meaning in set phrases with no article. In some the noun is in the genitive case, or, after verbs of motion, in the accusative case. außer Betrieb außer Dienst (a.D.) etw außer Acht lassen außer Landes (R3) Ich war außer mir (R2/R3) Es steht außer jedem Zweifel etw außer jeden Zweifel stellen

out of order retired/not in active service to disregard sth out of the country I was beside myself It is beyond all doubt to put sth beyond all doubt

Pinneberg is by /near Hamburg at my parents' (house) (right) by the church the battle of Hastings in Günter Grass's works He works for the railways Frau Henne teaches us English

at breakfast when the opportunity arises if/when the weather is fine with/given these many problems the best thing about the whole business

BEI (a) bei expressing place, etc = by, at Pinneberg liegt bei Hamburg bei meinen Eltern (dicht) bei der Kirche die Schlacht bei Hastings bei Günter Grass Er ist bei der Bahn Wir haben Englisch bei Frau

Henne (b) bei expressing time = at, by

beim Frühstück bei Gelegenheit bei schönem Wetter bei diesen vielen Problemen das Schönste bei der ganzen

Sache (c) bei with verbal nouns = on

This usage is particularly frequent in modern R3b, though it is by no means restricted to it, see 5.2.3 and 5.3.2. bei der Ankunft des Zuges (R3) on the arrival of the train bei näherer Betrachtung (R3) on closer observation beim Schlafen, Essen whilst sleeping, eating bei der Arbeit when working

GEGENUBER This can come before or after the noun. It tends to follow words for persons and always follows pronouns, otherwise it is commoner before the noun. In Rl it is often followed by von rather than being used on its own.

(a) gegenüber expressing place = opposite mir gegenüber 1 gegenüber von mir (R1)J gegenüber (von Rl) der Kirchel der Kirche gegenüber (R3) j °PPosite the church

(b) gegenüber expressing comparison = compared with, towards ein Fortschritt gegenüber den an advance compared with previous Jahren davor years

eine neue Politik gegenüber dem Irak a new policy towards Iraq

opposite me

MIT (a) mit in most senses = with mit dem Schlüssel mit meinem Freund zusammen

etw mit dem Fuß stoßen mit den Achseln zucken mit anderen Worten

with the key together with my friend

to kick sth to shrug one's shoulders in other words

mit leiser Stimme in a quiet voice mit 20 Jahren at the age of 20 mit der Zeit in (the course of) time etw mit Absicht tun to do sth on purpose

(b) mit expressing means of transport = by

mit dem Flugzeug, Schiff, Zug by aeroplane, boat, train

NACH (a) nach expressing place = to (only with names and place adverbs -except in N) nach Genf to Geneva nach Süden (hin) to the south nach Finnland to Finland nach innen, außen, oben, unten to go inside, outside, up, down

gehen nach rechts, links gehen to go (to the) right, left nach Hause gehen to go home nach allen Seiten in all directions Er geht nach dem Bahnhof (N) He is going to the station

(b) nach expressing time = after, past nach fünf Jahren after five years, five years later zehn nach sieben ten past seven Ich bin nach ihm dran It's my turn after him

(c) nach in the sense of'according' = according to, judging by N O T E : in this sense nach can follow the noun, especially in some set phrases, in R3 and in the meaning 'judging by'. nach dem Gesetz/ (R3) dem according to the law

Gesetz nach meiner Meinung nach/nach in my opinion meiner Meinung

der Reihe nach in turns allem Anschein nach to all appearances nach französischer Art in the French manner Ihrer Sprache nach ist sie Judging by the way she speaks, she

Schweizerin is Swiss nach allem, was er gesagt hat from all he said etw nach dem Gewicht to sell sth by weight verkaufen

SEIT seit = for (a period of time up to now), since (a point in time) Seit drei Jahrhunderten gehört This house has belonged to the

dieses Haus der königlichen royal family for three centuries Familie

seit Anfang des Jahres since the beginning of the year erst seit kurzem not for long, only for a little while

VON (a)

(b)

(c)

ZU

von expressing place = from. Aus is added after the noun to stress the point of origin, and in some set phrases; her can be added after the noun to stress movement away from a point. Er kommt von seiner Mutter Sie fahrt von Aachen nach Köln

He's comin%from his mother's She's going from Aachen to

Cologne From (out of) the window I can see the school

as far as I'm concerned by nature The voice came from above

(d)

Von meinem Fenster (aus) kann ich die Schule sehen

von mir aus (Rl) von Natur aus Die Stimme kam von oben (her)

von expressing time = from. It can be strengthened by adding an after the noun. von Montag (an) from Monday von alters her (R3) from time immemorial von Zeit zu Zeit from time to time, occasionally von expressing possession, etc. = of. For the use of von or the genitive case, see 4.2.2. ein Stab von dieser Länge a bar of this length der Verkauf von Diamanten the sale of diamonds Das war nett von dir That was nice of you von in passive constructions = by (see 4.4.4) eine Oper von Verdi an opera by Verdi Das wird von ihm behauptet That is claimed by him

(a) zu expressing place = to Dieser Bus fahrt zum Rathaus Er geht zu seiner Nichte zur Decke (hin) blicken zur Schule gehen zu Hause zu beiden Seiten Setz dich zu uns

(b) zu expressing time = at zur Zeit des letzten deutschen Kaisers

zu Ende zu Weihnachten die Nacht zum Dienstag

Zu meinem Geburtstag hat sie mir ein Computerspiel geschenkt

zum Schluss zu Mittag essen

This bus goes to the town hall He is going to his niece's to glance towards the ceiling to go to school/attend school at home on either side Sit down with us

at the time of the last German emperor

at an end at/for Christmas in the night from Monday to Tuesday

She gave me a computer game for my birthday

finally to eat lunch

(c) zu expressing purpose = for zu diesem Zweck for this purpose zu früh zum Aufstehen too early for getting up/to get up der Stoff zu einem Kleid the material for a dress zum Spaß for fun,for a joke zum Glück fortunately zu Fuß on foot zur Not if need be, at a pinch

(d) zu expressing change zu nichts werden to become nothing jdn zum Präsidenten wählen to elect sb president Das ist zum Sprichwort That has become proverbial

geworden (e) zu expressing quantity

zehn Stück Seife zu je zwei Euro ten pieces of soap at two euros each zur Hälfte fertig half finished zum Teil partially drei zu zwei gewinnen to win three to two

A few less widely used prepositions govern the dative.

AB ab = from Originally ab was a typical R3b word, but it is now widely used in other registers for von... an. In time phrases it can be followed by the accusative case, especially in Rl. ab allen deutschen Bahnhöfen from all stations in Germany ab nächste(r) Woche from next week ab Dienstag, dem/den 19. Mai from Tuesday, 19 May

BINNEN binnen = within is restricted to R3. It can occur with the genitive in old-fashioned R3a. binnen einem Jahr ) . , . ,. . „ v > within a year binnen eines Jahres (R3a))

GEMÄß gemäß = in accordance with, according to. It can come before or (more commonly) after the noun. It is mainly used in R3; if it is used in R2 or Rl it sometimes takes the genitive. gemäß den Anweisungen I accordance with the instructions den Anweisungen gemäß )

LAUT laut = according to (i.e. verbatim). In R3 it is often used with the genitive case if the following noun has an article, another determiner or an adjective with it.

132 2 Words and meanings

laut unserem Bericht aus \ Berlin 1

laut unseres Berichtes aus [ Berlin (R3) )

Laut Hans-Joachim will er nicht

according to our report from Berlin

According to Hans-Joachim (i.e. what Hans-Joachim says is:), he doesn't want to

ZUFOLGE zufolge = according to unbestätigten Berichten

zufolge einem Regierungssprecher

zufolge

according to unconfirmed reports

according to a government spokesman

2.5.3 German prepositions with the dative or the accusative cases

Ten German prepositions can be followed by a noun in the dative or the accusative case, with a difference in meaning depending on which case is used. These prepositions are:

an, auf, entlang, hinter, in, neben, über, unter, vor, zwischen These prepositions are followed by a noun in the dative case if they express 'rest', e.g. being 'in' or 'at' a particular place, but by a noun in the accusative case if they express 'movement', or, more accurately, the 'direction' in which someone is moving or something is being put. Compare:

Wir stehen an der Grenze We are standing on the border (DATIVE)

Wir fahren an die Grenze We are driving to the border (ACCUSATIVE)

Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch The book is lying on the table (DATIVE)

Ich lege das Buch auf den I am putting the book on the table Tisch (ACCUSATIVE)

Obviously, this rule cannot apply if these prepositions are used to express time or some other meaning which doesn't refer to place or direction, and in these other meanings they tend to be used all the time with a single case, i.e. either the dative or the accusative. For most of them this is the dative case, but with auf and über the accusative is usual.

The following survey explains the common uses of these prepositions, separating those with the accusative and those with the dative to show the distinctive meanings.

A N (DAT) (a) an (dat) expressing position = on, at, by (i.e. on, at or by the side of someone or something) an der Grenze on/at the border an der Universität Marburg at the University of Marburg Er stand an der Wand He was standing by the wall Das Bild hängt an der Wand The picture is hanging on the wall am Rathaus at/by the town hall nahe am Hotel near (to) the hotel unten am Fluss down by the river an einem Buch arbeiten to be working on a book

(b) an (dat) expressing time = on (esp with nouns denoting days or parts of the day) am 31. Oktober on 31 October am Sonntag on Sunday(s) am nächsten Tag/am Tag the next day/the following day

darauf am Anfang in the beginning am Ende finally

(c) an (dat) in other expressions arm/reich an Bodenschätzen poor/rich in mineral resources Es ist was dran There's something to it Jetzt ist's an ihm It's up to him now sieben an der Zahl seven in number

A N ( A C C ) an expressing direction = to, on an die Grenze fahren to go, drive to the border ein Bild an die Wand hängen to hang a picture on the wall eine Bitte an seinen Onkel a request to his uncle an das Klavier heran (right) up to the piano

A U F (DAT) auf (dat) expressing position = on (i.e. on top of); at (with public buildings, events) Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch The book is on the table auf dem Mond landen to land on the moon auf dem Feld in the field auf dem Rathaus at the town hall auf dem Land(e) in the country auf einer Tagung at a conference auf dem Weg nach Erfurt on the way to Erfurt blind auf einem Auge blind in one eye

AUF (ACC) (a) auf (acc) expressing movement = on (to); to (with public buildings, events) Sie legte das Buch auf den She put the book on the table Tisch

Er kletterte auf die Mauer He climbed (up) on to the wall Ich gehe auf das Rathaus I'm going to the town hall Ich gehe auf eine Tagung I'm going to a conference auf die Tür zu towards the door

(b) auf (acc) expressing time = for (i.e. for a length of time from now. This usage is now chiefly R3 except in set phrases) Sie will auf ein paar Tage She's going away for a few days verreisen

von heute auf morgen from one day to the next, at a mo-ment's notice

Das Taxi ist auf acht bestellt The taxi has been ordered for eight auf unbestimmte Zeit indefinitely

(c) auf (acc) in other expressions auf Deutsch, auf Englisch, auf in German, in English, in Russian Russisch

aufs angenehmste/ most pleasantly Angenehmste (R3)

auf meinen Brief hin following my letter auf diese Weise in this way auf den ersten Blick at first sight ««/keinen Fall on no account auf eigene Kosten at one's own expense auf den Gedanken kommen to get an/the idea Auf Ihr Wohl! Your health! etw ««/Raten kaufen to buy sth by instalments Es kommt darauf an It all depends

ENTLANG entlang = along (often shortened to lang in Rl) The commonest usage with entlang is as follows:

(i) expressing 'rest': entlang comes before a noun in the dative case (R3 also often the genitive case)

(ii) expressing movement: entlang comes after a noun in the accusative case

(iii) an (dat) entlang is a common alternative for either rest or movement, but it is not used in the sense of'along the middle of sth' (e.g. roads, rivers, etc.)

Wir flogen die Küste entlang ] Wir flogen an der Küste / We flew along the coast

entlang >

Entlang der Küste wachsen ' hohe Palmen Tall palm-trees grow along the

An der Küste entlang wachsen coast hohe Palmen

Wir kamen die Straße entlang We came along/up/down the street

HINTER (DAT) hinter (dat) expressing position = = behind Er stand hinter der Garage He was standing behind the garage 20 Kilometer hinter der Grenze 20 kilometres beyond the border Er ging hinter mir her He was walking behind me/

following me hinter meinem Rücken behind my back

HINTER (ACC) hinter (acc) expressing movement = behind Er lief hinter die Garage He ran behind the garage hinter die Wahrheit kommen to get to the truth

IN (DAT) (a) in (dat) expressing position = in(side) im Kühlschrank in the refrigerator in der Hütte in(side) the hut im Norden in the north in der Schweiz in Switzerland in der Nähe near by im Ausland abroad

(b) in (dat) expressing time = in (i.e. within a period of time, or after a period of time) in einer Woche in a week ('in a week's time' or

'inside a week') heute in acht Tagen a week today im Winter in (the) winter in der Nacht in the night in der nächsten Woche (during) the following week im vergangenen Jahr last year in der Zeit nach dem Krieg in the time after the war im voraus in advance im letzten Augenblick at the last moment

(c) in (DAT) in other expressions nicht im Geringsten/ not in the slightest

Entferntesten im Durchschnitt on average in dieser Weise in this way in gewissem Maße to a certain extent im höchsten Grad extremely im Allgemeinen in general in dieser Hinsicht in this respect

IN (ACC) in (acc) expressing movement = Sie hat es in den Ofen gestellt Wir gehen ins Theater in die Schweiz fahren etw ins Deutsche übersetzen in die Arbeit vertieft in einen weißen Anzug

gekleidet sich in Bewegung setzen

etw in die Länge ziehen

in(to), to She put it in (to) the oven We're going to the theatre to go to Switzerland to translate sth into German engrossed in one's work dressed in a white suit

to begin to move, start moving

to drag sth out, prolong sth

NEBEN (DAT) (a) neben (dat) expressing position = next to, beside Er saß neben mir He was sitting next to/beside

me Das Buch steht neben dem The book is next to the radio

Radio Er ging neben ihr her He was walking beside her

(b) neben (dat) expressing exclusion = besides, apart from Neben einigen Deutschen Apart from a few Germans most of

kommen die meisten the tourists come from Japan Touristen aus Japan

(c) neben (dat) expressing comparison = compared with Neben seinem Bruder ist er He is tall compared with his

groß brother

NEBEN (ACC) neben (acc) expressing movement = next to, beside Er setzte sich neben mich (hin) He sat down next to/beside me Er stellte das Buch neben das He put the book next to the radio

Radio

ÜBER (DAT) über (dat) expressing position = over, above, across, beyond Das Bild hängt über dem The picture is hanging over/above

Schreibtisch the desk Die Sonne ging über den Bergen The sun rose over the mountains

auf 3000 Meter über dem 3000 metres above sea-level

Meeresspiegel Es lag (quer) über dem Weg It lay across the path Er wohnt über der Grenze He lives over/across/beyond the

border

ÜBER (ACC) (a) über (acc) expressing movement = : over, across, via, beyond Er hing das Bild über den He hung the picture over the desk

Schreibtisch die Gänse flogen über das Watt The geese flew over the mud-flats (hin)

Er ging über die Straße He went across the road/he crossed the road

Er ist über die Grenze He swam across/over the border geschwommen

Der Baum fiel uns (quer) über The tree fell across our path den Weg

einen Pullover über die Bluse to put a sweater on over one's ziehen blouse

Wir sind über Calais We came via Calais gekommen

Es lief mir kalt über den Rücken A cold shiver went down my spine über etw hinwegsehen to ignore sth

(b) über (acc) expressing time = over über Nacht overnight übers Wochenende over the weekend über kurz oder lang sooner or later

(c) über (acc) expressing quantity = over Es kostet über 1000 Euro It costs more than 1000 euros ein Scheck über 100 Euro a cheque for 100 euros über alle Maßen (R3a) beyond measure

(d) über (acc) in the sense of'concerning' = about ein Buch über den a book about the Black Forest

Schwarzwald über deine Mutter sprechen to talk about your mother meine Freude über ihren my delight at her success Erfolg

UNTER (DAT) (a) unter (dat) expressing position = under(neath)y below, beneath, among(st) Der Hund liegt unter dem Tisch The dog is lying under the table unter der Erde beneath the ground unter der Herrschaft der under the rule of the Empress

Kaiserin Augusta Augusta Es gab Streit unter den Kindern There was quarrelling among the

children unter uns (gesagt) between ourselves unter vier Augen privately unter anderem among (st) other things

[UNTER (DAT)] (b)

(c)

UNTER (ACC)

VOR (DAT)

VOR (ACC)

ZWISCHEN (DAT)

in these circumstances on these conditions amid thunderous applause She confessed amid tears

unter (dat) expressing circumstances = with, on, in, amid unter größten Schwierigkeiten with the greatest difficulty unter diesen Umständen unter diesen Bedingungen unter tosendem Beifall Sie gestand unter Tränen unter (dat) expressing quantity = under, below ein Fahrrad unter 500 Euro a bicycle under/for less than

500 euros unter 20 Grad Kälte below -20 degrees (Celsius)

unter (acc) expressing movement = under, below, among Der Hund kroch unter den The dog crawled under the table

Tisch Er ging unter die Erde He went below the ground Er lief unter die Kinder He ran among(st) the children

(a) vor (dat) expressing position = in front of ahead of He is waiting in front of/ by the

cinema The Pacific lay before us ahead of me in the darkness He was strolling ahead of me It isojf the coast

Er wartet vor dem Kino

Der Pazifik lag vor uns vor mir in der Dunkelheit Er schlenderte vor mir her Es liegt vor der Küste

(b) vor (dat) expressing time = before, ago zwei Tage vor ihrer Ankunft two days before their arrival zehn Minuten vor fünf ten minutes to five heute vor acht Tagen a week ago today erst vor einer Woche not until a week ago

(c) vor (dat) expressing a cause or reason for sth (typically involuntary) NOTE : in this sense vor is used without a following article. blass vor Furcht pale with fear aus Furcht vor jdm/etw for fear of sb/sth Vor Nebel war nichts zu sehen Nothing could be seen for the fog Vor ihm ist keiner sicher Nobody is safe from him

vor (acc) expressing movement = in front of Sie fuhr vor das Kino She drove up in front of/by the

cinema vor sich hin to oneself

zwischen (dat) expressing position = between, among Sie saß zwischen mir und She was sitting between me and my meiner Frau wife

zwischen drei und halb vier between three and half-past

ZWISCHEN (ACC) zwischen (acc) expressing direction = between, among Sie setzte sich zwischen mich She sat down between me and my und meine Frau wife

Sie pflanzte Schneeglöckchen She planted snowdrops among the zwischen die Sträucher bushes

2.5.4 German prepositions with the genitive case

There are four frequent prepositions which take the genitive case: (an)statt, trotz, während, wegen

However, in Rl and CH they commonly take the dative case, and the dative case is used in all registers if the following noun is plural and has no article, e.g. wegen Unföllen. Other prepositions which take the genitive are given below.

(AN)STATT (an)statt = instead of. The longer alternative anstatt is mainly used in R3. (an)statt eines Radios (R2/R3)\ . , r . n „ mix

v '( instead of a radio statt einem Radio (Rl) J statt Bildern instead of pictures

TROTZ

WAHREND

trotz = despite; in spite of trotz des Regens (R2/R3) \ trotz dem Regen (Rl) J trotz Einwänden

despite the rain

in spite of objections

N O T E : the dative is used with trotz in a few set phrases. trotz allem /trotz alledem in spite of everything//^ all that

während = during während meines Urlaubs \ (R2/R3)

während meinem Urlaub (Rl) J während zweier Tage (R3) ) während zwei Tagen (R1/R2) j N O T E : während, unlike during} is not normally used with nouns such as Tag, Abend, Nacht, Jahr, etc. in the singular, see 2.5.5.

during my holiday

for two (whole) days

WEGEN wegen = because of (Rl often von wegen) In R3 wegen occasionally follows the noun, but it is much more usual for it to come first.

140 2 Words and meanings

[WEGEN] wegen des schlechten Wetters (R2/R3)

des schlechten Wetters wegen ( because of the bad weather (R3a)

(von) wegen dem schlechten Wetter (Rl)

wegen Unfällen because of accidents wegen Umbau(s) geschlossen closed for alterations meinetwegen because of me (R2/R3)/ I don't

mind (Rl) wegen mir (Rl) ) because of me wegen meiner (SE) j

because of me

(a) A number of specific place prepositions are used with a following genitive case.

außerhalb outside diesseits on this side of innerhalb inside jenseits on that side of oberhalb above beid(er)seits on both sides of unterhalb below unweit not far from

If these prepositions are used in R2 or Rl, they are most often followed by von, e.g.: innerhalb dreier Tage (R3) \ innerhalb von drei Tagen > within three days

(R1/R2) )

(b) Other prepositions with the genitive There are very many of these; they are mainly typical of R3b, e.g.:

angesichts dieser in view of these difficulties Schwierigkeiten

anlässlich seines siebzigsten on the occasion of his seventieth Geburtstages birthday

hinsichtlich dieses Briefes with regard to this letter kraft seines Amtes by virtue of his office mittels eines speziell by means of a specially

konstruierten constructed underwater studio Unterwasserstudios

2.5.5 English prepositions

In this section the most common German equivalent of each frequent English preposition is given first, with one or more examples (even if the equivalent is not a preposition in German). Further examples are then given of some idiomatic or less usual equivalents.

ABOUT (a) about in the sense of 'concerning^ über (acc) a book about the war ein Buch über den Krieg He knows all about it Er weiß darüber Bescheid She doesn't understand anything Sie versteht nichts davon about it

(b) about in the sense of'approximately' = etwa, ungefähr about fifty people etwa!ungefähr fünfzig Leute She is about thirty Sie ist etwa/ungefähr dreißig/

um die dreißig herum (at) about seven gegen sieben/so um sieben (Rl)

(c) about expressing place = . . . herum to walk about the garden im Garten umher-/herumgehen to sit about the house im Haus herumsitzen

ABOVE above= über (dat), oberhalb (R3) above the village the Rhine above the city of Basle

above all

über dem Dorf der Rhein oberhalb der Stadt Basel (R3)

vor allem

ACCORDING TO 1 nach - may follow noun in R3 laut - direct quotation

according to = , entsprechend, gemäß, according to = , zufolge - all these are typically R3b and follow or, less

k commonly, precede the noun according to the regulations nach den Vorschriften according to police reports laut Polizeiberichten according to expectations den Erwartungen entsprechend

(R3b) according to our principles unseren Prinzipien

gemäß/zufolge (R3b) according to foreign press reports ausländischen

Pressemeldungen zufolge (R3b)

ACROSS across = über (dat) - indicating rest über (acc) - indicating direction

to walk across the bridge über die Brücke gehen A tree lay across the path Ein Baum lag (quer) über dem

Weg to go across the meadows durch die Wiesen gehen She lives across the street Sie wohnt gegenüber

142 2 Words and meanings

AFTER (a)

(b)

after expressing time = nach after the party nach dem Fest the week after next übernächste Woche the day after tomorrow übermorgen day after day Tag fur/um Tag after expressing place = hinter (dat) She shut the door after her Sie machte die Tür hinter ihr zu She ran after him Sie lief hinter ihm her to shout after sb hinter jdm herrufen

AGAINST against ==

against our decision to sail against the wind against expectations to be leaning against the wall to lean sth against the wall

fgegen 1 wider (R3, or in a few idioms)

gegen unseren Beschluss gegen den Wind segeln wider Erwarten an der Wand lehnen etw an die Wand lehnen

ALONG

along =

We are flying along the coast

Trees stood along the bank

Along the coast the weather is fine

along the floor

1 entlang followed by a noun in the dative (R3 genitive) case, indicating rest

entlang preceded by a noun in the accusative case, indicating direction

an (dat) entlang indicating rest or ; direction f Wir fliegen die Küste entlang [ Wir fliegen an der Küste entlang [ Bäume standen entlang dem Ufer 1 (R3: des Ufers) | Bäume standen am Ufer \ entlang

An der Küste ist das Wetter schön

am Boden hin AMONG(ST) among(st) =

among the crowd among other things She found them among(st) the trees

He went among the children She is among the best

(unter (acc/dat) \ zwischen (acc/dat)

unter der Menge unter anderem Sie fand sie unter/zwischen den Bäumen

Er ging unter die Kinder Sie gehört zu den Besten

AT (a)

at expressing place =

at the corner at the station

at the town hall at the butcher's at our house at university at the office at the bank, the post office at home at school at a distance of400 metres

(b) at expressing time =

at five (o'clock) at 7.20 pm at about seven

at the weekend at present, at the moment at the same time at the end of April at Christmas at night at this time tomorrow

(c) at in other expressions at a speed of 100 kilometres per hour

at -40 degrees (Celsius) at any rate at two euros a pound at all costs at first sight at bottom to begin at the beginning at his expense

an (dat) bei - esp 'vaguely in the vicinity

of, 'at sb's house' auf (dat) - with public buildings an der Ecke/ bei der Ecke am Bahnhof/ auf dem Bahnhof (R3)

auf dem Rathaus beim Metzger bei uns an (R3 auf) der Universität im Büro auf der Bank, auf der Post zu Hause/ (S) daheim in der Schule in einer Entfernung von 400 Metern

um - with precise clock times an (dat) - in most other contexts um fünf (Uhr) um 19.20 Uhr gegen sieben/ungefähr um

sieben/so um sieben (Rl) am Wochenende zurzeit zu gleich/ zur gleichen Zeit Ende April zu (Rl an, AU auf) Weihnachten in der Nacht morgen um diese Zeit

mit einer Geschwindigkeit von 100 Stundenkilometern

bei 40 Grad Kälte auf alle Fälle zu zwei Euro das Pfund um jeden Preis auf den/beim ersten Blick im Grunde (genommen) von vorn(e) anfangen auf seine Kosten

BEYOND (a)

(b)

BY (a)

beyond expressing place = { j j ^ j j ^

beyond the hills über den Bergen, jenseits der Berge (R3)

20 kilometres beyond Frankfurt 20 Kilometer hinter Frankfurt meaning 'surpassing' = über (acc)... hinaus beyond human understanding über den Menschenverstand

hinaus nothing beyond that nichts außerdem/sonst nichts beyond doubt außer Zweifel

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

by expressing place =

by the window by my side to sit by sb to take sb by the hand

to lead sb by the hand We went by his house

by expressing time = bis by Friday by then (in future) by then (in past), by now by expressing measure = um taller by a head by the hour, metre by far by expressing means = mit by train, bus, car

( an (dat) 'right by' \ bei 'in the vicinity of

am Fenster/ beim Fenster an meiner Seite neben jdm sitzen jdn an die Hand/ bei der Hand

nehmen jdn an der Hand führen Wir gingen an seinem Haus

vorbei

bis Freitag bis dann, bis dahin inzwischen

um einen Kopf größer stundenweise, met erweise bei weitem

to pay by cheque by expressing cause = durch (for by the discovery of America by the Vikings

by pressure on the button

by accident, by chance by mistake a play by Frisch

mit dem Zug, dem Bus, dem Auto

mit (einem) Scheck (be)zahlen in passive constructions see 4.4.4) die Entdeckung Amerikas

durch die Wikinger durch einen Druck auf den

Knopf durch Zufall, zufallig aus Versehen ein Stück von Frisch

2.5 Prepositions 145

[BY] (f ) by in other expressions one by one to know sb by sight side by side by heart by request not by any means

einer nach dem anderen jdn vom Sehen her kennen nebeneinander auswendig aw/Wunsch keineswegs / noch lange nicht

(Rl)

DOWN

down = 1

. . . hinab (R2/R3),... hinunter - 'away from one'

. . . herab (R2/R3),... herunter - 'towards one'

. . . runter (Rl) - 'away from one' k or 'towards one'

We went down the street

She came down the street

He lives down the street down the side of the house down the centuries

Tears rolled down her cheeks

Wir gingen die Straße hinab/hinunter

Sie kam die Straße herab/herunter

Er wohnt etwas weiter (unten) seitlich am Haus entlang durch die Jahrhunderte

(hindurch) Tränen rollten ihr über die

Wangen

DURING during = während

during the war

during the day during the night

( wahrend des Krieges (R2/R3) | während dem Krieg (Rl) l im Krieg

am Tag in der Nacht

EXCEPT (FOR) except (for) =

except for me The flat is finished except for

the kitchen except for a few little things

{ außer ( bis auf (acc) l abgesehen von

außer mir Bis auf die Küche ist die

Wohnung fertig außer/bis auf/abgesehen von ein

paar Kleinigkeiten

FOR (a) for expressing benefit = fur room for us Platz fur uns a present for her husband ein Geschenk fur ihren Mann a reward for sth eine Belohnung fur etw NOTE : with verbs, the person benefiting may be in the dative, but a phrase with fur can also be used, especially in Rl (see 4.1.2), e.g.: ^

[FOR]

(b)

(c)

He bought a book for me

for expressing purpose = zu for this purpose What's it for, then? for pleasure for breakfast

IEr hat mir ein Buch gekauft Er hat ein Buch fur mich

gekauft

for expressing time =

(d)

(e)

I have been sitting here for three hours

I had been sitting there for three hours

I am going to Kiel for three weeks

I sat there for two hours

He won't be back for a month

I'll do it for Monday for years on end for the first time for hours on end for expressing place change for Dortmund leave for Bochum bends for 5 kilometres ahead for in other expressions not see anything/or fog the thirst for knowledge for example as for me a cheque for 100 euros to do sth for love for this reason

zu diesem Zweck Wozu dient es denn? zum Vergnügen zum Frühstück

seit - 'for' a period of time up to now für / (R3) auf (acc) - 'for' a period of time

from 'now' accusative noun (often with lang) - 'for'

any length of time entirely in the past or future (Rl also a period from 'now')

Ich sitze seit drei Stunden hier

Ich saß seit drei Stunden dort

Ich fahre für drei Wochen/(R3) auf drei Wochen/ (Rl) drei Wochen nach Kiel

Ich habe zwei Stunden (lang) dort gesessen

Erst in einem Monat ist er wieder da

Ich mache es bis Montag fertig jahrelang/(R3) Jahre hindurch zum ersten Mal stundenlang

nach Dortmund umsteigen nach Bochum abfahren Kurven auf 5 Kilometer

vor Nebel nichts sehen der Drang nach Wissen zum Beispiel was mich angeht ein Scheck über 100 Euro etw aus Liebe tun aus diesem Grund

FROM (a)

(b)

(c)

from expressing place =

She comes from Ireland (i.e. that is her native land)

She is commgfrom Ireland (i.e. she is travelling from there)

the train from Berne the train from Berne to Basle 20 kilometres from the coast

to drink from a glass from top to bottom Where did you get that from ?

from expressing time =

from today from 1 May from the start from (last) January from (next) January from morning till night from childhood from in other expressions from 50 euros from experience from what F ve heard from the outset She was trembling from the cold

von - coming from a place one has been 'at', with the idea of direc-tion from (the opposite of zu)

aus - coming from, or out of a place one has been 'in', with the idea of origin (the opposite of in

i (acc)) Sie kommt aus Irland

Sie kommt von Irland

der Zug aus Bern der Zug von Bern nach Basel 20 Kilometer von der Küste

entfernt aus einem Glas trinken von oben bis unten Wo hast du das her? (Rl)

' v o n . . . an ; ab (esp R3b) - with precise times von heute an, ab heute (R3b) vom 1. Mai an/ab 1. Mai (R3b) von Anfang an seit Januar von Januar an, Januar (R3b) von morgens bis abends von Kind auf/an, von klein auf

ab 50 Euro aus (der) Erfahrung nach dem, was ich gehört habe von vornherein Sie zitterte vor Kälte

IN (a) in expressing place =

It is in his pocket He put it in his pocket in Brunswick

in town in the country in the picture in the sky

in (dat) - position in in (acc) - movement into Es ist in seiner Tasche Er steckte es in die Tasche in Braunschweig zu Braunschweig (R3a) in der Stadt auf dem Lande auf dem Bild am Himmel

[IN]

(b)

(C)

in heaven in the direction of the station to go in that direction NOTE: both accusative and dative frequent. in the field in (among) the trees wounded in the arm in your place in expressing time = in (dat) in autumn in May in mid May in ten days in earlier times in 2001 in the evening(s) later in the day in the days when . . .

in the long run in advance in used in other expressions in any case in that case just in case in German

in my opinion

in a loud voice in vain in this way

in all respects four in number all in all not in the least

im Himmel (in) Richtung Bahnhof in diese(r) Richtung gehen

cases are used but the dative is more

auf dem Feld /auf der Wiese unter den Bäumen am Arm verletzt an deiner Stelle

im Herbst im Mai Mitte Mai in zehn Tagen in früheren Zeiten 2001, im Jahre 2001 am Abend/abends später am Tag zu der Zeit, wo (Rl/R2)/als

(R2/R3).. . auf die Dauer im voraus

auf jeden Fall in dem Fall für alle Falle ««/Deutsch

j meiner Meinung nach \ meines Erachtens (R3)

mit lauter Stimme umsonst, vergeblich auf diese Weise/ in dieser

Weise in jeder Hinsicht vier an der Zahl alles in allem nicht im Geringsten

INSIDE

inside =

inside the house

in (dat)j innerhalb (R3) -expressing place

in (acc) - expressing direction in (dat)y innerhalb (R2/R3), binnen (R3) - expressing time

{ im Haus/im Haus drin (Rl)/ \ innerhalb des Hauses (R3)

He went inside the house

inside a month

Er ging ins Haus (hinein) in einem Monat innerhalb eines Monats (R3) binnen einem Monat (R3) innerhalb von einem Monat (R2)

INSTEAD OF instead of = statt, anstatt (R3), anstelle von

instead ö/flowers

instead of his brother

instead of me

j statt/(83) anstatt Blumen 1 anstelle von Blumen

{statt seines Bruders (R2/R3) statt seinem Bruder (Rl) anstelle von seinem Bruder

I.statt meiner (R3) statt mir (Rl) an meiner Stelle

INTO into = in (acc) She went into the room to translate into Spanish to drive into a tree

Sie ging ins Zimmer (hinein) ins Spanische übersetzen gegen einen Baum fahren

OF (a) of expressing possession, etc. the roof of the house

the danger of an earthquake the discovery of America

: genitive case or von (see 4.2.2) ( das Dach des Hauses (R2/R3) 1 das Dach vom Haus (R1/R2)

die Gefahr eines Erdbebens die Entdeckung von Amerika

(b) of expressing quantity = apposition, genitive case or von (see 4.2.2)

(c)

(d)

a cup of coffee

two groups of young workers

all of them the fi\tof us a friend of mine

of with names = apposition the city of Cologne the month of February the University of London of expressing material = aus a house of straw a table of beechwood

eine Tasse Kaffee zwei Gruppen junger Arbeiter

(R2/R3) zwei Gruppen von jungen

Arbeitern (R1/R2) sie alle wir fünf ein Freund von mir

die Stadt Köln der Monat Februar die Universität London

ein Haus aus Stroh ein Tisch aus Buchenholz

[OF] (e) of used in other expressions of course of its own accord today of all days to die of hunger north of Kassel the battle of Lützen an example of sth typical, characteristic of sb/sth

selbstverständlich, natürlich von selbst ausgerechnet heute vor Hunger sterben nördlich von Kassel die Schlacht bei Lützen ein Beispiel für etw typisch, charakteristisch für

jdn/etw

OFF off = von . . . (her-/hinunter) He jumped off the train He took it off the shelf

10 kilometres off the main road

off the south coast of England

Er sprang vom Zug (hinunter) Er nahm es vom Regal

(herunter) 10 Kilometer von der Hauptstraße weg

vor der englischen Südküste

ON (a)

on expressing place =

The book is on the table He put the book on (to) the table

The picture hung on the wall He hung the picture on the wall

on the river

We are sitting on the floor

on the ceiling on (the) stage on top of the mountain to kiss sb on the mouth on the piano on the way on the left on the wall on the coast on the telephone

auf (dat) - 'on (top of)' - position auf (acc) - 'on/onto (the top

of)' - direction an (dat) - 'on (the side of)' -

position an (acc) - 'on/onto (the side

of)' - direction

Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch Er legte das Buch auf den

Tisch Das Bild hing an der Wand Er hängte das Bild an die

Wand ( auf dem Fluss (on it, e.g. in a boat) 1 am Fluss (beside it)

Wir sitzen am Boden/auf dem Boden

an der Decke auf der Bühne oben auf dem Berg jdn auf den Mund küssen am Klavier auf dem Weg/unterwegs auf der linken Seite/links an der Wand /auf der Mauer an der Küste am Telefon

a house on the main road ein Haus an der Hauptstraße on board an Bord on the train im Zug to go on the train mit dem Zug fahren on his face im Gesicht on the second floor im zweiten Stock it says on the poster t ha t . . . ... auf dem Plakat steht,

d a s s . . .

(b) / an (dat) on expressing time = | bei 'on the occasion of (especially

I with nouns from verbs) on Sunday am Sonntag on Sundays sonntags/am Sonntag on weekdays an Wochentagen on the morning of 4 July am Morgen des 4. Juli on the following evening am Abend darauf on this occasion bei dieser Gelegenheit on his arrival bei seiner Ankunft

(c) on in the sense of'concerning' = über (acc) a book on German history ein Buch über deutsche

Geschichte (d) on used in other expressions

to go on a journey auf eine Reise gehen on the radio, the television im Radio, im Fernsehen on no account «K/keinen Fall on average im Durchschnitt on purpose mit Absicht/absichtlich on one condition unter einer Bedingung It was improved on her suggestion Es wurde auf ihren Vorschlag

hin verbessert

OPPOSITE opposite = gegenüber opposite me (mi r gegenüber (R2/R3) opposite me

1 gegenüber von mir (Rl) / gegenüber dem Rathaus

opposite the hospital | dem Rathaus gegenüber (R3) l gegenüber vom Rathaus (Rl)

OUT OF, (nicht in (dat), außerhalb OUTSIDE out of, outside = | (R2/R3) - position

l aus - direction to be out of town nicht in der Stadt sein

außerhalb der Stadt sein (R3) The car pulled up outside the house Das Auto hielt vor dem Haus to go out of the room aus dem Zimmer

(hinaus)gehen

[OUT OF, OUTSIDE]

She looked out of the window out of breath, danger, sight

out of control outside office hours

Sie sah zur Tür hinaus außer Atem, außer Gefahr,

außer Sicht außer Kontrolle außerhalb der Dienstzeit

OVER over =

Clouds hung over the city We flew over the city the bridge over the Neckar children over ten years old over and above that over a year ago

over dinner over the years

( über (dat) - position 1 über (acc) - direction

Wolken hingen über der Stadt Wir flogen über die Stadt (hin) die Brücke über den Neckar Kinder über zehn Jahre alt darüber hinaus gut ein Jahr her/ vor gut einem Jahr

beim Abendessen im Laufe der Jahre

PAST (a)

(b)

past expressing place =

We drove past the house just past the barn past expressing time = nach twenty past seven

j an (dat). . . vorbei \ hinter (dat) - 'beyond'

Wir fuhren am Haus vorbei gleich hinter der Scheune

zwanzig nach sieben

ROUND round = um round the corner

right round the lake

all round the house

all round Belgium

um die Ecke j um den ganzen See herum 1 rings/rund um den See ( um das Haus herum (outside) \ im ganzen Haus (inside)

durch ganz Belgien

THROUGH through = durch through the tunnel through the city to go through a red light cancelled through illness all through her life all through the night

all through/throughout the city

durch den Tunnel durch die Stadt bei Rot durchfahren wegen Krankheit ausgefallen ihr ganzes Leben lang die ganze Nacht hindurch

{in der ganzen Stadt 1 überall in der Stadt

TO (a) to expressing direction has three main equivalents, depending on the context, region or register:

(i) an (acc), auf (acc), in (acc) - movement to a particular place; the preposition chosen depends on 'where' you will be when you arrive (i.e. an, auf or in the place).

I am going to university (i.e. to study there)

She walked (up) to the window

They went to the station

She went (up) to her room to the Isle of Wight They are going to town I am going to the office We are going to Switzerland to go to bed close to sth a visit to my (girl-)friend

Ich gehe an die Universität

Sie trat an das Fenster ' Sie fuhren auf den Bahnhof

(R2/R3)/ zum Bahnhof (Rl)/ nach dem Bahnhof (N) Sie ging auf ihr Zimmer auf die Insel Wight Sie fahren in die Stadt Ich gehe ins Büro Wir fahren in die Schweiz ins Bett (R3 zu Bett) gehen nahe bei/an etw ein Besuch bei meiner Freundin

(ii) zu - general direction towards a place - the opposite of von. Also used with people. Often used in Rl instead of an or auf

(b)

Ich gehe zur Universität

Fährt dieser Bus zum Bahnhof? zum Metzger die Tür zum Hof (hin) parallel zur Mauer

(iii) nach - 'to'with neuter names of towns or countries, or with some adverbs. Often used in N instead of an, auf, in or zu.

Wir fahren nach Italien, nach Rostock

nach Süden nach rechts nach vorn(e)

Idative case

an (acc) - if the notion of direction is stressed

Er hat mir den Koffer gegeben Sie ist mir eine gute Freundin gewesen

Ich habe ihr/an sie geschrieben

I am going to the university (i.e. that is my destination)

Does this bus go to the station? to the butcher's the door to the yard parallel to the wall

We are going to Italy, to Rostock

to the south to the right to the front

to expressing indirect object =

He gave the case to me She has been a good friend to me

I wrote to her

[TO] serving drinks to minors der Alkoholausschank an Jugendliche (R3b)

He told that to his friend Das hat er seinem Freund gesagt

(c) to expressing time = vor (dat) - in telling time ten to six zehn vor sechs punctual to the minute pünktlich auf die Minute

(d) to used in other expressions What's that to you? Was geht dich das an} Leverkusen won three to one Leverkusen hat drei zu eins

gewonnen to my delight zu meiner Freude 200 inhabitants to the square 200 Einwohner pro

kilometre Quadratkilometer to my knowledge meines Wissens to work to rule nach Vorschrift arbeiten to a great extent in hohem Grad, in hohem

Maße an answer to your question eine Antwort auf Ihre Frage to hold sth to the light etw gegen das Licht halten

TOWARDS (a) towards expressing direction = auf (acc)... zu towards the door auf die Tür zu She came towards me Sie kam auf mich zu/ mir

entgegen towards Oldenburg nach Oldenburg hin towards the north nach Norden hin/zu

(b) towards expressing time = gegen towards the end of the last century gegen Ende des vorigen

Jahrhunderts

UNDER undpr — ( unter (dat) - position MffM'Cr — \ unter (acc) - direction He parked the car under the bridge Er hat den Wagen unter der

Brücke geparkt She put the money under the Sie hat das Geld unter mattress die Matratze gesteckt

children under 12 years old Kinder unter 12 Jahren under construction im Bau

UNTIL/TILL until/till =

until 2009 until then until the end of the month

Ibis - in positive sentence erst + appropriate preposition -

in negative sentence bis 2009 bis dahin bis (zum) Monatsende

until his death until after his death not until tomorrow not until three hours ago not until the 20th century not until the late evening not until after his death

bis zu seinem Tod bis nach seinem Tod erst morgen erst vor drei Stunden erst im 20. Jahrhundert erst am späten Abend erst nach seinem Tod

UP up =

They went up the street

They came up the street

We live up the street

He lives up the mountain up one's nose further up this page

. . . hinauf - away from one

. . . herauf - towards one

. . . 'rauf (Rl) - away from or towards one

Sie gingen die Straße hinauf/ (Rl Yrauf

Sie kamen die Straße herauf/ (Rl Yrauf

Wir wohnen etwas weiter die Straße entlang

Er wohnt (oben) auf dem Berg in der Nase weiter oben auf dieser Seite

WITH with = mit with a hammer with his girlfriend with a trembling hand He lives with his mother She lives with her boyfriend

I've no money with me 35 years with the firm Do you want to go with us? Put it with the others to tremble with cold with a hat and coat on

mit einem Hammer mit seiner Freundin mit zitternder Hand Er wohnt bei seiner Mutter Sie wohnt mit ihrem Freund (zusammen)

Ich habe kein Geld bei mir 35 Jahre bei der Firma Willst du mit? Leg es zu den anderen vor Kälte zittern in Hut und Mantel

2.6 Modal particles

Modal particles are small words like aber, doch Ja, mal, schon, etc. which express the speaker's attitude to what is being said. They alter the tone of what is being said and make sure that the speaker's intentions and attitudes are clearly understood They can typically appeal for agreement, express surprise or annoyance, tone down a blunt question or statement, or help you to sound reassuring. They are very characteristic of informal spoken German (Rl), but their meanings are elusive and their use is difficult to paraphrase or explain concisely.

In English we obtain these effects in other ways, typically through changes in tone of voice or intonation, which are difficult to describe, or through so-called 'tags', like don't you? or isn't it? The best way to learn how to use them is to become familiar with as many examples as possible and try to judge the meaning as they are used, and to help you a number of typical examples of usage are given in this section. It is helpful to separate out the use of particles in different types of sentence (i.e. statements, questions, commands and exclamations), not least because most of the particles are typically used in one of these types or because, if they can be used in more than one, their meanings can be slightly different in each. To help you get some idea of their effect, we have given an indication of possible English equivalents - i.e. how you might get a similar effect in English. However, these should not be understood as standard translations; their purpose is only to convey some idea of the force of the German particles.

Many words which are used as modal particles in German have other uses, often (but not always) with related meanings. For example, aber is used as a conjunction meaning 'but', and vielleicht as an adverb meaning 'perhaps'. In this section we concentrate on their use as particles.

2.6.1 Modal particles in statements

ABER expresses contradiction or insistence (it is rather weaker thm jedoch). Possible English equivalents: but, though.

Mein Freund kam aber nicht My friend didn't come, though Sie muss uns aber gesehen But she must have seen us haben

AUCH confirms the case and may give reasons for a contradiction. Possible English equivalents: too, you know, after all.

Er ist auch fleißig He does work hard, you know Wir können's auch lassen After all, we can drop it

DOCH contradicts (if heavily stressed) or appeals for agreement (if more lightly stressed). In this way, it can turn a statement into a question expecting a positive answer. Possible English equivalents: stressed verb (possibly do form), though, after all, negative tag, initial but.

Es hat 'doch geschneit It 'did snow, though Ich habe 'doch recht gehabt I 'was right after all, wasn't I? Wir müssen doch morgen nach We've got to go to Trier tomorrow,

Trier though Er hat doch gesagt, dass er But he did say he was coming kommt

R l = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

EIGENTLICH

Das musst du doch zugeben Den Wagen kann ich doch

morgen früh abholen? Er ist doch nicht krank?

You've got to admit it, though I'll be able to collect the car tomorrow morning, won't I?

He's not ill, is he?

EBEN emphasizes an inescapable conclusion. Possible English equivalents: well,... just... Du musst eben zu Hause Well, you'll just have to stay at bleiben home

Dann müssen wir eben den We'll just have to take the train, Zug nehmen then

NOTE: eben is mainly used in N. In S halt is used, with the same meaning.

tones down a refusal, an objection or a contradiction. Possible English equivalents: well, actually/really, strictly speaking.

Wir haben eigentlich schon zu Well, really, we're already closed Ich wollte eigentlich bloß eine Well, actually, I only wanted a new

neue Bluse blouse Eigentlich darfst du das nicht Strictly speaking, you are not

allowed to Wir haben eigentlich schon We've already lost, really

verloren

ERST (a) implies that something is the absolute limit. It is often strengthened by adding recht. Possible English equivalents: really, simply.

Dann ging's erst recht los Then things really got going Das konnte sie erst recht nicht She simply couldn't manage that Das macht es erst recht That really does make it bad

schlimm

(b) Referring to time, erst suggests that it is earlier than expected or desired. In this sense it is also used in other sentence types. Possible English equivalents: only, not before/until, as late as.

Wir kommen erst recht spät in We shan't get to Munich till very München an late

Sie können den Film leider erst I'm afraid you won't be able to morgen abholen collect the film before tomorrow

Es ist erst halb fünf It's only half past four

(c) Referring to quantities, erst suggests that more is to follow. In this sense it is also used in other sentence types. Possible English equivalent: only... (asyet).

Ich habe erst zehn Seiten I've only written ten pages (as yet) geschrieben

Sie ist erst sieben Jahre alt She's only seven years old

ETWA in negative sentences, intensifies the negation. Possible English equivalent: really (not).

Sie müssen nicht etwa denken, You really musn't think that I dass ich ihn verteidigen will want to defend him

JA appeals for agreement, with the speaker insisting that what he or she says is correct. Possible English equivalents: stressed verb (do-form), really, you know, of course.

Gestern hat's ja geregnet Das ist ja eine Gemeinheit Er ist ja schon längst im Ruhestand

Sie wissen ja, dass es keiner geschafft hat

Ich komme ja schon

It did rain yesterday, you know That really is mean He's been retired for a long time

now, you know You do know, of course, that

nobody's managed it I really am on my way

RUHIG in requests, especially with können, gives a reassuring tone. Possible English equivalents: I don 7 mind, don't disturb yourself etc.

Sie können ruhig Ihre Jacke ausziehen

Sie können mir ruhig die Wahrheit sagen

You can take your jacket off, it's OK by me

You can tell me the truth, I don't mind

SCHON (a) Referring to time, schon suggests that sth is earlier than expected or desired, or that sth has happened on occasions. In this sense it is also used in other sentence types. Possible English equivalents: already, as early as, sometimes.

Bist du schon fertig? Sie kommen schon heute Abend

Ich habe ihn auch schon im Kino gesehen

Das habe ich schon 2001 geahnt Warst du schon mal dort? Da ist sie schon wieder

Have you finished already? They're coming tonight (I know

we hadn't expected them so soon) I've sometimes seen him at the

cinema, too I suspected that as early as 2001 Have you ever been there? There she is again (I know we

(b)

(c)

didn't want to see her so soon) With the future tense, schon expresses reasonable expectation that sth will happen. Possible English equivalents: all right, don't worry.

Ich werde schon aufpassen I'll watch out all right Er wird's schon hinkriegen He'll manage it, don't worry Dir werde ich's schon zeigen I'll (soon) show you all right Expresses agreement in principle, but with reservations (often followed by aber...). zwar and, esp. in N, wohl, are used in the same sense. Possible English equivalents: stressed verb (Jo-form), well,

Paris ist schon eine schöne Stadt(, aber . . . )

Ich wollte schon kommen(, aber . . . )

Das schon, aber . . .

Paris is a lovely city(, bu t . . . )

Well, I did want to come(, but . . . )

Well, may be, b u t . . .

UBERHAUPT

WOHL

makes statements more general. Possible English equivalents: anyhow, anyway,... at all, all in all, in any case. London is überhaupt eine London is a dreadful city anyhow

grässliche Stadt Er sagt überhaupt sehr wenig He says very little anyway

expresses probability or supposition. It has a similar force to the future tenses (see 4.3.1), and it is often used in conjunction with them. Possible English equivalents: future tense (see 4.3.1), probably, I suppose /presume . . . , positive statement with negative tag, no doubt. Franz ist wohl schon wieder Franz will be ill again, I suppose

krank/wird wohl schon wieder krank sein

Sabine ist wohl gestern Abend angekommen

Sie sind wohl der Letzte Du bist wohl verrückt

geworden The combination ja wohl sounds more certain, cf English certain(ly). Sie wird ja wohl noch in Essen She's pretty certainly still in sein Essen

The combination doch wohl sounds rather less certain, but the speaker hopes it is the case, cf English surely... with a negative tag. Er hat doch wohl noch einen Surely, he's got another key,

Schlüssel hasn't he? In N, expresses agreement in principle, but with reservations (often followed by aber...). This sense is the same as that of schon or zwar. Possible English equivalents: stressed verb (iö-form), may, well, Er ist wohl mein Freund, aber Well, he may be my friend, but I

Sabine will have arrived last night, no doubt

I presume you're the last You must be mad, mustn't you?

ich kann ihm nicht helfen Anja ist wohl nach Kiel

gefahren, aber nur fur ein paar Tage

can't help him Anja did go to Kiel, but only for a

few days

ZWAR expresses agreement in principle, but with reservations (often followed by aber...). This sense is the same as that of schon or, esp in N, wohl. Possible English equivalents: stressed verb (do-form), may, well,... Er ist zwar krank, aber er Well, he may be ill, but he's still kommt heute Abend noch coming with us tonight mit

2.6.2 Modal particles in questions

AUCH

DENN

(a) In yes/no questions, auch asks for confirmation of something which the speaker thinks should be taken for granted. Possible English equivalents: positive statement followed by negative tag, are you sure that... ?. Hast du auch die Rechnung You have paid the bill, haven't you? bezahlt?

Haben Sie's auch verstanden? You did understand it, didn't you? (b) In B?A-questions, auch expects a negative answer. Possible English

equivalent: well,... Was kann man auch dazu Well, what can you say to that?

sagen? Warum musste er auch Well, why did he have to go away? wegfahren?

tones down the question, making it sound less blunt. It is often added almost as a matter of course, especially in zpA-questions. Possible English equivalent: then (at end of sentence). Hast du denn Renate gesehen? Did you see Renate, then? Willst du sie denn fragen? Wie bist du denn gekommen? Wie lang fahrt man denn nach

Ulm?

Are you going to ask her, then? How did you get here, then? How long does it take to get to

Ulm, then? NOTE : in informal Rl denn is often shortened to n and placed straight after the verb, e.g.: Hast'n du die Renate gesehen?

EIGENTLICH tones down questions and makes them sound casual. It is often used together with denn. Possible English equivalents: actually, tell me... Kommt er eigentlich oft zu Tell me, does he visit you often?

Besuch? Wie spät ist es (denn) What time is it, actually?

eigentlich?

ETWA in yes/no questions, implies that something is undesirable and that the answer ought to be nein. Possible English equivalents: negative statement with positive tag, don *t tell me. Habt ihr etwa geschlafen? You haven't been asleep, have you? Ist das etwa dein Wagen? That's not your car, is it? Hast du es etwa gelesen? Don't tell me you've read it?

NUR in zpA-questions, stresses the importance of sth. NOTE: bloß is often used in this sense in place of nur in Rl. Possible English equivalents: -ever,... on earth.

Wo bleibt er nur (Rl: bloß)? Where on earth is he? Wie kann er sich nur so einen How on earth can he afford a car

Wagen leisten? like that? Was ist nur mit ihm los? What ever's up with him?

SCHON in ^-questions, expects a negative answer. Possible English equivalent: negative statement, positive tag. Wer wird ihm schon helfen? Nobody's going to help him, are

they? Was heißt das schon? That's not supposed to mean

anything, is it?

UBERHAUPT casts doubts on a basic assumption. Possible English equivalent:... at all. Trinkt er denn überhaupt

Wein? Kann er überhaupt Deutsch

sprechen?

Does he drink wine at all, then?

Can he speak German at all?

VIELLEICHT

WOHL

in yes/no questions, expects a negative answer. Possible English equivalents: negative statement with positive tag, really. Willst du mir vielleicht You don't mean to tell me

erzählen, dass . . ? t h a t . . . , do you? Soll ich vielleicht bis abends Am I really supposed to work till um sieben arbeiten? seven at night?

signals uncertainty on the part of the speaker. Possible English equivalents: possibly, I wonder. Wer hat den Brief wohl Who can possibly have written that

geschrieben? letter? Wie spät ist es wohl? I wonder what time it is

2.6.3 Modal particles in commands

ABER qualifies a previous statement. Possible English equivalents: but, though. Du kannst ruhig etwas weiter Don't worry, you can go a bit

nach links gehen Pass further to the l e f t . . . Look out aber an der Tür auf! by the door, though!

AUCH reinforces a command. Possible English equivalent: Make sure... Aber schreib ihm auch But make sure you write to him morgen! tomorrow

Sei auch schön brav! Make sure you behave!

DOCH can sound impatient or encouraging. Possible English equivalents: stressed do, negative tag, why not... ? Hör doch auf! Do stop it Mach doch nicht immer so ein Don't keep on making a face like

Gesicht! that Leg dich doch zwei Stunden Why not go and lie down for a hin! couple of hours?

Kommen Sie doch morgen Do call in tomorrow, won't you? vorbei

EBEN stresses the lack of an alternative (halt is used for eben in S). Possible English alternatives: well, just... then. Bleib eben dort sitzen! Well, just stay sitting there, then Fahr eben durch die Well, just drive through the city

Stadtmitte! centre, then

JA expresses a threat (usually stressed). Possible English equivalents: stressed pronoun, just..., or else. Sei ja vorsichtig! You just be careful(, or else) Mach mir ja keine Just don't do anything silly(, or Dummheiten! else)

MAL tones down commands, making them sound less blunt or peremptory. Possible English equivalents: just, won't you, etc. Lies den Brief mal durch! Just read the letter through Gib mir mal das Buch her! Just give me the book, would you? Hol mal schnell die Milch! Just go and fetch the milk, would

you? Komm mal Montag vorbei! Just pop in on Monday, won't

you? The combination doch mal softens the tone of a command even more. Possible English equivaent: Why don't you...?, Why not... ? Nimm doch mal ein neues Why don't you just take another

Blatt! sheet of paper? Komm doch mal mit ins Kino! Why not come to the cinema with

us?

NUR when unstressed, makes a command sound more tentative. Possible English equivalent: just. Kommen Sie nur herein! Do just come in Lass mich nur machen! Just let me get on with it Sagen Sie nur! Just say the word When stressed, especially in negative commands, expresses a warning. Possible English equivalents: you added to command, just, better.

Komm »nur nicht zu spät! ( J ^ 0 " ' * b e l a t e

I You d better not come too late

Fahr 'nur nicht so schnell! ( £ s t ^ d ; i v e 8 0 f f 1

( Don t you drive so fast NOTE: In Rl, bloß is often used for nur to express a warning in commands.

RUHIG gives a reassuring tone. Possible English equivalents: I don't mind, don't disturb yourself etc. Bleib ruhig sitzen! Don't get up for me Mach ruhig weiter! Carry on, don't disturb yourself

SCHON gives commands a tone of urgency and emphasis, or, especially if the sentence starts with Nun..., impatience. Possible English equivalents: do... please). Beeile dich schon! Do hurry up(, please) Sag mir schon, was du Do tell me what you think. I shan't denkst! Ich werde dir's nicht take offence übelnehmen

Nun, gib's schon her! Well, give it to me, then Nun, fahr schon! Well, get a move on, then

WOHL makes a command sound more urgent, insistent or abrupt (often with werden or wollen). Possible English equivalents: once and for all! right away! Hebst du wohl das Buch wieder Pick that book up again right away!

auf! Wirst du wohl sofort wieder ins Will you go straight back to bed! Bett gehen!

Wollt ihr wohl endlich still Once and for all, will you be quiet! sein!

2.6.4 Modal particles in exclamations

aber, doch Ja and vielleicht all convert statements into exclamations expressing surprise.

ABER possible English equivalents: OA/, rhetorical question, negative tag. Das Bier ist aber kalt! Oh! This beer is cold! Der Film war aber gut! Wasn't that a good film? Das war aber eine Reise! That was quite a journey, wasn't

it?

164 2 Words and meanings

DOCH possible English equivalents: initial but, negative tag. Die Milch ist doch sauer! Oh, but the milk is sour! Heute ist es doch kalt! It is cold today, isn't it?

JA possible English equivalents: initial but, negative tag. Die Milch ist ja sauer! Oh, but the milk is sour! Heute ist es ja kalt! It is cold today, isn't it?

VIELLEICHT possible English equivalents: OA/, rhetorical question, negative tag. Das Bier ist vielleicht kalt! Oh! This beer is cold! Der Film war vielleicht Wasn't that a bad film?

schlecht! Das war vielleicht eine Reise! That was quite a journey, wasn't

it? NOTE: In exclamations of this kind, aber and vielleicht signal surprise due to a difference in degree, whereas doch and ja signal surprise due to a difference in kind, i.e. that something is the case at all. Compare: Die Milch ist doch/ja kalt! But the milk is cold! (you hadn't

expected it to be cold at all) Die Milch ist aber/vielleicht How cold the milk is! (much

kalt! colder than you had expected)

possible English equivalents: OA/, rhetorical question, negative tag. Das Bier ist vielleicht kalt! Oh! This beer is cold! Der Film war vielleicht Wasn't that a bad film?

schlecht! Das war vielleicht eine Reise! That was quite a journey, wasn't

it? NOTE: In exclamations of this kind, aber and vielleicht signal surprise due to a difference in degree, whereas doch and ja signal surprise due to a difference in kind, i.e. that something is the case at all. Compare: Die Milch ist doch/ja kalt! But the milk is cold! (you hadn't

expected it to be cold at all) Die Milch ist aber/vielleicht How cold the milk is! (much

kalt! colder than you had expected)

2.7 Greetings and forms of address

2.7.1 Greetings

The choice of formula for greeting and leave-taking is a matter of register, determined by the relationship between the people involved. It is important in an area of usage governed so much by social convention that the English-speaking learner should be aware that more conventional greetings are used in Germany than is now usual in Britain or some other English-speaking countries. Not only are there in German greetings such as Mahlzeit and Feierabend which have no equivalent in English, but other standard forms of greeting are used more frequently. It would, for instance, be considered impolite to enter or leave a small shop in Germany without the customary Guten Tag! and Auf Wiedersehen! The following table shows a progression from informal greetings (used to friends) to formal ones (showing respect to the person addressed).

Situation Rl R1/R2 R2

meeting Hallo! Grüß dich! Moin! (NW) Servus (SE)

<-

(Gu'n) Morgen! (Gu'n) Tag! (Gu'n) Ahmt!

Guten Morgen! Guten Tag! Guten Abend!

4-

Grüß Gott (SE)

Grüezi (CH)

leave-taking

Rl = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

(uf) Wiedersehn! (uf) Wiederschaung!

(SE) (uf) Wiederluege! (CH)

Auf Wiedersehen! Auf Wiederschauen!

(SE)

Tschüss! (N)

Ade! (SW)

Salü! Tschau!

Adjö! (CH) Servus! Pfiati! (SE) Mach's gut! Bis gleich! Bis bald! NOTE: (i) Recently, auf Wiederschauen has become rather fashionable in

Germany, whilst in Austria auf Wiedersehen is often regarded as more refined, especially in larger towns and cities.

(ii) Tschüs (also spelled tschüss) is now spreading into S, but it is consid-ered typically 'German' in Austria and Switzerland. In the last few years it has increasingly come to be used in more formal situations (i.e. R1/R2), especially among younger people.

Situation Rl R2

at table Lass es dir schmecken! Guten Appetit!

lunchtime 4 Mahlzeit! •

end of week 4 Schönen Sonntag! •

4 Schönes Wochenende! •

end of work 4 Feierabend! •

Good luck! Toi toi toi! Viel Glück! Hals- und Beinbruch! Viel Erfolg!

Have a good time! Viel Spaß! Viel Vergnügen!

Situation contd Rl contd R2 contd

bedtime Schlaf gut! Angenehme Ruhe! (very formal)

journey 4 Gute Reise! •

going home Komm gut nach Hause! Gute Heimfahrt!

2.7.2 du and Sie

German makes a difference between the so-called 'informal' pronouns of address, the singular du and plural ihr, and the so-called 'formal' Sie, which is used for both singular and plural. Sie and its forms (Ihnen, Ihr, etc.) are always spelled with a capital letter to distinguish them from the forms of sie 'they'. When Sie is used as the subject of a verb, it always has the ending (most often -en) of the third person plural.

This distinction is unknown in modern English, and this section gives a brief description of modern usage in German. If you know another European language, you should be aware that the use of the 'informal' and 'formal' pronouns in those languages can be different to that in German. In particular, 'informal' French tu and (especially) Spanish tu are used more widely than 'informal' German du.

Broadly speaking, du (and its plural ihr) are used

(a) when speaking to . . . • children (up to about the age of 15; in schools to the end of the

tenth school year) • animals and inanimate objects • oneself • God

(b) between . . . • family members and close relatives • close friends • all schoolchildren and students • workmates (blue collar) • non-commissioned soldiers • members of some clubs, interest groups and (especially left-wing)

political parties

Sie is used in all other situations. This is especially the case with adult strangers and generally in white-collar employment (e.g. to colleagues in an office).

However, matters are often less clear-cut. With changing social attitudes and conventions the usage of du and Sie has come to be in a state of flux, so that many Germans nowadays feel insecure about which one to use in unfamiliar surroundings. Nevertheless,

consciousness of the need to use the 'right' one is as strong as ever. In the 'wrong' situation du sounds too familiar, condescending, patronizing and can signal contempt and a lack of respect verging on rudeness, whilst Sie in the 'wrong' situation sounds stand-offish, pompous, haughty, with a hint of arrogance verging on rudeness.

du signals intimacy, affection and solidarity. People who use du to one another are conscious of belonging to the same group or standing together. The modern move towards du, especially among young people, reflects this clearly, du has become much more frequent since the late sixties, and the old ceremony of Brüderschaft trinken associated with the switch from Sie to du between acquaintances and friends is practised less. It has been reported recently that the conventional shift from du to Sie at the end of the tenth school year, on entry to the Oberstufe, is no longer observed as rigorously as it once was. Certainly, the use of du is more widespread among younger people than thirty years ago, and it has definitely always been used more readily in S (especially in Switzerland) than N.

Nevertheless, the trend towards du has shown signs of slowing down and current practice can be quite variable. It is very important for English-speaking learners to be aware that the use of du is still much less widespread and acceptable than the use of first names in Britain or North America. It can often signal a lack of respect rather than the friendliness typically associated with using first names there. In a bank or a shop, with a fairly formal, professional atmosphere, people who work together every day can be on Sie terms for thirty years or more without feeling in any way distant or uncollegial. A recent survey reported that 67% of skilled workers, 59% of unskilled workers, 49% of lower-level professional workers and 35% of more senior professionals normally used du to colleagues of similar rank. The example of a well-known Swedish furniture company which has decreed that all its staff in its German branches should use du and first names to each other, whatever their rank, is still very much the exception. Finally, there is a very clear tendency for du to be used more readily between people of the same sex than between the sexes.

In general, Sie is associated with using formal titles, e.g., Herr Meyer, Frau Wimmer, etc., and the shift to du involves the corresponding shift to the use of the first name. But the use of Sie with the first name may be an intermediate stage before moving to du. It is common, for example, when parents are speaking to their (older) children's friends. It is also the norm in some television chat shows and interviews with media or sports personalities, and it is reported to be widespread in 'trendy' circles (e.g. in the media), in these cases possibly in imitation of American usage.

Finally, ihr deserves special mention, as its use is wider than simply as the plural of du - i.e. to address more than one person all of whom you would call du. It is quite common when speaking to any group of

people even if one might address individuals among them by Sie (although less common if you would call all of them Sie). In this way, ihr can sometimes function as a kind of neutral compromise to mask the speaker's uncertainty about whether to use du or Sie.

2.8 Letters

The layout of letters in the German-speaking countries differs in several respects from English conventions.

(a) Name and address on the envelope

Herrn Prof. Dr. Albert Schröder Waldstraße 27

35037 Marburg/Lahn

Frau Angelika Trautmann Korinthstraße 39

04103 Leipzig

Rl = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

To a couple:

Herrn und Frau Manfred und Ute Schwenk Josefgasse 5

31787 Hameln

To a family with children:

Fam. Andreas Christmann Am Kronberg 87

53181 Leverkusen

Note the position of titles, the lack of indentation and, in printed addresses, the space left before the name of the town or village. The house number comes after the street name, and the postcode before the name of the town or village. If writing from outside the countries concerned, an international indicator, i.e. A (Austria), CH (Switzerland), D (Germany) is placed before the postcode, e.g.:

A-1080 Wien CH-3010 Bern D-35037 Marburg/Lahn

NOTE: Fräulein is now used, if at all, only to address young girls. Any adult woman, irrespective of whether she is married or single, is addressed as Frau.

(b) The sender's name and address On personal letters, these are written as one line on the back of the envelope, preceded by Abs. (— Absender), e.g.: Abs.: Susana Hofmann, Bismarckplatz 19, 68165 Mannheim

In personal letters this information is not usually repeated at the top of the letter, where just the place and date are given, e.g.:

In commercial or official correspondence the sender's address is normally given at the top of the letter, above that of the addressee. The latter is given in a form similar to that on the envelope, e.g.:

Susana Hofmann Bismarckplatz 19 68165 Mannheim

Mannheim, 7. September 2001

Firma Eugen Spengler Rossgasse 17-21 07973 Greiz

(c) Opening and closing formulae The choice of these depends on your relationship to the person you are writing to. The following table shows the most common. The most important thing to remember is that, unlike English Dear, German Liebe (r) is not used in business correspondence to strangers, or to anyone whose relationship to you is formal.

Sehr geehrte Damen und Herren, Sehr geehrte Herren, Sehr geehrte gnädige Frau, Sehr geehrter Herr Professor Dr. Schröder, Sehr geehrter Herr Ahrens, Lieber Herr Pedersen, Liebe Frau Havemann, Lieber Wolfgang, Liebe Uschi, Liebe Mutti, Lieber Opa,

NOTE: if you are writing to more than one person the adjective has to be repeated, e.g.: Lieber Wolfgang, liebe Uschi,

Older practice was to follow these with an exclamation mark (e.g. Sehr geehrter Herr Hartmann!), but it is now usual to use a comma, in which case the first word of the letter should not start with a capital letter.

Openings R3 (most formal)

(less formal)

R2 (least formal)

Closings R3 (very formal)

R3 (most common)

Hochachtungsvoll followed by Ihr(e) [sehr ergebene(r)] before the signature

Mit freundlichen Grüßen optionally followed by Ihr(e) before the

signature

R2 (less formal) Mit besten Grüßen Herzliche Grüße optionally followed by Ihr(e) or Dein(e) before the signature

R2 (least formal) (Viele) liebe Grüße Herzlich/Herzlichst optionally followed by Dein(e) before the

signature The least formal phrases are only used to a person addressed as du. In correspondence, du (dich, dein, etc.) and ihr (euch, etc.) are no longer to be written with capital letters according to the reformed spelling. However, at the moment very few people appear to be following this ruling.

3 Words and forms

3.1 Nouns: genders and plurals

For English speakers learning German, one of the most striking differences between the languages is the way German nouns and other words used with nouns have endings and other changes to show gender, number and case. These inflections seem difficult at first, but they are central to the way German works as a language. An important stage in learning German is realizing the system which underlies them and the role they play in showing how sentences fit together. It is vital, first, to know the gender of any nouns you need to use and how they form their plurals in order to be able to express yourself properly and understand written and spoken German easily. In fact, gender and plural formation in German is not as varied and unsystematic as would appear from many books, and in this section we show you how you can master it more easily.

It is easy to think that every German noun has an arbitrary gender and an arbitrary way of forming the plural, and that both of these must be learnt separately for every noun in the language. The meaning of a noun, aside from the tendency for names of male beings to be masculine and those of female beings to be feminine, rarely gives any indication of gender. In practice, though, there are many helpful regularities. To start with, the gender of 80% of German nouns can be immediately recognized from their suffixes (or, less often, prefixes), and the plural ending is also always predictable from the suffix. This leaves a relatively small number of nouns with no suffix whose gender has to be learned individually. But even then, there is usually a link between the plural of a noun and its gender, so that if you know the one, then you have a good chance of being able to pick the other correctly.

3.1.1 Suffixes as indicators of gender and plural

Most suffixes are almost invariably linked to a particular gender and a particular plural, with a few common exceptions.

(a) Masculines Suffix Plural Examples

-ler, -ner, j -er (from verbs))

-an, -än, -är, -eur, \ -ich, -ig, -ling, > -or (stressed) )

-and, -ant, -ent, -et,] -graph, -ist, -krat, -loge, -nom )

-or (unstressed)

-e

-en, -n

{der Tischler, der Redner, der Lehrer, der Bäcker

Ider Kapitän, der Friseur, der König, der Lehrling, der Maj'or

der Komödiant, der Student, der Athlet, der Komponist, der Demokrat,

k der Astrologe, der Gastronom der Professor -s, -en

NOTE: the stress shifts in the plural: die Profess'oren. -ismus -ismen der Organismus Exceptions: das Labor, das Organ, das Restaurant

(b) Feminines

(c) Neuters

Suffix

-anz, -ei, -enz, -heit, -ie, -ik, -ion, -keit, -schaft, -tät, -ung, -ur -in

Plural

-en

-nen

Examples

' die Bücherei, die Residenz, die Panik, die Revolution, die Eitelkeit, die Mannschaft,

k die Bedeutung, die Natur die Freundin

Exceptions: das Abitur, der Atlantik, der Pazifik

Suffix Plural Examples

-chen, -lein, -sei, -tel - das Mädchen, das Viertel -tum "er das Eigentum -at, -ett, -il, -ment -e das Format, das Ventil, das Dokument -um -en das Datum NOTE: -um is replaced by en in the plural, e.g. die Daten. Exceptions: der Automat, der Irrtum, der Reichtum, der Salat

(d) Masculine if persons, neuter if things

Suffix Plural Examples

-al, -ar, -ier, -e der General, das Regal -on (stressed) -e der Bar' on, das Mikro' phon -on (unstressed) -en, -en der 'Dämon, das E'lektron NOTE: the stress shifts in the plural: die Dä'monen, Elek'tronen. Exceptions: der Kanal, die Moral, die Person

3.1.2 Suffixes or prefixes as clues to gender and plural

With other nouns, the link between gender, suffix (or, in one case, prefix) and plural is less regular. However, it is worth knowing these regularities, even if there are more exceptions.

(a) Nouns in -nis and -sal (pi: -nisse, -sale)

Nouns in -nis and -sal are predominantly (70%) neuter

A minority of nouns in -nis and sal (30%) are feminine

das Ergebnis, das Hindernis, das Zeugnis, das Scheusal (R3a), das Schicksal, etc.

die Besorgnis, die Erkenntnis, die Erlaubnis, die Finsternis, die Kenntnis, die Wildnis, die Trübsal (R3)

(b) Nouns in Ge-Nouns in Ge- usually have the plural -e if they have no suffix, e.g. das Gebet 'prayer', die Gebete, but they have no ending in the plural if they end in -e, e.g. das Gebäude 'building', die Gebäude.

Nouns in Ge- are predominantly neuter (90%)

A few feminines (plural -en or -n)

A few masculines (plural "e except where indicated)

das Gebet, das Gebot, das Gebiet, das Gebirge, das Gehör, das Gesetz, das Gesindel, das Getriebe, etc.

die Gebühr, die Geburt, die Geduld, die Gefahr, die Gemeinde, die Geschichte, die Gestalt, die Gewalt

der Gebrauch, der Gedanke (-ns,-n), der Gefallen (-), der Gehorsam, der Genosse, der Genuss, der Geruch, der Gesang, der Geschmack, der Gewinn

Six neuters form the plural in "er das Gehalt, das Gemüt (R3), das Geschlecht, das Gesicht, das Gespenst, das Gewand (R3)

Nouns in -el, -en,-er Nouns with these suffixes are predominantly masculine.

Nouns in -er from verbs are all masculine

Other nouns in -el, -en, -er are predominantly (60%) masculine: They are endingless in the plural

A quarter (25%) of nouns in -el and -er are feminine and have the plural -n

A small proportion (15%) of nouns in -el, -en and -er are neuter and are endingless in the plural

der Bäcker, der Bettler, der Bohrer, der Fahrer, der Lehrer, der Redner, der Sprecher, der Unternehmer, etc.

der Flügel, der Kümmel, der Löffel, der Pegel, der Kragen, der Schatten, der Schuppen, der Wagen, der Adler, der Fehler, der Weiher, etc.

die Formel, die Gabel, die Kugel, die Regel, die Butter, die Kiefer, die Schwester, die Ziffer, etc.

das Kabel, das Segel, das Kissen, das Zeichen, das Fenster, das Messer, das Zimmer, etc.

There are some common exceptions to these regularities:

About twenty masculines in -el, -en, -er have the plurali.e. no ending is added but the vowel has umlaut, e.g.: der Vogel-die Vögel

der Apfel, der Boden, der Bogen, der Bruder, der Faden, der Garten, der Graben, der Hafen, der Hammer, der Kasten, der Laden, der Mantel, der Nagel, der Ofen, der Schaden, der Vater, der Vogel

A few masculines in -el and der Bauer (-n, -n), der Muskel, -er have the plural -n der Pantoffel, der Stachel, der

Vetter

Two feminines in -er have the die Mutter, die Tochter plural"

Two neuters in -er have the das Abwasser, das Kloster plural"

(d) Nouns in -e (all have plural -n)

Nouns in -e are predominantly (90%) feminine

Some nouns in -e denoting male beings are masculine. They are all weak nouns (-n, see 3.2.1;

There are a few masculine nouns in -e with the ending -ns in the genitive

One or two other nouns in -e are masculine

A very few nouns in -e are neuter

die Biene, die Blume, die Bühne, die Fichte, die Gabe, die Garage, die Lampe, die Liebe, die Reise, etc.

der Affe, der Bote, der Chinese, der Franzose, der Gatte (R3), der Kunde, der Riese, etc.

der Buchstabe, der Friede, der Funke, der Gedanke, der Glaube, der Name, der Wille

der Charme, der Käse

das Auge, das Ende, das Erbe, das Image, das Interesse, das Prestige, das Regime

(e) Other nouns Most of the remaining nouns of German are words of one syllable. In practice, the gender of these is best learned by heart, but it is always worth remembering how these nouns divide up between the three genders, i.e.:

• 60% masculine • 25% neuter • 15% feminine

The way the plural is usually formed with these remaining nouns differs between the genders. It is helpful particularly to learn those whose plural goes against the normal rule for their gender, e.g. the masculine nouns with the 'typically neuter' plural" er, or the neuters with the 'typically feminine' plural -en:

Masculine Most of these der Arzt - die Ärtze masculine nouns form der Bach - die Bäche their plural by adding der Fuß - die Füße -e, with umlaut if possible

der Gast - die Gäste der Stuhl - die Stühle der Tisch - die Tische

A significant number of common nouns take the ending -e, with no umlaut (even if the vowel could have umlaut)

der Arm - die Arme der Monat -der Besuch - die Besuche die Monate der Hund - die Hunde der Schuh -

die Schuhe der Tag - die Tage

Feminine

Neuter

Some names of male humans and animals are 'weak9nouns, with -en, -en

der Bär - des Bären - die Bären der Mensch - des Menschen - die Menschen

A dozen or so have a der Geist - die Geister der Rand - die Ränder plural in 'er der Mann -- die Männer der Wald - die Wälder

A dozen or so have a der Dorn - die Dornen der Staat - die Staaten plural in -en der Nerv - die Nerven der Strahl -die

Strahlen

Most of these feminine die Arbeit -nouns (75%) form die Arbeiten their plural by adding -en

die Form - die Formen die Flut - die Fluten

A quarter (25%) have a plural in "e

Most of these neuter nouns (75%) form their plural by adding -e

A quarter (25%) have a plural in "er

A few have a plural in -en

die Gans - die Gänse die Hand - die Hände die Kuh - die Kühe

das Bein - die Beine das Brot - die Brote das Gas - die Gase

das Bad - die Bäder das Buch - die Bücher das Ei - die Eier

das Bett - die Betten das Hemd -die Hemden

die Frau - die Frauen die Last - die Lasten die Pacht - die Pachten

die Luft - die Lüfte die Maus - die Mäuse die Stadt - die Städte

das Jahr - die Jahre das Schaf - die Schafe das Stück - die Stücke

das Haus - die Häuser das Kind - die Kinder das Tal - die Täler

das Insekt -die Insekten das Ohr - die Ohren

One has the plural "e das Floß - die Flöße

3.1.3 Plurals in -s

A large and increasing number of nouns of all genders have a plural in -s. It is of relatively recent or regional (i.e. N) origin, and it has been looked down on in the past by purists, especially in R3a. It is found principally in new words, especially those loaned from French and English, and it is current with the following groups of nouns:

• Words ending in a vowel other das Auto -> die Autos than -e die Mutti —• die Muttis

• Abbreviations, names of letters, der LKW —• die LKWs shortened words das L -> die Ls, etc.

die Lok die Loks (Rl)

• Other parts of speech (esp in Rl)

• Some N nautical words

• To refer to families

• With words for persons (Rl in N only)

• In French words pronounced in (semi-) French way

• In words recently adopted from English

das Aber -> die Abers das Blau die Blaus, etc. das Deck -> die Decks das Dock —• die Docks der Kai die Kais das Wrack die Wracks die Müllers, Schmidts, Werners, etc.

der Bengel -> die Bengels das Fräulein die Fräuleins der Onkel —> die Onkels der Junge die Jungs, etc. das Atelier die Ateliers das Amendement die

Amendements, etc. das Baby die Babys (!) die Band -> die Bands der/das Essay die Essays, etc.

With the following words, the plural in -s is now the most frequent. Other plural forms (e.g. die Balkone, die Ballone, die Parke), are restricted to very traditional R3a:

der Balkon der Ballon das Etikett das Kabarett der Karton

das Karussell das Kotelett das Labor das Parfüm der Park

das Porträt der Schal der Scheck der Streik

3.1.4 Nouns with alternative plurals

A number of other words have alternative ways of forming the plural. These are often associated with regional or register differences.The most usual plural is given first, then the less frequent one, with notes where necessary:

der Admiral -e (also "e) der Bogen •• (N-) das Ding -e (Rl -er) der Erlass -e (AU "e) der Fasan -en (also -e) der General -e (also "e) der Geschmack -e (Rl "er) die Kartoffel -n ( R H der Kragen - (S )

der Kran "e (also -e) der Laden (N - 'shutters') das Lager - (S, R3b ") das Mädel - (N -s; S -n) der Magnet -en, -en (also -e) der Pastor -en (N"e) das Ross -e (S "er) der Stiefel - (S-n) das Stück -e (S-er) der Wagen - (S")

3.1.5 Foreign words with unusual plurals

Many words taken from the classical (or some other) languages have an unusual plural, although in some instances this is only used in R3. Some of the commonest are given below, with variant forms where theyexist:

das Album die Alben (Rl -s) der Atlas ->• die Atlanten

(Rl Atlasse) das Cello die Celli (R1/R2

Cellos) das Drama —> die Dramen der Espresso —> die Espressi

(Rl Espressos) das Examen —> die Examina

(R1/R2 Examen) die Firma —• die Firmen das Fossil ->» die Fossilien der Kaktus die Kakteen (Rl Kaktusse)

das Komma —> die Kommata (R1/R2 Kommas)

das Konto —> die Konten (Rl Kontos)

das Lexikon die Lexika (Rl Lexiken)

das Material • das Mineral -Minerale)

das Museum der Mythos -das Prinzip -das Privileg -das Reptil —•

die Materialien * die Mineralien (rare:

die Museen • die Mythen • die Prinzipien • die Privilegien die Reptilien

der Rhythmus die Rhythmen das Risiko die Risiken (also: -s) das Schema —• die Schemata

(Rl -men/-s) die Villa —• die Villen das Virus —• die Viren das Visum —• die Visen

(also Visa) das Zentrum —• die Zentren

3.1.6 Differences in plural usage between German and English

(a) In some instances German uses a singular word where English has a plural:

der Anfang beginning(s) der Arbeitsanzug overalls das Archiv archives die Asche ashes das Aussehen looks das Benehmen manners der Besitz possessions der Bodensatz dregs die Brille glasses, spectacles der Dank thanks der Darm intestines, guts das Einkommen earnings die Eisenbahn railways das Fernglas binoculars das Feuerwerk fireworks die Gebrauchsanweisung

instructions der Gewinn winnings der Hafer oats das Hauptquartier headquarters das schottische Hochland the Highlands

der Hopfen hops die Hose trousers, pants der Inhalt contents die Kaserne barracks der Kehrricht sweepings die Kundschaft customers der Lohn wages

die Lunge lungs das Mittel means das Mittelalter the Middle Ages die Mühe pains die Pension lodgings die Physik physics die Politik politics das Protokoll minutes der Pyjama pyjamas der Reichtum riches der Schadenersatz (legal) damages die Schere scissors das Schilf reeds der Schlüpfer knickers die Schutzbrille goggles der Stadtrand outskirts die Statistik statistics die Stehleiter stepladder die Treppe stairs, steps die Umgebung surroundings das Unkraut weeds die Unterhose underpants die Waage scales die Wahl election(s) der Wald wood(s) die Zange pliers, tongs der Ziegenpeter mumps der Zirkel compasses der Zoll customs

All the above nouns must of course be used with a verb in the singular, e.g.:

Meine Brille ist kaputt My glasses are broken The same applies to singular collective nouns, which are often used with a plural verb in English, but never in German, e.g.:

Die Polizei kommt The police are coming Similarly with die Mannschaft, das Publikum, die Regierung, das Volk, etc.

In a few instances German uses a plural word for an English singular: die Flitterwochen honeymoon die Ränke (R3) intrigue die Kosten cost(s) die Trümmer rubble die Lebensmittel food die Wirren turmoil die Möbel furniture die Zinsen interest die Pocken smallpox

(c) Incertain instances English and German differ as to whether certain nouns can have a plural:

(d) Other instances of difference in the use of singular and plural:

Masculine and neuter nouns of measurement used with numerals keep their singular form:

vier Pfund Rindfleisch sechs Paar Schuhe zwei Glas Bier With words denoting clothes, parts of the body, etc., the singular is used if each person has one of each:

Alle hoben die rechte Hand . . . their right hands Sie redete die Leute nie mit dem Namen an . . . by their names Manche haben ein leichtes Leben Some people have easy lives

3.1.7 Nouns with variable gender

The gender of a number of nouns is not fully fixed and a sample of these is given below. The variation is often linked to regional and register differences.

Singular Plural

der Atem breath die Auskunft (piece of) information der Blitz (flash of) lightning das Brot bread, loaf das Essen meal der Fortschritt advance die Hausaufgabe (piece of) homework die Kenntnis (piece of) knowledge die Nachricht (piece of) news das Obst fruit der Rasen lawn der Schaden damage die See sea das Spielzeug toy der Sport sport der Tod death das Versprechen promise

die Atemzüge breaths die Auskünfte information die Blitze flashes of lightning die Brote loaves die Mahlzeiten meals die Fortschritte progress die Hausaufgaben homework die Kenntnisse knowledge die Nachrichten news die Obstsorten fruits die Rasenflächen lawns die Schäden instances of damage die Meere seas die Spielwaren toys die Sportarten sports die Todesfälle deaths die Versprechungen promises

der (CH das) Aperitif der (also das) Barock der (S das) Bonbon die (S der) Butter

die (S der) Kartoffel der (AU das) Keks das (also der) Knäuel das (CH, Rl der) Liter das (AU, CH der) Match der (also das) Meteor das (AU der) Polster der (CH das) Pyjama das (S der) Radio der (also das) Sims das (CH der) Taxi

das (occ der) Dossier der (also das) Dotter der (occ das) Dschungel der or das Fakt das (CH die) Foto das (occ der) Gulasch der (Rl das) Gummi der (also das, Rl die) Joghurt das (Rl der) Virus

A few words have more complex variation:

Meter is nowadays usually masculine (i.e. der Meter), but, especially in R3a, is quite commonly neuter (i.e. das Meter). Most compounds have the same variation, but there are exceptions:

always masc: der Kilometer, der Gasometer always neuter, das Barometer, das Thermometer

Mut is masculine, but some of its compounds are feminine: masc: Freimut, Gleichmut, Hochmut, Kleinmut, Ubermut, Unmut fem: Anmut, Armut, Demut, Großmut, Sanftmut, Schwermut,

Wehmut Teil is nowadays always masculine in all its meanings, except in a few set

phrases where it is neuter, i.e.: ich für mein (or: meinen) Teil Er hat sein (or: seinen) Teil getan

It is neuter, too, in the sense of'detached part', esp in technical R3b: jedes einzelne Teil

Its compounds are also usually masculine, except for the following: das Abteil, das Einzelteil, das Ersatzteil, das Gegenteil, das Urteil das (also der) Oberteil; das (legal R3b der) Erbteil

With many recent loan-words from English, no gender has yet become established. The majority (over 60 per cent) are masculine and most of the rest are neuter, but many show variation, e.g.:

der/das Blackout der/das Deal der/das Break der/die Forehand der/das Cartoon der/das Go-slow

der/das Ketchup der/das Looping der/die Parka

der/das Plaid der/das Radar die/das Soda

3.2 Nouns: case

The grammatical category of case relates to endings on nouns, pronouns, adjectives and determiners which indicate the role played by

Rl = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

a noun phrase in the sentence. In English this is usually shown by the position of the noun phrase before or after the verb, and English learners need to be aware of this crucial difference between the languages and, when they are reading or listening to German, get used to paying attention to these endings rather than the position of the noun phrase.

Case in German is most often shown through the endings of determiners (especially the definite and indefinite articles) and adjectives rather than endings on the noun itself. For most nouns the only endings in modern German are:

(i) Masculine and neuter nouns add in the genitive singular. (ii) is added in the dative plural if possible (i.e. if the plural does not

end in -n or -s).

singular plural singular plural nominative der Vater die Väter das Kind die Kinder accusative den Vater die Väter das Kind die Kinder genitive des Vaters der Väter des Kind(e)s der Kinder dative dem Vater den Vätern dem Kind den Kindern

There are a few exceptions to this pattern, and these are outlined in 3.2.1-4.

3.2.1 'Weak' masculine nouns

About 10 per cent of masculine nouns (mostly denoting living beings) have the ending -(e)n in the plural and in the genitive, dative and accusative singular.

• Most of these nouns end in -e. der Kollege die Kollegen des Kollegen der Kollegen dem Kollegen den Kollegen den Kollegen die Kollegen

• Those that do not end in -e often decline regularly in the singular in spoken Rl, although this is regarded as 'incorrect' in written R2 and R3. Rl R2/R3 der Bär der Bär des Bärs des Bären dem Bär dem Bären den Bär den Bären

Similarly: der Automat, der Bauer, der Bunch, der Fürst, der Graf, der Held, der Hirt, der Kamerad, der Mensch, der Planet, der Prinz, der Soldat, der Typ and many nouns ending in -ant, -ent, -ist like der Student and der Komponist. NOTE: der Nachbar and der Oberst always have -n in the genitive singular in all registers, e.g. des Nachbarn, but often lack it in the dative and accusative singular, especially in Rl, e.g. dem, den Nachbar (for R2/R3 dem, den Nachbarn).

The singular endings are omitted in R2 and R3 if the noun has no article or adjective with it:

die Gemeinsamkeit zwischen Mensch (not Menschen) und Tier eine Herde ohne Hirt (not Hirten)

Some nouns have now switched entirely to a regular singular in all registers, though older R3a may use weak endings, i.e.: der Nerv,, der Papagei, der Pfau, der Spatz, der Vetter, e.g.: der Vetter, des Vetters (R3a: des Vettern), die Vettern

der Herr has the ending -n in the singular, but -en in the plural: der Herr die Herren den Herrn die Herren des Herrn der Herren dem Herrn den Herren

3.2.2 'Mixed' nouns

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

Eight masculine nouns have a mixture of weak and regular endings and are known as 'mixed' nouns, e.g.: der Name des Namens dem Namen den Namen

die Namen der Namen den Namen die Namen

The other nouns of this type are: der Buchstabe, der Friede, der Funke, der Gedanke, der Glaube, der Same, der Wille. However, with some of these nouns, forms with a final -n in the nominative singular (e.g. der Frieden rather than der Friede) are now more frequent in all registers than the forms without -n. This applies to der Frieden, der Funken and der Samen. The neuter noun Herz has a similar irregular pattern:

das Herz des Herzens dem Herzen das Herz

die Herzen der Herzen den Herzen die Herzen

3.2.3 The dative ending -e

Masculine and neuter nouns of one syllable sometimes add the ending -ie in dative singular, e.g.: dem Manne, dem Kinde, dem Bilde, dem Tische

This ending -e is restricted to R3a and it has become rather unusual even there since the 1930s. However, it is still normal in a few set phrases and idioms, e.g.:

• Always -e: im Grunde genommen bei Lichte betrachtet am Rande bemerkt jdn zu Rate ziehen

• Usually -e in R2/R3, but often im Falle bis zu einem gewissen Grade in hohem Grade zum Halse heraushängen nach Hause, zu Hause von Hause aus aus dem Jahre 1897 im Jahre 2005

unter Tage arbeiten zu Werke gehen im Zuge sein

no -e in Rl: auf dem Lande im Laufe des Tages im Lichte in gewissem Maße im Sande verlaufen im Schwünge sein in diesem Sinne zum Zuge kommen

3.2.4 The genitive singular ending -(e)s

(a) -es or -s? The genitive singular of regular masculine and neuter nouns has the ending -s or -es. The following general rules apply for this:

• Nouns ending in -s, -ß, -sch or -z always add -es, e.g.: des Hauses, des Fußes, des Tisches, des Netzes

• Nouns of more than one syllable or those ending in a vowel usually add e.g.:

des Königs, des Bürgertums, des Lehrers, der Autos, des Baus

• Nouns of one syllable ending in a consonant can have -es or -s, e.g.: des Kinds/des Kindes des Tags/des Tages The choice between these often depends on register, with the ending -es usually felt to be more formal (and thus preferred in R3a, even, sometimes, with nouns of two or more syllables). But -es is often used more widely for reasons of rhythm or ease of pronunciation.

Omission of the genitive singular ending In certain instances, the ending -(e)s is often dropped, i.e.:

with foreign nouns ending in -s, e.g.: des Organismus, des Atlas (but always: des Busses, des Kongresses)

with abbreviations and other parts of speech used as nouns, although with these the ending -s is sometimes found in R3, e.g.: des Ich, des Aber, des LKW, des EKG (R3: des Ichs, des LKWs, etc.)

with many foreign nouns, especially in R3b with technical terms, words seen as specific names, and names of artistic styles and epochs, e.g.: des britischen Establishment, die Werke des Barock, der Gebrauch des Dativ

with foreign geographical names, e.g.: die Berge des High Peak

with names of the days of the week, seasons and months (although the months in -er often retain the -5), e.g.: des Montag, des Mittwoch, des Januar, des Herbst, des Mai, des Oktober(s)

with prepositions if there is no article with the noun (however, the ending is preferred in R3a in these contexts): wegen Geldmangel (R3a: wegen Geldmangels)

with names preceded by article (R2 increasingly has -s here), e.g.: des modernen Deutschland (R2: des modernen Deutschlands)

Usage with personal names Personal names have the ending -s and come first, e.g.: Sabines Fahrrad, Vatis Auto

With multiple names, the last one has the ending -s and the genitive phrase can come before or after, e.g.: Helmut Kohls Politik OR die Politik Helmut Kohls

If the name has a noun preceding it, the name has -s and the genitive phrase can come before or after, e.g.: der Sieg Kaiser Wilhelms OR Kaiser Wilhelms Sieg

When Herr is used with a surname, both decline, e.g.: Herrn Paulis Einladung

In the combination article, noun and name, the noun and the article decline, e.g.: der Sieg des Kaisers Wilhelm

In the combination of a name with an article and an adjective, all three decline, e.g.: der Sieg Wilhelms des Zweiten

3.3 Verbs: strong and weak

There are two main classes of verb in German, the 'weak' verbs, which have a -t- suffix in the past tense and the past participle, like machen -machte - gemacht, and 'strong' verbs, which have vowel changes in the past tense and often in the past participle, like singen - sang-gesungen. The weak verbs are far more numerous, but the strong verbs include many really common verbs.

3.3.1 Strong verb classes

Although there is no way of telling from the infinitive whether a verb is strong or weak, and so no real alternative to learning which verbs are strong, the strong verbs with their principal parts (i.e. the infinitive, the past tense and the past participle) fall into recognizable groups which can help you to remember them.

(a) Present tense in -ei-bleiben to stay blieb beißen to bite biss

(i) Like bleiben are: leihen to lend meiden to avoid preisen to praise reiben to rub schreiben to write schreien to cry out

(ii) Like beißen are: erbleichen to turn pale gleiten to glide greifen to seize kneifen to pinch pfeifen to whistle reißen to tear reiten to ride scheißen (Rl*) to shit

Rl = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

geblieben gebissen

schweigen (R3) to be silent steigen to climb treiben to drive verzeihen to excuse weisen to show

schleichen to creep schleifen to sharpen schmeißen (Rl) to throw schreiten (R3) to stride streichen to stroke streiten to argue vergleichen to compare weichen to yield

With slight variations on these patterns: leiden to suffer litt gelitten heißen to be called hieß geheißen schneiden to cut schnitt geschnitten

(b)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

Present tense in -i-binden to bind schwimmen to swim (i) Like binden are: dringen to penetrate finden to find gelingen to succeed klingen to sound ringen to wrestle singen to sing

band schwamm

gebunden geschwommen

sinken to sink springen to jump stinken to stink trinken to drink verschwinden to disappear zwingen to force

(ii) Like schwimmen are: beginnen to begin gewinnen to win rinnen to runf flow

With a slight variation on these patterns:

sinnen (R3) to think spinnen to spin

sitzen to sit saß

(c) Present tense in -ie-biegen to bend bog

Like biegen are: bieten to offer fliegen to fly fliehen (R2/R3) to run away fließen to flow frieren to freeze gießen to pour kriechen to creep

gesessen

gebogen

riechen to smell schieben to push schießen to shoot schließen (R2/R3) to shut verlieren to lose wiegen to weigh

With slight variations on this pattern: liegen to lie ziehen to pull

lag zog

(d) Present tense in -e-helfen to help half geben to give gab fechten to fence focht

(i) Like helfen are: befehlen to order bergen to hide bersten (R3) to burst brechen to break empfehlen to recommend erschrecken (R3) to be frightened gelten to be valid sprechen to speak

gelegen gezogen

geholfen gegeben gefochten

stechen to prick, sting stehlen to steal sterben to die treffen to meet, hit verderben to spoil werben to advertise werfen to throw

(ii) Like geben are: fressen to eat (of animals) genesen* to get better geschehen to happen lesen to read

(iii) Like fechten are: bewegen* (R3) to move flechten to plait heben* to raise scheren* to shave

messen to measure sehen to see treten to step vergessen to forget

schmelzen to melt schwellen to swell weben to weave

essen to eat nehmen to take werden to become

With slight variations on these patterns: aß gegessen nahm genommen wurde (R3a: ward) geworden

All strong verbs in -e-, except those marked*, change the vowel in the second and third person singular of the present tense (i.e. the du and er/sie/es-forms) and the singular (i.e. the du-form) of the imperative. In most cases the vowel is -i-, e.g.:

helfen: du hilfst; er/sie/es hilft; hilf! geben: du gibst; er/sie/es gibt; gib!

With variation on this: nehmen: du nimmst; er/sie/es nimmt; nimm! werden: du wirst; er/sie/es wird; werde! treten: du trittst; er/sie/es tritt; tritt!

Most verbs with a long -e- [ex] change this to long -ie- [i:], e.g.: lesen: du liest; er/sie/es liest; lies! sehen: du siehst; er/sie/es sieht; sieh!

NOTE: In Rl, there is often no vowel change in the imperative of these verbs, e.g. geb!

Present tense in -a-fahren to go, drive fuhr gefahren fallen to fall fiel gefallen

(i) Like fahren are: backen to bake graben to dig laden to load schaffen to create (ii) Like fallen are: blasen to blow braten to roast, fry halten to hold

tragen to carry wachsen to grow waschen to wash

lassen to leave, let raten to advise schlafen to sleep

With a slight variation on these patterns: fangen to catch fing gefangen All these verbs, with the exception of schaffen, have umlaut in the second and third person singular (i.e. the du and er/sie/es- forms) of the present tense, e.g.:

fahren: du fahrst; er/sie/es fahrt fallen: du fällst; er/sie/es fallt

With slight variation on this pattern (i.e. no ending in the third person singular):

halten: er/sie/es hält laden: er/sie/es lädt raten: er/sie/es rät

NOTE: In S, umlaut is often missing with these verbs, e.g. er/sie/es schlaft, etc.

(f) Other strong verbs These do not fit into any betrügen to deceive erlöschen (R3) to go out

(fire, light) gehen to go hängen to hang kommen to come laufen to run lügen to tell lies rufen to call saufen (Rl) to booze schwören to smear stehen to stand stoßen to push tun to do

of the above patterns: betrog betrogen erlosch erloschen

ging hing kam lief log rief soff schwor stand stieß tat

gegangen gehangen gekommen gelaufen gelogen gerufen gesoffen geschworen gestanden gestoßen getan

(er erlischt)

(er läuft)

(er säuft)

(er stößt)

3.2 Deceptive weak verbs

All compounds and derivatives of strong or irregular verbs follow the same pattern of changes as the simple verb, so that, for example, bekommen 'to get, receive' has the forms bekam and bekommen. However, a few verbs look as if they are derived from strong verbs, but they are not, and their forms are weak. The following are common:

beantragen to apply for beantragte beantragt begleiten to accompany begleitete begleitet beinhalten (R3) to comprise beinhaltete beinhaltet fehlen to lack fehlte gefehlt handhaben to manipulate handhabte gehandhabt veranlassen to cause veranlasste veranlasst verleiden to spoil verleidete verleidet

3.3.3 Irregular weak verbs

A few verbs have the typical endings of weak verbs, but have vowel changes, too: brennen to burn kennen to know nennen to name rennen to run senden (R3) to send wenden to turn bringen to bring denken to think wissen to know

brannte kannte nannte rannte sandte/sendete wandte/wendete brachte dachte wusste

gebrannt gekannt genannt gerannt gesandt/gesendet (see 3.3.4) gewandt/gewendet (see 3.3.4) gebracht gedacht gewusst

The present tense of wissen is irregular in the singular: ich weiß wir wissen du weißt ihr wisst er weiß sie wissen Some verbs usually have a regular past tense, but a strong past participle: mahlen to grind mahlte gemahlen salzen to salt salzte gesalzen spalten to divide spaltete gespalten

3.3.4 Verbs with strong and weak forms

Some verbs have both strong (or irregular) and weak forms. With most of these there is no difference in meaning, although there are then usually register or regional restrictions in usage. With several verbs, though, the weak and strong forms have different meanings.

backen to bake

fragen to ask

hauen to hit

melken to milk

saugen to suck

schmelzen to melt

stecken to be stuck

weben to weave

wenden to turn

(a) Strong and weak forms with no difference in meaning buk (R3) gebacken er bäckt backte er backt (Rl, S) frug (N, R3) gefragt er frägt (Rl, S) fragte er fragt hieb (R3) haute molk (R3a) melkte sog saugte

schmolz schmelzte (R3a) stak (R3a) steckte wob (R3) webte wandte (R3) wendete

gehauen gehaut (S) gemolken gemelkt (Rl) gesogen gesaugt

geschmolzen geschmelzt (R3a) gesteckt

gewoben (R3) gewebt gewandt (R3) gewendet

(weak and strong forms are equally frequent; weak forms esp in Rl and R3b)

(stak only in intransitive uses)

(b) Strong and weak forms with a difference in meaning bewegen (R3) bewog bewogen to induce bewegen bewegte bewegt to move hängen hing gehangen to hang (intr) hängen hängte gehängt to hang (tr) erlöschen (R3) erlosch erloschen to go out (e.g. fire, light) loschen löschte gelöscht to put sth out (e.g. fire, light) erschrecken (R3) erschrak erschrocken to be frightened (intr) erschrecken erschreckte erschreckt to frighten sb (tr) schaffen schuf geschaffen to create schaffen schaffte geschafft to manage (SW also: to work) scheren schor geschoren to shear, shave scheren scherte geschert to concern schleifen schliff geschliffen to sharpen schleifen schleifte geschleift to drag senden (R3) sandte gesandt to send senden sendete gesendet to broadcast weichen wich gewichen to yield weichen weichte geweicht to soak

3.4 Determiners and adjectives

In German it is above all the endings of determiners and adjectives to indicate case, gender and number which show the role of a noun phrase in the sentence. In this way, they are central to the way in which German works, and learning to use them and recognize their function is a crucial aspect of mastering the language. Until you do this, you will not find it easy to express yourself properly or to understand spoken or written German fully.

These endings are in no way as daunting as they might appear at first sight. There is a clear system to them, and grasping this makes it much simpler to acquire confidence in using them. In this section the emphasis is on explaining this system, with notes on those aspects which you need to pay most attention to and where usage is uncertain. However, it must be emphasized that you can only learn them properly through practice in real phrases and sentences, not through tables. The endings of the articles in particular are absolutely vital, because, more than any other endings, they show gender, case and number fully and so provide the clues as to how the sentence is constructed and what it means.

The determiner is typically the first word in a noun phrase, and the underlying principle of German inflections is that if it has an ending which shows gender, case and number clearly, then the following adjective can have a less distinctive, 'weaker' ending (i.e. -e or -en). On the other hand, if there is no determiner, or the determiner has no ending, then the adjective has to have more distinctive ('strong') endings, which are very like those of the definite article. Determiners and adjectives thus back each other up in making it clear what gender, case and number we are dealing with in any noun phrase.

3.4.1 Basic determiner endings

The endings of the demonstrative dieser show the basic set of distinctive endings clearly.

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

Nominative dieser diese dieses diese Accusative diesen diese dieses diese

Genitive dieses dieser dieses dieser Dative diesem dieser diesem diesen

All German determiners have endings which are related to this basic set. Many decline like dieser, i.e.:

Rl = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

aller all einiger some etlicher some folgender the following irgendwelcher some... or other jeder each

A few are only used in the plural: beide both viele many mehrere several wenige a few

The endings of the definite article are like those of dieser, with slight variations:

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

Nominative der die das die Accusative den die das die

Genitive des der des der Dative dem der dem den

The indefinite articles ein and kein and the possessives mein, dein, sein, unser, euer and ihr decline like dieser except that they have no ending in the nominative singular masculine and neuter, and the accusative singular neuter, e.g.:

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

Nominative mein meine mein meine Accusative meinen meine mein meine

Genitive meines meiner meines meiner Dative meinem meiner meinem meinen

3.4.2 Basic adjective endings

The basic principles are as follows:

(i) If an adjective is used alone with a noun (i.e. it is not following a determiner), then it has endings like dieser. These are called the 'strong' adjective endings:

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

Nominative guter Wein gute Suppe gutes Brot gute Weine Accusative guten Wein gute Suppe gutes Brot gute Weine

Genitive guten Weines guter Suppe guten Brotes guter Weine Dative gutem Wein guter Suppe gutem Brot guten Weinen

jener that mancher some sämtlicher all solcher such welcher which

The only difference between these 'strong' adjective endings and those of dieser is in the genitive singular masculine and neuter, which is -en rather than -es. In practice, this only occurs in R3.

(ii) Adjectives preceded by a determiner which has no ending also have these 'strong' endings, e.g.:

mit viel kaltem Wasser manch braver Mann solch hartes Los This applies particularly to the endingless forms of the indefinite articles ein and kein, and the possessives mein, unser, etc.: ein runder Tisch ein kleines Schiff kein neues Haus mein neuer Mantel dein langes Ohr sein krankes Herz unser treuer Hund euer altes Auto ihr rotes Kleid

(iii) On the other hand, when the adjective follows a determiner with an ending, it has the less distinctive ('weak') endings -e (in the nominative singular and the accusative singular feminine and neuter) or -en (in all other cases).

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

Nominative Accusative

Genitive Dative

der neue Tag den neuen Tag des neuen Tages dem neuen Tag

die blaue Luft die blaue Luft der blauen Luft der blauen Luft

das weite Tal das weite Tal des weiten Tals dem weiten Tal

die weiten Täler die weiten Täler der weiten Täler der weiten Tälern

3.4.3 Uncertainties and variation in current usage

There is some variation in current usage in a few contexts:

• aller, mancher, solcher, welcher nowadays usually have the ending -en in the genitive singular masculine and neuter if the noun has the ending -(e)s. In practice this only occurs in written R3, e.g.:

trotz allen Eifers Er erinnerte sich manchen Tages solchen Gedankens welchen Fortschritts

jeder is tending to follow the same pattern, if not always, i.e.: am Ende jeden Abschnitts OR am Ende jedes Abschnitts

• When there is more than one adjective before a noun they all have the same ending, e.g.:

bei nachhaltender, andauernder Wirkung However, in the dative singular masculine and neuter, a second adjective sometimes has -en in R3, e.g.:

mit unverantwortlichem individuellem Fehlverhalten (more usual) mit unverantwortlichem individuellen Fehlverhalten (frequent R3)

• After a pronoun the strong endings are the rule, e.g.: du armer Bursch mit mir jungem Kerl

However, the ending -en is usual after wir and ihr, e.g.: wir fremden Leute ihr lieben Kinder

An adjective after uns and euch usually has the ending -e, e.g.: das geht uns Deutsche an gegen euch arme Leute

Colour adjectives ending in a full vowel are not usually declined in R2 and R3, e.g.:

ein rosa Kleid ein lila Hemd But they often are declined in Rl, usually with an -n- after the vowel, e.g.:

ein rosanes Kleid ein lilanes Hemd Adjectives in -er from city names are never declined, e.g.:

die Frankfurter Messe die Berliner Autobahn The declension of adjectives after some indefinites is subject to variation and uncertainty in all registers. Current usage in the plural, where these words are most often found, is as follows: alle, beide, sämtliche are usually followed by adjectives with weak endings, e.g.:

alle fremden Truppen aller fremden Truppen allen fremden Truppen

In R3 the genitive plural occasionally has the strong ending -er, e.g.: aller fremder Truppen

solche and irgendwelche can be followed by weak or strong endings. The weak endings are more common, e.g.:

solche guten (gute) Freunde solcher guten (guter) Freunde solchen guten Freunden

manche can be followed by weak or strong endings. The strong endings are more common, e.g.:

manche gute (guten) Freunde mancher guter (guten) Freunde manchen guten Freunden

einige, etliche, folgende, mehrere, viele, wenige are usually followed by strong endings, e.g.:

viele gute Freunde vieler guter Freunde vielen guten Freunden

In R3 the genitive plural is occasionally weak, e.g.: vieler guten Freunde

Some determiners can be used in combination with others. In this case the second of them normally declines like an adjective. The following such combinations are common:

die beiden . . . both ... ,the two ... die folgende . . . the following... ein jeder (. . .) any (.. .) (see 3.5.6) der meine, etc. mine, etc. (see 3.5.3) der sämtliche . . . all the... ein solcher . . . such a . . . (see 3.5.6) viele solche . . . many such ... die vielen . . . the many... die wenigen . . . the few... einige wenige . . . a few...

die beiden Postkarten diese beiden Postkarten die folgende Erläuterung die folgenden Worte eines jeden Pastors einer jeden Mutter das meine, dem deinen der Ihre, den unseren das sämtliche Geld mein sämtliches Geld ein solches Wetter einem solchen Beträger viele solche Menschen vieler solcher Versuche die vielen Anwesenden dieser vielen Reisen die wenigen Besucher der wenigen Schallplatten einiger weniger Großstädte einigen wenigen Stunden

With declined alle, however, the second word keeps its own declension (see 3.5.6): alle die . . . all the... alle meine . . . , etc. all my... , etc.

alle die Bände alle diese Operationen alle meine Freunde allen Ihren Träumen

.4 Adjectives as nouns

In German almost any adjective can be used as a noun. This is not possible in English, where we have to use adjectives with 'dummy' nouns such as man, woman, person, people, one, things to express the same idea, e.g.: der Alte the old man Abwesende people absent die Alte the old woman die Zuhörenden the people listening das Wichtige the important thing ein Singender someone singing Wichtiges important things das Grüne the green one All adjectives used as nouns keep their adjective endings. It is important to realize the difference between these and 'weak' masculine nouns (see 3.2.1). Compare the endings for der Fremde 'the stranger', ein Fremder 'a stranger' with those of der Kollege 'the colleague' and ein Kollege 'a colleague':

Singular Plural Singular Plural der Fremde die Fremden der Kollege die Kollegen den Fremden die Fremden den Kollegen die Kollegen des Fremden der Fremden des Kollegen der Kollegen dem Fremden den Fremden dem Kollegen den Kollegen

ein Fremder Fremde ein Kollege Kollegen strangers colleagues

einen Fremden Fremde einen Kollegen Kollegen eines Fremden Fremder eines Kollegen Kollegen einem Fremden Fremden einem Kollegen Kollegen

Similarly: einige Fremde 'some strangers', alle Fremden 'all (the) strangers', solche Fremde(n) 'strangers like that', etc.

Many of these adjectives used as nouns are the equivalent of ordinary nouns in English, and the following are very frequent. In most instances they can be used as masculine or feminine with an appropriate article, e.g.: der Fremde, 'the (male) stranger', die Fremde, 'the (female) stranger'. The exception to this is die Beamtin, 'the (female) civil servant'.

der/die Abgeordnete representative Angestellte employee Arbeitslose unemployed person Bekannte acquaintance Deutsche German Einheimische local person Erwachsene adult Freiwillige volunteer Gefangene prisoner Geistliche clergyman Gelehrte scholar

der/die Gesandte (R3) emissary Geschworene jury member Heilige saint Industrielle industrialist Jugendliche (R3b) young person Reisende traveller Verlobte fiance(e) Verwandte relative Vorbeigehende passer-by Vorgesetzte superior Vorsitzende chair (of meeting)

A few adjectival nouns are always feminine: die Linke the left (side), (political) left die Rechte the right (side), (political ) right

die Illustrierte 'the magazine' is most often treated as a feminine adjectival noun, e.g. in dieser Illustrierten. In the plural, though, it can have the endings of an adjective or of a regular feminine noun, e.g. Wir haben zwei Illustrierte/Illustrierten gekauft.

A few adjectival nouns are always neuter: das Außere/ das Innere the outside/inside das Freie the open (air) Gehacktes mince

In Rl, the names of German regions are often given by using a neuter adjective:

das Bayerische Bavaria im Hessischen in Hesse

An adjective after the indefinites alles, etwas, viel and nichts is treated as an adjectival noun (with the appropriate endings) and spelled with a capital letter: alles Gute all good things dative: allem Guten etwas Gutes something good dative: etwas Gutem viel Gutes many good things dative: viel Gutem nichts Gutes nothing good dative: nichts Gutem

Names of languages usually appear in the form of a neuter adjective. In most cases this is not declined, e.g.:

Wir lernen Spanisch, Französisch, Russisch, Englisch In Hannover soll man das beste Deutsch sprechen der Unterschied zum heutigen Deutsch die Aussprache des modernen Deutsch

If it is used with a definite article and no other adjective, names of languages are declined, e.g.:

Das Englische ist dem Deutschen verwandt eine Ubersetzung aus dem Italienischen

Names of colours are dealt with similarly and do not usually decline, e.g.:

das Grün der Wiesen von einem glänzenden Rot in Blau gekleidet ein hässliches Gelb

Only in a few set phrases with the definite article are these colour adjectives declined, e.g.:

ins Grüne fahren ins Schwarze treffen das Blaue vom Himmel herunter versprechen Es ist das Gelbe vom Ei

3.5 Other words that decline: forms and uses

3.5.1 Demonstratives

The most frequent common demonstrative pronoun and determiner in spoken Rl and R2 is der, i.e. a stressed form of the definite article. As a determiner (i.e. when it is used with a following noun) it declines like the definite article (see 3.4.1). As a pronoun (i.e. when it is used on its own to refer back to a previously mentioned noun) it declines as follows. Note the highlighted differences to the declension of the definite article:

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural

Nominative der die das die Accusative den die das die

Genitive dessen deren/derer dessen deren/derer Dative dem der dem denen

• In spoken Rl der is used as the equivalent of both English this and that, e.g.:

der Tisch this table OR that table Den mag ich nicht I don *t like this one/that one

• In Rl da and hier are often added for clarity or emphasis, e.g.: der Tisch hier this table der Tisch da that table der da, der hier that one, this one

• In Rl der is often used instead of a personal pronoun, e.g.: Die kommt heute nicht (R2: Sie kommt heute nicht)

• In Rl the genitives dessen or deren can be used instead of a possessive, e.g.:

deren Kleid (R2: ihr Kleid) dessen Frau (R2: seine Frau)

• In R3, the genitive can be used to replace an ambiguous possessive, e.g.:

Manfreds Freund und dessen Bruder (i.e. the friend*s brother, NOT Manfred's brother)

• The genitive plural derer is normally used (in R3) only before a following relative pronoun (but see 3.5.2):

die Ansichten derer, die nicht anwesend waren Otherwise deren is normal, e.g.: ihre Freunde und deren Kinder

• In written German (R2/R3) the determiner der could be confused with the definite article, and so it is used less, although it is not unknown. In these registers the usual demonstrative is dieser (see 3.4.1), which is used for both this and that, e.g.:

dieser Tisch this table OR that table

• jener, 'that', is restricted to R3, and is not common even there. It is mainly used only: (i) to contrast with dieser, e.g.:

Herr Schröder wollte nicht dieses alte Buch kaufen, sondern jenes (ii) for something well known, especially if a relative pronoun follows,

e.g.: die Ruinen jener Paläste, welche die deutschen Kaiser bauten

• For emphatic that, derjenige is increasingly frequent, especially in R3b, either as a pronoun or an adjective. Both parts decline, e.g. denjenigen, dasjenige, etc. It is used most when a relative clause follows, e.g.:

diejenigen, die ich traf einige von denjenigen Büchern, die ich in der Schule lesen musste

• Usage with a following relative pronoun (= that which, etc.) is as follows: (i) Demonstrative der followed by the relative pronoun der is common

in R2 and R3, despite the repetition: die, die ich kaufen wollte einige von denen, die gekommen sind

(ii) Demonstrative der followed by the relative pronoun welcher is restricted to old-fashioned R3a

die, welche ich kaufen wollte

(iii) Frequent in R3b (and not uncommon in spoken Rl) is derjenige followed by the relative pronoun der, e.g.:

diejenigen, die ich kaufen wollte

3.5.2 Relative pronouns

Relative pronouns introduce subordinate clauses (called 'relative clauses') which describe or qualify nouns, e.g. die Frau, die heute kommt 'the woman who is coming today'; das Buch, das ich gerade lese 'the book which/that I am just reading'. NOTE: In English, we often drop a relative pronoun, especially in speech (The book (which) I am just reading), but in German it can never be left out like this.

The common relative pronoun in German in all registers is der, which has exactly the same forms as the demonstrative pronoun (see 3.5.1). It takes the gender and number of the noun it refers to:

der Mann, der in die Stadt geht (masculine) die Frau, die in die Stadt geht (feminine) das Kind, das in die Stadt geht (neuter) die Leute, die in die Stadt gehen (plural)

The case indicates the role the relative pronoun plays in the relative clause:

der Mann, der in die Stadt geht (nominative subject of geht) der Mann, den ich kenne (accusative object of kennen) der Mann, dem ich helfen musste (dative object of helfen) der Mann, dessen Buch ich geliehen habe (genitive indicating possession [= whose])

Further information on relative clauses and relative pronouns:

welcher is occasionally used as a relative pronoun in R3a, but it can sound old-fashioned:

usual R3: der Herr, der gestorben ist less frequent R3a: der Herr, welcher gestorben ist

In the genitive plural and genitive singular feminine, deren is in practice less common than derer, which purists consider incorrect, e.g.:

Correct R3: die Autorität, deren sich die Bischöfe in Polen erfreuen

More frequent R3: die Autorität, derer sich die Bischöfe in Polen erfreuen

was is used as a relative pronoun after alles, etwas, nichts, viel, das, neuter adjectives used as nouns and to refer to whole clauses, e.g.:

alles, was er hörte etwas, was ihm fehlte das Beste, was sie gesehen hatte Er sah mich nie direkt an, was ich nicht leiden konnte

In Rl das and was are often used interchangeably, e.g.: das Zeug, was (R2: das) man da kriegt etwas, das (R2: was) nicht stimmt

der is now the usual relative in all registers after prepositions when referring to things. Using the compound wo + preposition in such contexts is now restricted to old-fashioned R3a, e.g.: usual: das Haus, in dem wir wohnten der Tisch, auf dem das

Buch lag older R3a: das Haus, worin wir wohnten der Tisch, worauf das

Buch lag

In these contexts Rl often uses wo with the prepositional adverb, e.g.: der Tisch, wo die Blumen drauf stehen

The compound wo + preposition is used in those contexts where the simple relative pronoun would be was (i.e. to replace preposition + was), e.g.:

alles, worüber sie sprach etwas, womit er uns schlagen konnte

wo is commonly used after time and place words in Rl and R2, although R3a may prefer other possibilities, especially a preposition plus a relative pronoun, or da, e.g.:

das Land, wo (R3a in dem) wir wohnen am Tag, wo (R3a da OR an dem) er gekommen ist zu einer Zeit, wo (R3a zu der OR da) der Kaiser noch mächtig war jetzt, wo (R3a da) er fort ist

• As the equivalent to English what after a preposition, German needs to insert an appropriate form of the demonstrative das, e.g.:

Er wusste nichts von dem, was mich dorthin geführt hatte. He knew nothing of what had led me there.

3.5.3 Possessive pronouns

There are a number of possibilities corresponding to English mine, yours, hers, etc., depending on register: R1/R2: meiner mine; deiner yours; seiner hisf its; ihrer hers, theirs;

unserer ours; eu(e)rer yours; Ihrer yours R3 der meine, der deine, etc.

der meinige, der deinige, etc.

meiner, etc. decline like dieser (see 3.4.1). This means that, unlike the possessive determiner (see 3.4.1), they have the ending -er in the nominative singular masculine and -es in the nominative and accusative singular neuter, e.g.:

Das ist nicht mein Koffer, sondern seiner Ist das Ihr Fahrrad oder sein(e)s? Wollen wir mit eurem Wagen fahren oder mit unserem?

The second parts of der meine, der meinige, etc. decline like adjectives, e.g.:

mit der ihrigen durch das meine von den unseren

3.5.4 Interrogatives

Interrogative words are used to ask questions:

WER? wer? 'who?' declines for case:

Nominative wer? who? Wer ist gekommen? Accusative wen? whom? Wen hat sie gesehen? Genitive wessen? whose? Wessen Buch hat sie geliehen? Dative wem? to whom? Wem hat sie das Buch gegeben? In practice wessen is limited to R3 and is scarcely used even there, e.g.: R3 (rare): Wessen Bücher sind das? R2: Von wem sind diese Bücher? common in all registers: Wem gehören diese Bücher?

WO + preposition? is normally used in R2 and R3 for English preposition + what? In Rl a preposition is often used with was, e.g.: womit? (Rl mit was?) with what? worin? (Rl in was?) in what? NOTE: WOZU? (Rl zu was?) what.. .for?

WO?

WOHIN?

WOHER?

For English where?, German always distinguishes place (wo?) from direction.

to (wohin?) and direction from (woher?), wohin? and woher? are often split in Rl.

Place: Wo wohnen Müllers? Direction towards: Wohin muss ich es stellen? (Rl Wo muss ich es hinstellen?)

Direction from: Woher kann ich es nehmen? (Rl Wo kann ich es hernehmen?)

WAS FÜR EIN? The equivalent of what sort of?, e.g.: Er hat einen neuen Wagen. Was fur einer ist es? Mit was fur einem Zug ist er gekommen?

The case of ein in was für ein? does not depend on fur (i.e. it is not automatically accusative), but on the role of the phrase with was fiir ein? in the sentence.

In Rl was is often separated f romßr ein, e.g.: Was hat sie fur einen Mantel gekauft?

In Rl was fur? and welcher? are used interchangeably, e.g.: Was fur ein Hemd ziehst du an? (which?; R2 welches) Welcher Vogel ist das? (what sort of?; R2 was fur ein?)

3.5.5 mariy einer, jemand

MAN man, 'one', unlike its English equivalent, is common in all registers. It does not decline, and einem and einen are used in the dative and accusative, e.g.: Man weiß nie, ob sie es gut mit einem meint

As a possessive, sein is used, e.g.: Man kann sein Schicksal nicht ändern

It is never referred back to by er, but always repeated, e.g.: Man dürfte meinen, dass man (not er) jetzt weiterkommen sollte

204 3 Words and forms

EINER KEINER

einer, 'one', and keiner, 'none', used as pronouns (i.e. without a noun following), decline like dieser (see 3.4.1). They thus have an ending in the nominative singular masculine and nominative/accusative singular neuter, unlike the indefinite article, e.g.:

eines von diesen wenigen modernen Häusern einer der schnellsten Züge mit keinem ihrer Freunde

They are often used to mean 'somebody' and 'nobody', especially in Rl and S, e.g.:

Sie hat wohl keinen gesehen (R2 niemand) Es wird schon einer kommen (R2 jemand)

JEMAND NIEMAND

jemand, 'somebody', and niemand, 'nobody', have dative and accusative forms jemandem/niemandem and jemanden/niemanden. However, these do not have to be used. The endingless forms are more common in the dative and accusative in all registers, e.g.: Ich habe niemand gesehen (less common niemanden) Sie wird jemand geholfen haben (less common jemandem)

The declension of jemand (niemand) anders, 'somebody (nobody) else' varies regionally: N jemand anders jemand(en) anders jemand(em) anders

S jemand anderer jemand(en) anderen ()e m a n <j anderem l jemandem anderen

einer and keiner are commonly used in S and Rl to mean 'somebody' and 'nobody'. In Rl, wer is a frequent alternative to jemand, e.g.: Es ist wer an der Tür

3.5.6 Some indefinites

ALL-• • • •

The basic meanings are 'all', 'everybody' or 'everything'.

alle = 'everybody', e.g. Alle sind gekommen alle also means 'all gone' in Rl, e.g. Mein Geld ist alle alles = 'everything', e.g. Wir wollen alles wissen in Rl, with wer or was, alles emphasizes quantity, e.g.:

Wer will denn alles mit? Was will er alles gesehen haben?

• das alles OR alles das = 'all that', e.g. Das alles/alles das geht uns nichts an In the dative we find dem allen, all(em) dem or (R3) allem, e.g. Von dem allen/all(em) dem wissen wir ja gar nichts

• aller is used for 'all' in the singular in R3. It declines like dieser (see 3.4.1), e.g. ein Hotel mit allem modernen Komfort

• all der = 'all the'; all does not normally have any endings in the singular, e.g.:

all das Geschwätz nach all der Mühe It can be used with dieser and the possessives, e.g.:

nach all dieser Mühe nach all meiner Mühe In the plural alle, all die or (esp Rl) alle die are common in the sense of 'all the'. There is no distinction in meaning between these:

alle Kinder all die Kinder (Rl) alle die Kinder

• alle can also be used with dieser or the possessives, e.g.: alle diese Kinder alle meine Kinder

NOTE: in Rl die ganzen is used for 'all the': die ganzen Kinder

EINIGE einige and etliche both correspond to 'some' or 'any'. They decline like ETLICHE dieser and are used most often in the plural.

• einige refers to a limited number, like English unstressed 'some' (or 'a few'). It is very close in meaning to ein paar.

Ich wolte einige Ansichtskarten kaufen Der Zug war voll und einige mussten stehen

• etliche typically implies more than the expected number. In this sense it is similar in meaning to English 'several' or 'a fair number of. It is quite frequent in all registers:

Den Schülern gelang es, etliche nette Bilder zu machen Etliche dieser Stücke sind relativ leicht

JEDER

MANCH

jeder = 'everybody', 'anybody', e.g. Das weiß doch jeder In Rl and R2 ein jeder is a more emphatic alternative in the sense of 'anybody', e.g. Da kann doch ein jeder lernen

mancher declines like dieser (see 3.4.1). It always has the meaning of stressed 'some', i.e. 'a fair number, but by no means all'. This can be close to English 'many a' or, in certain contexts, 'several', e.g.: Mancher will es nicht wahrhaben manche Arbeitslose

Undeclined manch, with ein or an adjective, is used in R3a, e.g.: Manch einer hätte Mühe manch reiches Land

SOLCH The German equivalents of English 'such (a)' vary with register. Singular Plural Rl: so ein (so'n): so ein Wetter Rl: so: so Gerüchte R2: (ein) solcher: (ein) solches R2/R3: solche: solche Gerüchte Wetter

R3: solch ein: solch ein Wetter

solcher used on its own declines like dieser (see 3.4.1); after ein it declines like an adjective, e.g. bei einem solchen Wetter

VIEL/WENIG • These do not usually have endings in the singular, e.g.: viel Lärm, viel Wasser wenig Mühe, wenig Geld

• These are not usually declined in the plural, e.g.: viele Bauern, wenige Politiker

• Declined forms are found in the singular: (i) in older R3a, in the nominative and accusative feminine and neuter,

e.g. vieles Rauchen, viele Hoffnung (ii) in a few idioms and phrases, e.g. vielen Dank, mit vielem Fleiß

Undeclined welch occurs in exclamations in R3 (for Rl Was fiir ein... /), e.g. Welch fürchterlicher Tag! Declined welcher is used as an interrogative pronoun or determiner, e.g.:

Welches Buch nimmst du? Da sind die Bucher. Welches willst du nehmen?

• In Rl it is used as an indefinite pronoun (i.e. = 'some', 'any'), e.g.: Ich habe schon welche Soll ich dir Brot reichen? - Danke, ich habe welches

WELCH •

4 Grammar: cases, tenses and moods

Verbs and cases: valency

In German, the link between the verb and the other parts of the sentence is provided mainly through the use of cases. In English, we can tell who is doing what to whom from the order of the various elements: first the subject, then the verb, and then the objects (in the order indirect object - direct object). In a sentence like My sister gave her friend Monika the tickets yesterday we cannot move the elements round without saying something quite different, e.g.: Her friend gave my sister that book yesterday. In German, though, we can move the various elements around in the sentence (mainly for reasons of emphasis, as explained in 5.1) without changing the essential meaning:

Meine Schwester hat gestern ihrer Freundin Monika die Karten gegeben Ihrer Freundin Monika hat meine Schwester gestern die Karten gegeben Die Karten hat meine Schwester gestern ihrer Freundin Monika gegeben Meine Schwester hat die Karten gestern ihrer Freundin Monika gegeben

Realizing how the cases work to form the framework of a sentence is an important step in being able to use German effectively.

With different verbs we find different ways of expressing these links to the rest of the sentence. Some verbs, like schlagen, have an accusative object, others, like dienen, have a dative object, whilst some, likz geben in the example above, have both an accusative (direct) object and a dative (indirect) object. Finally, a large number of verbs, like warten, have a construction with a preposition rather than a case. We can usefully classify verbs in German in terms of what cases, etc. they 'govern' (i.e. how sentences with them are constructed). This is called the 'valency' of the verb. The valency of a verb is often related to its meaning, but this is no sure guide. German provides many examples of verbs which

4.1

R l = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

(i)

(ü)

(iü)

(iv)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

have very similar meanings but govern different cases or constructions, e.g.:

to impress sb jdn beeindrucken jdm imponieren

to congratulate sb jdn beglückwünschen jdm gratulieren

to damage sth etw (dat) schaden etw beschädigen

to laugh at sb jdn auslachen über jdn lachen

As German uses cases to make the connections between the various parts of the sentence clear, German verbs are often less flexible than their English counterparts and restricted in the constructions which they can be used in. It is not unusual to find that an English verb can be used either transitively or intransitively, or with a person or a thing as object, but that this is not always possible with the verb which appears to have the same meaning in German. We often find that we have to use different verbs or different sentence constructions for the different uses of a single English verb. The following common examples illustrate this:

answer She answered her friend

She answered the letter

climb The plane climbed (intr) We climbed the mountain

cut He cut the meat The paper cuts easily (intr)

drop I dropped the pencil The stone dropped (intr)

feel She felt the pain She feels ill

force He forced us to do that He forced it from us

grow The child is growing (intr) He grows flowers

keep We kept the book These apples will keep (intr)

leave He left today (intr) He left the town

open They opened the door

The door opened (intr)

Sie antwortete ihrem Freund Sie beantwortete den Brief Sie antwortete auf den Brief Das Flugzeug stieg Wir bestiegen den Berg Er schnitt das Fleisch Das Papier lässt sich leicht schneiden Ich ließ den Beistift fallen Der Stein fiel Sie fühlte den Schmerz Sie fühlt sich krank Er zwang uns das zu tun Er erzwang es von uns Das Kind wächst Er züchtet Blumen Wir behielten das Buch Diese Apfel halten sich gut Er fuhr heute ab Er verließ die Stadt Sie machten die Tür auf (R1/R2) Sie öffneten die Tür (R2/R3) Die Tür ging auf (R1/R2) Die Tür öffnete sich (R2/R3)

sell We sold the books quickly The books sold quickly (intr)

sink The ship sank (intr) We sank the ship

stand It is standing in the corner She stood it in the corner

wake up We woke up (intr) He woke us up

walk We walked home (intr) He walked her home

wash I washed at seven (intr) I washed the dog

Wir verkauften die Bücher schnell Die Bücher verkauften sich schnell Das Schiff sank Wir versenkten das Schiff Es steht in der Ecke Sie stellte es in die Ecke Wir wachten auf/(R3) erwachten Er weckte uns/(R3) erweckte uns Wir gingen nach Hause Er brachte (R3 begleitete) sie nach

Hause Ich habe mich um sieben gewaschen Ich habe den Hund gewaschen

Many further similar examples may be found in 2.1.1. In many instances a transitive verb can be formed from an intransitive verb with the prefix be- (see 2.3.4).

In the rest of this section we give lists of common verbs classified according to the cases or prepositions they govern, concentrating particularly on those which show differences from their usual English equivalents, and on those which have different constructions with different meanings.

This means that you should always remember German verbs in typical constructions (e.g. einem etwas mitteilen, auf meinen Freund warten, etc). To help you, German verbs in this book are usually given with an indication of their valency, i.e. the sentence construction they are used in.

4.1.1 Verbs governing the dative case

Many German verbs have an object in the dative case, but no accusative object. There is no direct equivalent to these in English, and you have to learn which verbs 'govern' the dative case. With many of these verbs, the dative object is a person who in some way benefits from the action expressed in the verb (or is disadvantaged by it). The following are the most typical common verbs which are used with a dative, and you should make sure that you know them:

antworten to answer

begegnen (R3) to meet danken to thank dienen to serve drohen to threaten

Der Junge hat mir auf meine Frage geantwortet

Sie ist einem älteren Herrn begegnet Ich danke Ihnen sehr fur Ihre Mühe Er dient dem König von Schweden Er drohte dem kleinen Jungen mit

einem Stock

einfallen to occur to sb

folgen to follow gehorchen to obey gehören to belong to gratulieren to congratulate

helfen to help nutzen to be of use passen to suit passieren to happen raten to advise

schaden to harm schmeicheln to flatter

trauen to trust

Zu diesem Thema fiel dem Mädchen nichts ein

Er folgte ihr ins Exil Sie gehorcht ihrem Vater Dieser Wagen gehört dir doch nicht Sie wollte ihrer Freundin zum

Geburtstag gratulieren Er hilft seiner Mutter bei der Arbeit Das nutzt ihnen doch gar nichts Das neue Kleid passt dir gut Was ist dir denn passiert? Er wollte seinem Sohn raten lieber in

Gießen zu studieren Rauchen schadet der Gesundheit Damit hat sie dem Professor

schmeicheln wollen Ich konnte meinen Augen nicht

trauen

Apart from these, it is a general rule that verbs with the prefixes bei-, ent-, entgegen-, nach-, wider- and zu- have an object in the dative case (though some have an object in the accusative as well, see 4.1.2, and there are a few exceptions). For example:

jdm beistehen (R3) to stand by sb

etw (dat) entsprechen to correspond to sth

jdm entgegenkommen to come to meet sb

jdm nachschauen to follow sb with one's eyes

jdm widerfahren (R3) to befall sb

jdm/etw zuhören to listen to sb/sth

In a few verbs the German phrase in the dative case corresponds to the subject of the closest equivalent verb in English: etw entfallt mir I forget sth es fallt mir leicht I find sth

easy etw fehlt/mangelt mir \ es fehlt/mangelt mir > / lack sth

an etw ) etw gefallt mir I like sth etw geht mir auf / realize sth With the following impersonal verbs, the phrase in the dative case corresponds to an English subject. With the one exception indicated below, these verbs are restricted to R3a.

etw gelingt mir I succeed in sth etw reicht mir I have had

enough of sth etw schmeckt mir I like sth

(food)

etw tut mir Leid / am sorry about sth

mir bangt vor etw / am afraid of sth mir (OR mich) ekelt vor etw / am disgusted by sth mir (OR mich) graut vor etw I am terrified by sth mir (OR mich) schaudert vor etw I tremble at sth mir schwindelt (R2) / feel dizzy

4.1.2 Verbs governing the dative and the accusative cases

Many German verbs, typically verbs of giving and taking, have an accusative ('direct') object (usually a thing) and a dative ('indirect') object (usually a person), e.g. Ergab seinem Onkel (dat) das Geld (acc). It is always helpful to remember them as einem etwas verbs. With one or two rare exceptions (i.e. the verbs kosten and lehren), if there are two objects with a verb in German, one will be in the accusative and one in the dative, i.e. you should never have two accusatives in the same clause.

The German dative often corresponds to an English prepositional phrase with to, e.g. He gave the money to his uncle. In German the indirect object is indicated simply by the dative case, and no preposition is needed, i.e. you do not say * Er gab das Geld zu seinem Onkel in German.

• There are too many einem etwas verbs in German to list in full here, and you should consult your dictionary if you are uncertain. Here are some common examples: anbieten to offer Die Firma hat mir eine Stelle

angeboten empfehlen to recommend Ich kann dir diesen Film sehr

empfehlen Er hat seinem Freund das Buch

gegeben Mein Bruder hat ihr sein Fahrrad

geliehen Ich habe Ihnen meine neue Adresse

mitgeteilt Wir haben ihr die Tasche genommen Ich kann dir diese Bitte nicht

verweigern • With some verbs the German dative and accusative construction is

different from that of the nearest English equivalent: jdm etw ermöglichen to make sth possible for sb jdm etw erschweren to make sth difficult for sb jdm etw mitteilen to inform sb of sth jdm etw nachmachen to copy sth from sb jdm etw umbinden to tie sth round sb jdm etw verschweigen not to tell sb about sth

geben to give

leihen to lend

mitteilen to inform

nehmen to take verweigern to refuse

Where the German phrase in the dative case is some kind of beneficiary (i.e. = English for) it is increasingly common in German in all registers to use a phrase with fur rather than a dative, e.g.:

Sie will ihr/für sie Blumen kaufen Er hat uns/für uns die Tür aufgemacht Die Mutter hat ihm/fur ihn eine Wurst gekocht

This is especially the case if there is ambiguity. The following sentence could mean He wrote a letter to his father or for his father:

Er hat seinem Vater einen Brief geschrieben But the following is quite clear:

Er hat für seinen Vater einen Brief geschrieben With some verbs of sending, etc. a phrase with an (acc) can be used rather than a phrase in the dative case. The effect is to emphasize the person on the receiving end, e.g.:

Er schickte das Manuskript an die Universität Passau Er verkaufte sein altes Fahrrad an meinen Freund Peter Er schrieb einen Brief an seinen Vater

As you can see, using an can also resolve the kind of ambiguity mentioned above. Many verbs governing dative and accusative can be used with a dative reflexive pronoun, e.g.:

Ich will mir Ruhe gönnen Du erlaubst dir aber viel Das hat er sich aber nicht verweigern wollen

With the following verbs a dative reflexive pronoun with an accusative object is the usual construction in the meaning given:

sich (dat) etw aneignen to acquire sth sich (dat) etw anmaßen (R3) to claim sth sich (dat) etw einbilden to imagine sth sich (dat) etw verbitten to refuse to tolerate sth sich (dat) etw vornehmen to intend to do sth sich (dat) jdn vornehmen (Rl) to have a word with sb sich (dat) etw vorstellen to imagine sth

With some other verbs the reflexive pronoun is in the accusative case, and there is an additional dative object in the given meanings:

sich jdm/etw anpassen to adapt to sb/sth sich jdm/etw anschließen to join sb/sth sich jdm/etw ergeben to give in to sb/sth sich jdm/etw fugen (R3) to bow to sb/sth sich jdm/etw nähern to approach sb/sth sich jdm/etw widersetzen (R3) to oppose sb/sth

4.1.3 Verbs governing the genitive case

The use of a genitive object with verbs, e.g.: Sie erinnerte sich dieses Tages 'She remembered that day', is quite rare in modern German. In general such constructions are only found in R3, and many such verbs are peculiar to legal R3b. Below you find a list of the verbs which are still used with a genitive object in R3, together with the equivalent constructions which are used in their place in R2.

R3 R2

Verbs with a genitive object alone

jds/etw (gen) bedürfen to need sb/sth jds/etw (gen) gedenken to think of sb/sth

jds/etw (gen) harren to wait for sb/sth

jdn/etw brauchen an jdn/etw denken

auf jdn/etw warten

Verbs with a genitive object and an accusative object

jdn etw (gen) anklagen to accuse sb of sth

jdn etw (gen) berauben to rob sb of sth jdn etw (gen) versichern to assure sb

of sth

jdn wegen etw anklagen

jdm etw rauben jdm etw versichern

Reflexive verbs with a genitive object

sich um jdn kümmern

etw benutzen

sich jds/etw (gen) annehmen to look after sb/sth

sich etw (gen) bedienen to make use of sth

sich jds/etw (gen) bemächtigen to take hold of sb/sth

sich jds/etw (gen) entsinnen to remember sb/sth

sich etw (gen) erfreuen to enjoy sth sich jds/etw (gen) erinnern to

remember sb/sth sich etw (gen) rühmen to pride oneself auf etw stolz sein

on sth sich jds/etw (gen) schämen to be

ashamed of sth

jdn/etw in seine Gewalt bringen

sich an jdn/etw erinnern

etw genießen sich an jdn/etw erinnern

sich wegen jds/etw schämen

A few other verb constructions with the genitive are found in set phrases. They are mainly restricted to R3, e.g.:

der Gefahr nicht achten to pay no heed to danger jemanden eines Besseren belehren to teach someone better sich eines Besseren besinnen to think better of something jeder Beschreibung spotten to beggar description jemanden des Landes verweisen to expel someone from a country seines Amtes walten to discharge one's duties jemanden keines Blickes würdigen not to deign to look at someone

4.1.4 Verbs governing a prepositional object

Very many German verbs are followed by an object introduced by a preposition, e.g. Sie hat auf mich gewartet 'She waited for me'. These are quite different from usual prepositional phrases, as the preposition involved loses its full meaning, and the choice of preposition depends simply on the individual verb. It is always best for you to learn the combination of verb and preposition as a whole. In this section we give some of the commonest examples of German verbs used with prepositional objects.

• Some common prepositions are sometimes followed by the accusative case and sometimes by the dative case, depending on their meaning (see 2.5.3). However, only one of these cases usually occurs when these prepositions are used in prepositional objects. For example, auf is almost always used with a following accusative case in prepositional objects, and vor with a following dative case.

• Many verbs are used with an accusative or dative object in addition to a prepositional object, e.g. Sie hat ihn an seinem langen Bart erkannt 'She recognized him by his long beard'. These verbs are clearly indicated in the following lists, e.g.: jdn an etw erkennen 'to recognize sb by sth'.

• For the use of the prepositional adverb (i.e. da(r)-\- preposition) when these verbs are followed by an infinitive phrase or a rfass-clause, see 4.1.5.

AN (+ dative) an is most often followed by the dative case in prepositional objects, often with the idea of'in respect of, 'in connection with': an etw arbeiten jdn/etw an etw erkennen an etw erkranken an etw fehlen (see 4.1.1) sich an jdm/etw freuen jdn an etw hindern jdn an etw interessieren an etw leiden sich an etw orientieren an etw riechen an etw sterben an etw teilnehmen an etw zweifeln

to work at sth to recognize sb by sth to fall ill with sth to lack sth to take pleasure in sb/sth to prevent sb from (doing) sth to interest sb in sth to suffer from sth to orientate o.s. by sth to smell at sth to die of sth to take part in sth to doubt sth

AN (+ accusative) an is used in a prepositional object with the accusative case after a few verbs, which mainly denote mental processes: an jdn/etw denken to think of sb/sth jdn an jdn/etw erinnern to remind sb of sb/sth sich an jdn/etw erinnern to remember sb/sth

sich an jdn/etw gewöhnen an jdn/etw glauben sich an jdn/etw halten

to get used to sb/sth to believe in sb/sth to stick to sth

AUF (+ dative) The dative case is used in prepositional objects with auf with a very small number of verbs. They all express very clearly the idea of not moving: auf etw basieren (R3) to be based on sth auf etw beharren (R3) to insist on sth auf etw beruhen to be based on sth auf etw bestehen to insist on sth auf etw fußen (R3) to be based on sth

AUF (+ accusative)

FÜR

auf with the accusative case is prepositional objects: auf jdn/etw achten auf jdn/etw aufpassen etw auf etw beschränken sich auf jdn/etw beziehen auf etw drängen auf jdn/etw folgen sich auf etw freuen auf etw hoffen sich auf etw konzentrieren auf etw reagieren auf jdn/etw rechnen sich auf etw spezialisieren sich auf jdn/etw stützen sich auf jdn/etw verlassen auf etw verzichten auf jdn/etw warten auf jdn/etw zählen etw auf etw zurückfuhren

the most frequent preposition used in

to pay attention to sb/sth to keep an eye on sb/sth to restrict sth to sth to refer to sb/sth to press for sth to succeed sb/sth to look forward to sth to hope for sth to concentrate on sth to react to sth to count on sb/sth to specialize in sth to lean, count on sb/sth to rely on sb/sth to do without sth to wait for sb/sth to count on sb/sth to put sth down to sth

AUS aus usually has the meaning 'of or 'from' in prepositional objects: aus etw bestehen to consist of sth etw aus etw entnehmen (R3) to infer sth from sth sich aus etw ergeben to result from sth etw aus etw folgern/schließen to conclude sth from sth

fur usually has the meaning 'for' in prepositional objects: sich für etw bedanken to say thank you for sth sich für etw begeistern to be enthusiastic about sth jdm für etw danken to thank sb for sth sich fur etw eignen to be suitable for sth

[FÜR] sich fur etw entscheiden jdn/etw für etw halten sich fur jdn/etw interessieren

to decide on sth to consider sb/sth to be sth to be interested in sb/sth

IN (+ dative)

IN (+ accusative)

MIT

in with the dative case is used in very few prepositional objects: in etw bestehen to consist in sth sich in jdm/etw täuschen to be mistaken about sb/sth

in is used with the prepositional object of a number of verbs with the accusative case. Its meaning is very varied. jdn in etw einfuhren to introduce sb to sth in etw einwilligen to agree to sth sich in etw ergeben (R3) to submit to sth sich in jdn verlieben to fall in love with sb sich in etw vertiefen to become engrossed in sth

mit usually has the meaning 'with' in sich mit etw abfinden mit etw anfangen/beginnen mit etw aufhören sich mit jdm/etw befassen sich mit etw begnügen sich mit jdm/etw beschäftigen jdm mit etw drohen mit jdm/etw rechnen mit jdm telefonieren mit etw übereinstimmen sich mit jdm unterhalten jdn/etw mit jdm/etw vergleichen sich mit jdm verheiraten jdn/etw mit etw versehen mit etw zusammenstoßen

prepositional objects: to be satisfied with sth to begin/start (with) sth to stop sth to deal with sb/sth to be satisfied with sth to occupy o.s. with sth to threaten sb with sth to count on sb/sth to telephone sb to agree with sth to converse with sb to compare sb/sth to/with sb/sth to get married to sb to provide sb/sth with sth to collide with sth

NACH In prepositional objects, nach often has the sense of'for' with verbs of calling, asking, longing or seeking: sich nach jdm/etw erkundigen jdn nach etw fragen nach etw greifen nach jdm/etw rufen nach jdm/etw schreien sich nach jdm/etw sehnen (R3) nach etw streben nach jdm/etw suchen nach jdm/etw verlangen

to enquire after sb/sth to ask sb for sth to grab for sth to call for sb/sth to shout for sb/sth to yearn for sb/sth to strive for sth to search for sb/sth to long for sb/sth

With verbs of smelling, etc., nach has the sense of'of nach etw aussehen to look like sth nach etw duften to smell (nicely) of sth nach etw riechen to smell of sth nach etw schmecken to taste of sth

ÜBER (+ accusative) über is always used with the accusative case in prepositional objects. It is most often used with verbs of saying, etc. in the meaning 'about': sich über jdn/etw ärgern to be annoyed about sb/sth sich über jdn/etw freuen to be pleased at/about sb/sth jdn über etw informieren to inform sb of/about sth über jdn/etw lachen to laugh at sb/sth über jdn/etw nachdenken to think about sb/sth über jdn/etw spotten to mock sb/sth über jdn/etw sprechen to talk about sb/sth sich über etw streiten to argue about sth über jdn/etw urteilen to judge sth über etw verfugen to have sth at one's disposal sich über jdn/etw wundern to be surprised at/about sb/sth

UM um commonly means 'concerning' or objects:

'in respect of in prepositional

sich um jdn ängstigen to be worried about sb sich um etw bemühen to take trouble over sth jdn um etw beneiden to envy sb sth jdn um etw betrügen to cheat sb out of sth jdn um etw bitten to ask sb for sth jdn um etw bringen to make sb lose sth Es geht um etw It is a matter of sth sich um etw handeln to be a question of sth um jdn/etw kämpfen to fight about sth sich um jdn/etw kümmern to take care of sb/sth sich um jdn/etw sorgen to be worried about sb/sth sich um etw streiten to argue about/over sth

VON von usually has the meaning 'of or 'from' in prepositional objects: von jdm/etw abhängen to depend on sb/sth jdm von etw abraten to advise sb against sth von etw absehen to refrain from sth jdn von etw befreien to liberate sb from sth sich von etw erholen to recover from sth von jdm/etw herrühren to stem, originate from sth jdn von etw informieren to inform sb of sth von jdm/etw sprechen to talk of sb/ sth von jdm/etw träumen to dream of sb/sth jdn von etw überzeugen to convince sb of sth jdn von etw verständigen to inform sb of sth

VOR (+ dative) vor is always used with the dative case in prepositional objects. It has the meaning 'of with verbs of fearing, etc.:

ZU

Angst vor jdm/etw haben sich vor etw drücken (Rl) vor jdm/etw ekeln vor jdm/etw erschrecken (R3) sich vor jdm/etw fürchten sich vor jdm/etw hüten sich vor jdm schämen sich vor etw scheuen jdn vor jdm/etw warnen

to be afraid of sb/sth to dodge sth to have a horror of sb/sth to be scared by sb/sth to be afraid of sb/sth to beware of sb/sth to feel ashamed in front of sb to shrink from sth to warn sb against sb/sth

vor often has the meaning 'from' with verbs of protecting, etc.: jdn vor jdm/etw beschützen to protect sb from sb/sth vor jdm/etw fliehen (R3) to flee from sb/sth jdn vor etw retten to save sb from sth

zu has the meaning 'to' with persuading, etc.: jdn zu etw berechtigen jdn zu etw einladen jdn zu etw ermächtigen jdn zu etw ermutigen jdn zu etw herausfordern jdm zu etw raten jdn zu etw treiben jdn zu etw überreden jdn zu etw veranlassen jdn zu etw verfuhren jdn zu etw zwingen

verbs of empowering, leading,

to entitle sb to (do) sth to invite sb to (do) sth to empower sb to (do) sth to encourage sb to (do) sth to challenge sb to (do) sth to advise sb to (do) sth to drive sb to (do) sth to persuade sb to (do) sth to cause sb to (do) sth to seduce sb into (doing) sth to force sb to (do) sth

zu with other verbs has a variety of meanings: etw zu etw beitragen zu etw dienen sich zu etw eignen sich zu etw entschließen zu etw führen zu etw gehören jdm zu etw gratulieren zu etw neigen zu jdm/etw passen jdn/etw zu etw rechnen sich zu jdm/etw verhalten jdn/etw zu etw zählen

to contribute sth to sth to serve as sth to be suitable as sth to decide (to do) sth to lead to sth to be one of sth, be part of sth to congratulate sb on sth to tend to sth to suit sb/sth to count sb/sth as one of sth stand in a relationship to sb/sth to count sb/sth as one of sth

4.1.5 Infinitive phrases and //^-clauses with verbs governing a prepositional object

Verbs with a prepositional object are often followed by an infinitive phrase or a rf^-clause. This is often anticipated in German by the prepositional adverb (i.e. da(r) + preposition), e.g.:

Wir bestanden darauf, dass er die Rechnung sofort bezahlte We insisted on his paying the bill immediately Ich verlasse mich darauf, ihn morgen sprechen zu können I am relying on being able to speak to him tomorrow

As you see from these examples, German puts things in a very different way to how we do it in English (often with the -ing form of the verb, see 5.3), and you need to learn how to recognize and use constructions like this.

With some verbs, the prepositional adverb can be left out in sentences like this, e.g.:

Sie hat sich nicht (davor) gescheut, ihm die Wahrheit zu sagen Sie haben sich (darüber) gefreut, dass er gekommen ist

There are no precise rules about when the prepositional adverb is used or not, and it is often left out with some common verbs. If it is used, it tends to emphasize the following clause more strongly. In general, it is more commonly included in R3, whilst it tends to be dropped more often in Rl. The following list gives some of the most common verbs with which the prepositional adverb is often omitted:

abhalten von abraten von Acht geben auf anfangen mit (sich) ärgern über aufhören mit aufpassen auf beginnen mit sich beklagen über sich bemühen um sich beschweren über bitten um

sich ekeln vor sich entscheiden für sich entschließen zu (sich) erinnern an fragen nach sich freuen auf/über sich furchten vor glauben an hindern an hoffen auf sich hüten vor klagen über

raten zu sich scheuen vor sich schämen über sich sehnen nach sorgen für sich sorgen um sich streiten über träumen von überzeugen von urteilen über sich wundern über zweifeln an

In addition, the prepositional adverb can be omitted with all the transitive verbs used with zu, like jdn zu etw ermutigen, which are listed in 4.1.4.

4.1.6 Verbs with varying constructions

Many verbs can be used in more than one construction, most often with a clear difference in meaning, register or usage, and some common ones are given below in sentences illustrating the different constructions.

absehen jdn etw absehen

von etw absehen

es auf jdn absehen (Rl)

achten etw achten

auf jdn/etw achten

angeben etw angeben

angeben (Rl)

angehen angehen

etw angehen

jdn um etw angehen

jdn angehen (Rl)

ankommen ankommen

mit etw ankommen

auf etw ankommen

bestehen bestehen

etw bestehen

aus etw bestehen

Er hat mir diesen Kunstgriff abgesehen He copied that trick from me Ich sehe von etwas ab I am refraining from sth Sie hat es auf mich abgesehen She 's got it in for me

Ich achte ihre Leistungen I respect their achievements Wir haben auf ihn geachtet We paid attention to him

Sie müssen den Grund angeben You must state the reason Er hat gewaltig angegeben He boasted dreadfully

Das Licht ging an The light came on Wie sollen wir diese Aufgabe angehen? How are we to tackle this task? Er ging mich um Unterstützung an He asked me for support Das geht dich nichts an That's none of your business

Wir kommen gleich in Münster an We shall shortly be arriving in Münster Mit so einer Bitte kommst du bei mir nicht

an (Rl) You won't get anywhere with me with a request like that

Es kommt sehr auf das Wetter an It depends a lot on the weather

Das Schloss besteht nicht mehr The castle doesn 't exist any more Er muss die Prüfung bestehen He has got to pass the examination Der Teller bestand aus reinem Gold The plate was made of pure gold

in etw bestehen

auf etw bestehen

bringen jdm etw bringen

jdn auf etw bringen

es auf etw bringen

jdn um etw bringen

es zu etw bringen

jdn zu etw bringen

drängen jdn drängen

auf etw drängen

jdn zu etw drängen

sich eignen sich fur jdn eignen

sich zu etw eignen

sich ergeben sich jdm ergeben

sich in etw ergeben (R3)

sich aus etw ergeben

folgen jdm folgen

aufjdn/etw folgen

aus etw folgen

Das Problem besteht darin, dass wir es nicht beweisen können

The problem lies in the fact that we can't prove it

Sie besteht auf ihrem Recht She is insisting on her right

Er hat mir die Äpfel gebracht He brought me the apples Sie hat mich auf diese Idee gebracht She put this idea into my head Er hat es auf 10 Punkte gebracht He managed to get 10 points Das hat mich heute um den Schlaf gebracht That made me lose my sleep today Sie haben es im Leben zu nichts gebracht They achieved nothing in their lifetime Das wird mich noch zur Verzweiflung

bringen That will drive me to despair

Die Polizei drängte sie vorwärts The police pushed them forward Sie drängen auf Zahlung They are pressing for payment Sie drängte ihn zu dieser Entscheidung She urged him to (take) this decision

Der Film eignet sich nicht fur Kinder The film is not suitable for children Er eignet sich nicht zum Lehrer He is not suitable as a teacher

Er hat sich mir ergeben He gave in to me Sie haben sich in ihr Schicksal ergeben They submitted to their fate Das eine ergibt sich aus dem anderen The one follows from the other

Sie ist ihm heimlich gefolgt She followed him secretly Auf Karl II. folgte Jakob II. James II succeeded Charles II Aus diesem Brief folgt, dass . . . It follows from this letter that.. .

sich freuen sich über jdn/etw freuen

sich auf etw freuen

sich an jdm/etw freuen

gelten gelten

als etw gelten

jdm gelten

es gilt etw zu tun

halten halten

jdn/etw halten

auf etw halten

von jdm/etw halten

zu jdm halten

jdn/etw für etw halten

kommen kommen

auf etw kommen

hinter etw kommen

um etw kommen

liegen liegen

viel/wenig an etw liegen

jdm liegen

an jdm liegen

Ich habe mich über seinen Erfolg gefreut I was pleased about his success Sie freut sich auf Ihren Besuch She is looking forward to your visit Er freut sich sehr an seinen Kindern He gets a lot ofpleasure from his children

Diese Fahrkarte gilt nicht mehr This ticket is no longer valid Es darf als sicher gelten, dass . . . It may be regarded as certain that.. . Diese Bemerkung galt mir That comment was meant for me Jetzt gilt es einen Entschluss zu fassen Now it is necessary to reach a decision

Der Wagen hält nicht The car is not stopping Er hielt das Kind im Arm He was holding the child in his arms Ich halte sehr auf seine Meinung I attach a lot of importance to his opinion Ich halte viel von ihm I think a lot of him Du hast immer zu ihm gehalten You 've always stood by him Ich halte sie für eine Freundin I consider her a friend

Heute kommt sie nicht She 's not coming today Wie bist du auf diese Idee gekommen? How did you get that idea? Ich bin hinter sein Geheimnis gekommen I found out his secret Er ist um ein Vermögen gekommen He lost a fortune

Das Kind lag auf dem Boden The child was lying on the floor Es lag ihm viel an diesem Beruf This job was very important to him Diese Arbeit liegt mir nicht I don yt like this work An mir soll es nicht liegen It shouldn 't be up to me

passen passen

jdm passen

zu etw passen

passieren etw passieren

passieren

rechnen auf jdn/etw rechnen

mit etw rechnen

zu etw rechnen

reichen wohin reichen

jdn etw reichen

jdm reichen

sich schämen sich wegen etw schämen

sich vor jdm schämen

sich fur jdn schämen

schließen etw schließen

etw aus etw schließen

stimmen stimmen

fiir etw stimmen

etw stimmen

Ich passe I pass (at cards) Das Kleid passt dir gut The dress fits/suits you Er passt nicht zum Lehrer He 's not suited to be a teacher

Wir passierten die deutsche Grenze We crossed the German border Was ist dir gestern passiert? What happened to you yesterday?

Ich rechne auf dich I'm counting on you Du musst mit dem Schlimmsten rechnen You have to reckon with the worst Sie rechnet ihn zu ihren Freunden She counts him as her friend

Die Felder reichen bis zum Wald The fields extend to the forest Sie hat mir den Teller gereicht She handed me the plate Das Geld reicht mir nicht I haven *t got enough money

Er schämte sich wegen seiner Feigheit He was ashamed of his cowardice Du sollst dich nicht vor ihm schämen You don yt need to feel ashamed in front of him Sie schämte sich für ihn She was ashamed for him

Ich habe die Tür geschlossen I have shut the door Aus seinem Verhalten kann man auf seinen

Charakter schließen You can deduce his character from his behaviour

Stimmt das, was er sagt? Is what he says correct? Für diese Partei habe ich nicht gestimmt I didn yt vote for that party Ich muss die Gitarre stimmen I've got to tune the guitar

4.2 Cases: dative and genitive

German has four cases, nominative, accusative, genitive and dative. Their most important role is to show the relationship of noun phrases to the verb, and this has been explained in 4.1. German prepositions are also always followed by a noun phrase in a particular case as detailed in 2.5. The dative and genitive cases, though, have other uses, and these are dealt with in this section.

4.2.1 Possessive dative

Rl = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

The dative has the widest range of all of the German cases, with many idiomatic uses. One of the most important (which is quite different to any English construction) is to mark possession.

To indicate possession with parts of the body, clothing, etc. German often uses a dative of the person(s) concerned. The body-part, etc. then has a definite article, not a possessive construction, e.g.: Sie fuhr dem Jungen über das

Haar Er sah ihr in die Augen Dem Kranken wurde der

Blinddarm operiert

She ran her fingers through the boy's hair

He looked into her eyes The patient's appendix was operated on

Especially in R3 this dative phrase can appear a long way from the noun it refers to, e.g.:

The image of his father pressed itself into the memory of the man shut up in his cell

Dem in seiner Zelle Eingeschlossenen drang sich das Bild des Vaters in die Erinnerung

When more than one person is involved, the singular of the noun will be used if each person has one of each (see 3.1.6), e.g.: Ihnen klopfte das Herz Their hearts were beating Er hat uns das Leben gerettet He saved our lives In most cases a construction with the genitive (at least in R3) or with a possessive is possible in such contexts, e.g.: Ich verband dem Kind die Hand j Ich verband die Hand des Kindes J Ich verband ihm die Hand 1 Ich verband seine Hand ) However, the construction with the dative case stresses that the whole person is directly affected as well as the body-part specifically mentioned, and it is usually preferred. In some contexts there may

I bandaged the child's hand

I bandaged his hand

be a clear difference in meaning. Compare the following pairs of examples: Regen tropfte ihm auf den Hut Regen tropfte auf seinen Hut

Rehe liefen mir über den Weg Rehe liefen über meinen Weg

(i.e. he was getting wet) (here it is not clear whether he was

actually wearing it at the time) (i.e. they startled me) (i.e. across my path - not someone

else's) With some verbs an accusative of the person involved is used rather than a dative, e.g.: Er hat mich/mir auf die Schulter

geklopft Die Biene hat ihn/ihm in den

Finger gestochen Sie hat ihn/ihm ins Gesicht

gelacht It has been claimed that there is a distinction between the accusative and the dative in such contexts, with the accusative emphasizing more strongly that the person is directly affected. This is rarely adhered to and in practice the two cases are used interchangeably with these verbs, although the dative is usual in Rl. In R2 and R3 the accusative is common with the following verbs:

beißen, küssen, stechen, stoßen With the following verbs the accusative is sometimes found in R2 and R3 but the dative is more frequent:

hauen, klopfen, schießen, schlagen, schneiden, treten

He tapped me on the shoulder

The bee stung his finger

She laughed in his face

4.2.2 Genitive or van}

This section deals only with the use of the genitive case to link nouns; its use with prepositions is covered in 2.5.4, with verbs in 4.1.3.

The use of the genitive case is very much dependent on register: the more formal the register, the more it occurs, as the texts in 1.6 illustrate. It is widely used in R3 and it is particularly frequent in R3b, but it is avoided entirely in Rl, except with names, e.g.:

Alfreds Tasche, Monikas Schwester, Angelikas Handschuhe, Vatis Schuhe, Frau Mayers Bluse

A common alternative to the genitive is a phrase with the preposition von, e.g.:

Rl: das Dach vom Haus R2/R3: das Dach des Hauses

Although the genitive is used regularly in R3 and commonly in R2, there are constructions where a construction with von must be used even in the more formal registers, and others where it is quite frequent.

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

(a) von must be used, even in R3: • if a noun stands by

itself, without any article or adjective which declines

• with personal pronouns

• after viel, wenig

der Geruch von Benzin die Wirkung von wenig Wein eine Mutter von sechs Kindern der Tod von Tausenden der Vater von zwei Töchtern (R3a also: der Vater zweier Töchter) jeder von uns eine Tante von mir viel von dem, was sie sagte wenig von dem guten Wein

(b) von is more usual than the genitive, even in R3:

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

to avoid consecutive genitives in -s, especially with names

if a noun has an adjective, but no article

with indefinite pronouns

die Tür von dem Haus meines Bruders

die Ubersetzung von Goethes Taust '

die Antwort von Martins Freund der Bau von modernen Kraftwerken ein Erzeugnis von höchster Qualität die Produktion von reinem Stahl der Preis von sechs neuen Fahrrädern

eine Dauer von mehreren Jahren in der Gesellschaft von einigen Freunden

die Ansicht von vielen Wissenschaftlern

(c) von is often found in R2 and R3, although more formal registers often prefer the genitive: • with words of quantity

in partitive constructions

• with geographical names

die Hälfte von diesem Buch eines von diesen neuen Häusern drei von unseren Nachbarn ein Teil von den Zuschauern viele von den Maßnahmen die Zerstörung von Dresden die Hauptstadt von Deutschland das Alpengebiet von Kärnten die Straßen von Frankfurt

(d) In other contexts R3 always has, and R2 usually has, a genitive, but in Rl von is normally used:

(e) von is even commonly used with names in Rl: das Buch von (der) Petra das Haus von (der) Frau Müller

(f) To express possession with persons, the most casual Rl often uses a paraphrase with the dative. This construction is never used in higher registers.

(S: dem) Jürgen seine Tasche (S: der) Mutter ihr Schlüssel meinen Freunden ihre Fahrräder

• The genitive case also occurs in a number of set phrases. Some of these are used in less formal registers, as indicated: letzten Endes (R2/R3) when all is said and done allen Ernstes (R3) in all seriousness meines Erachtens (R3) in my view stehenden Fußes (R3) immediately erhobenen Hauptes (R3) with his head held high erster Klasse fahren (R2/R3) to travel first class ich bin deiner Meinung (R2/R3) I agree with you frohen Mutes (R3) in good spirits er ging seines Weges (R3) he went his way meines Wissens (R2/R3) to my knowledge • The genitive also occurs in some time expressions which are used in all registers: eines Tages, Abends, Nachts, etc. one day, evening,, night, etc. eines schönen Sommers one fine summer

4.2.3 The position of genitive phrases

In modern German, a phrase in the genitive case follows the noun it qualifies, e.g.:

die Gefahr eines Erdbebens die Hälfte meines Vermögens die Kultur des Ostens die Auswirkungen dieser schweren Krise

Rl R2+R3

die Adresse von meiner Tante in der Nähe vom Rathaus das Dach von der alten Kirche das Benehmen von den Kindern die Abfahrt vom Zug

die Adresse meiner Tante in der Nähe des Rathauses das Dach der alten Kirche das Benehmen der Kinder die Abfahrt des Zuges

The only exception is with names, e.g.: Manfreds Stereoanlage) n o n m l b a „ r e ^ s t e r s Antjes neue Bluse ) Frau Müllers Sohn Rl also: der Sohn von (S: der) Frau

Müller R2-R3 also: der Sohn der Frau Müller

Goethes Werke R3 also: die Werke Goethes R1-R3 also: die Werke von Goethe

Frankfurts Straßen R3 also: die Straßen Frankfurts R1-R3 also: die Straßen von Frankfurt

In R3a other genitives can come first. However, this construction is rare and usually sounds rather old-fashioned (or facetious), e.g.:

des Mannes Ehre des kühnen Helden blankes Schwert des Postministers Kabelpläne

4.2.4 Measurement phrases

(a) The most common usage in all registers is for the nouns to be in the same case, e.g.:

eine Menge Fehler ein Glas badischer Wein ein Kilo italienische Tomaten Er trank eine Tasse schwarzen Tee (accusative) mit einem Zentner polnischer Kohle (dative)

(b) In R3a the genitive case can be used if an adjective is present. This has an archaic flavour, especially in the singular, e.g.:

ein Glas badischen Weines ein Becher frischer Milch ein Dutzend erbaulicher Bücher

(c) von is often used with vague quantity words such as Anzahl, Haufen, Menge, especially if they are plural, e.g.:

eine Menge von Fehlern eine Anzahl von Touristen zwei Gruppen von Schulkindern vier Kategorien von Ausnahmen eine ganze Reihe von Beispielen

(d) With these vague quantity words, the genitive is quite frequent in R3 if an adjective follows, e.g.:

ein Haufen alter Zeitschriften eine Anzahl deutscher Touristen Millionen hungernder Menschen

4.3 Tenses

German has six tenses, as the table below shows:

PRESENT PAST

PERFECT PLUPERFECT

FUTURE

ich kaufe ich kaufte ich habe gekauft ich hatte gekauft ich werde kaufen

FUTURE PERFECT ich werde gekauft haben

I buy I bought I have bought I had bought I shall/will buy I shall/will have bought

These German tenses are very similar in form to the English tenses, with two simple tenses of a single word, i.e. the present tense and the past tense, and four compound tenses, formed with the auxiliary verbs haben, sein and/or werden and the past participle and/or the infinitive, i.e. the perfect, pluperfect, future and future perfect tenses.

In general, the uses of the corresponding tenses in German and English are also very similar. This section explains the most important contexts where there are significant differences between the two languages.

4.3.1 Present and future

Rl = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

The future tense is used much less in German than in English, particularly in Rl. As long as there is no real risk of ambiguity, German can use the present tense where the future tense must be used in English (whether the future tense with will/shall/ 7/ is used in English or the construction with to be going to, which has no equivalent in German), e.g.: In zwei Stunden bin ich wieder da Weitere Einzelheiten erteilt

Ihnen unser Fachpersonal Ich erwarte, dass sie kommt Sie findet es nie Wir sagen es ihm morgen

Fll be back in two hours Our specialist staff will give you further information

I expect that she will come She '11 never find it We're going to tell him tomorrow

Only if the future meaning is not clear is it absolutely necessary to use the future tense in German, e.g.:

Er wird wieder als Ingenieur He will be working as an engineer arbeiten again

(Er arbeitet wieder als Ingenieur could only mean: He is working as an engineer again)

The future tense often expresses a prediction or a probability. This is similar to English, and it is frequently strengthened by wohl in German (see 2.6), e.g.:

Er wird den Zug (wohl) noch erreichen Dagmar wird (wohl) auch kommen wollen Die Vorstellung wird (wohl) gegen 11 Uhr zu Ende sein Schalke wird (wohl) auch in München verlieren

The future tense can also stress determination to do something, e.g.: Ich werde es heute Abend noch erledigen Wir werden es schon schaffen

The future perfect tense is uncommon in any register, and the perfect tense is often used in its place. It often expresses a supposition in the past, e.g.: Bald wird er es geschafft haben = Bald hat er es geschafft Er wird (wohl) nicht ohne = Er ist wohl nicht ohne Absicht

Absicht gekommen sein gekommen Er wird (wohl) seinen Schlüssel = Er hat wohl seinen Schlüssel

verloren haben verloren

4.3.2 Past and perfect

NOTE: The term 'imperfect tense', which is sometimes used to refer to the German past tense, is better avoided as it is misleading. Unlike the French or Spanish imperfect tenses, the past tense in German and English does not express any idea of uncompleted or continuing action.

In modern German there is little real difference in meaning between the past and perfect tenses. Both ich kam and ich bin gekommen can express much the same idea and both can be used to translate I came or I have come. Which one is used depends largely on region and register. Broadly speaking, written registers (R2/R3) prefer the past tense, whereas spoken German Rl prefers the perfect, especially in S, e.g.: Rl: spoken German R2/R3: written German Sein Bruder Robert ist gestern Sein Bruder Robert fuhr gestern

mit ein paar Freunden nach mit ein paar Freunden nach Hamm gefahren, wo sie Uwe Hamm, wo sie Uwe Fuhrmann Fuhrmann besucht haben besuchten

(a) The past tense is not used at all in speech in S. In N, however, it does occur, especially: • in als- and wie-chuses:

Als ich sie sah, hat sie mich nicht erkannt Ich habe gehört, wie er die Treppe herunterkam

• in the passive, with modal auxiliary verbs, with verbs of saying, hearing and feeling and many very common verbs, such as sein, haben, bleiben, gehen, kommen, stehen, etc.:

Da blieb ich stehen und sagte nichts Ich konnte auch nichts sagen Ich war vor ihm dran Sie hatte nichts dagegen Er wurde schlecht behandelt

(b) The perfect tense is normally used in written German R2/R3 to stress a result, to express the immediate past or actions which have continued up to now. In all these contexts English typically also uses a perfect, e.g.: • stressing result:

Es hat geschneit (i.e. I can see the snow) Wir sind gelandet (i.e. we're on the ground) Man sieht, dass er schwer gearbeitet hat

• immediate past: Jetzt hat Kahn den Ball eingeworfen Damit haben wir unsere kurze Einleitung beendet In diesem Augenblick ist der Zug abgefahren

• events continuing up to now: Seit dem Sommer hat sie zwanzig Bücher gelesen Das habe ich wiederholt gesagt Bis jetzt hat alles geklappt

(c) The past tense is not unknown in R3 in the contexts listed under (b), especially in R3b (newspaper headlines, etc.). However, it is much less frequent than the perfect, e.g.: • stressing result:

Das ist der erste solche Bericht, der uns erreichte • immediate past:

Sie hörten soeben eine Sendung des österreichischen Rundfunks

• events continuing up to now: Noch nie wurde ein Auto so oft gebaut

4.3.3 haben or sein in the perfect?

The German perfect tenses can be formed with the auxiliaries haben or sein, e.g.:

perfect Sie hat es gekauft Sie ist schnell gelaufen pluperfect Sie hatte es gekauft Sie war schnell gelaufen future perfect Sie wird es gekauft Sie wird schnell

haben gelaufen sein With most verbs the choice between haben and sein is quite straightforward.

(a) The following verbs form their perfect tenses with sein: • intransitive verbs which express a change of place, e.g.:

Sie ist geflogen/geflohen/gegangen/gelaufen, etc. • intransitive verbs expressing a change of state, e.g.:

Es ist geworden/gestorben/verblüht, etc. • verbs meaning 'to happen', 'to fail', 'to succeed', e.g.:

Es ist geschehen/passiert/vorgekommen/zugestoßen, etc. Es ist gelungen/misslungen/geglückt, etc.

[NOTE: es hat geklappt (Rl)] • the verbs sein and bleiben, e.g.:

Er ist gewesen/geblieben • some other verbs in certain regions only, i.e.:

N: anfangen/beginnen S: liegen/sitzen/stehen

(In standard German these always form their perfect tenses with haben.)

(b) The following verbs form the perfect with haben: • transitive verbs, i.e. those which have an accusative object, e.g.:

Sie hat ihn geschlagen/gesehen/getragen/gewaschen, etc. • reflexive verbs, e.g.:

Er hat sich beeilt/gefreut/verabschiedet, etc. • intransitive verbs which express a continuous action, e.g.:

Wir haben gewartet/gearbeitet/geholfen, etc. • impersonal verbs, e.g.:

Es hat geregnet/geschneit/gedämmert, etc.

The choice between haben and sein is not linked to the particular verb in German, but depends on the meaning as given above. Several verbs can fall into more than one of the categories above if their meaning varies, or if they can be used transitively or intransitively. In this case they sometimes take haben and sometimes take sein. The following examples show the effect of this with some common verbs: Die Katze hat ihn angesprungen The cat jumped up at him Der Motor ist angesprungen The motor started Ich habe das Geschenk I received the present

bekommen Die Muscheln sind ihr nicht The shellfish didn ft agree with her

bekommen Er hat die Röhre gebogen He bent the tube Wir sind um die Ecke gebogen We turned round the corner Er hat das Rohr gebrochen He broke the pipe Das Rohr ist gebrochen The pipe broke Sie hat auf Zahlung gedrungen She pressed for payment Wasser ist in das Haus gedrungen Water penetrated into the house Er hat einen Audi gefahren He drove an Audi

Er ist nach Gießen gefahren Sie hat ihm gefolgt Sie ist ihm gefolgt Es hat in der Nacht gefroren Der See ist gefroren Da haben Sie sich geirrt Da sind wir durch den Wald

geirrt Er ist in die Stadt gelaufen Er hat sich die Füße wund

gelaufen Sie hat sich ein Loch ins Kleid

gerissen Der Strick ist gerissen Er hat ihn in den Kopf

geschossen Das Unkraut ist aus dem Boden

geschossen Sie hat ihn zur Seite gestoßen Ich bin an den Schrank gestoßen Er hat es aus Versehen getreten Er ist in das Wasser getreten Sie hat am Strick gezogen Sie ist nach Emden gezogen A rather special case concerns some if they express movement from one just refer to the activity as such, e.g.

He drove to Gießen She obeyed him She followed him It froze during the night The lake froze You were mistaken We strayed through the forest

He ran into town He got sore feet from running

She tore a hole in her dress

The rope broke He shot him in the head

The weeds shot out of the ground

She pushed him to one side I bumped into the cupboard He kicked it by accident He stepped into the water She pulled on the string She moved to Emden verbs of motion which can take sein spot to another, but haben if they

Er hat den ganzen Tag gebummelt/ gefahren/ geflogen/ geritten/ gerudert/ geschwommen/ gesegelt/ getanzt

Er ist durch die Stadt gebummelt/ gefahren/ geflogen/ geritten/ gerudert/ geschwommen/ gesegelt/ getanzt

The tendency in Rl is to use sein with all these verbs in both meanings, and this usage is also well established in R2 and R3. Only with rudern, segeln and tanzen is the distinction kept at all consistently.

4.4 The passive

We typically express actions by using the active voice, both in English and in German. This tells us what is happening and who or what is doing it, e.g. Der Bürgermeister eröffnete gestern die Ausstellung. But we can present a different perspective on an action by using the passive voice, which places the emphasis simply on what is happening, without necessarily mentioning who or what is doing it, e.g. Die Ausstellung wurde gestern eröffnet.

4.4.1 werden- or s^m-passive?

Rl = spoken colloquial

RL* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East N W = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

German has two forms of the passive voice, using the auxiliary verbs werden or sein together with the past participle of the main verb:

The werden-passive (e.g. die Stadt wurde zerstört) expresses a process (in German it is called the Vorgangspassiv). It is closely related to the corresponding active voice. The ^m-passive (e.g. die Stadt war zerstört) expresses a state (in German it is called the Zustandspassiv). Its use is more restricted than that of the werden-pzssive. The werden-p&ssive is formed from the appropriate tense of the verb werden with the past participle of a verb indicating the action: Present Die Ausstellung wird eröffnet Past Die Ausstellung wurde eröffnet Perfect Die Austeilung ist eröffnet worden

(NOTE: worden is used as the past participle of werden in the passive voice)

Future Die Ausstellung wird eröffnet werden The ^/«-passive is much less frequent than the werden-passive. It is formed with the present or past tense of sein (other tenses are rarely used) and the past participle, and it is essentially descriptive, with the past participle being equivalent in meaning to an adjective, e.g.:

= Die Tür ist offen (i.e. somebody has opened it)

= Der Brief ist fertig (i.e. somebody has written it)

= Die Stadt war kaputt (i.e. somebody had destroyed it)

Compare these examples with sentences with the werden-passive: (somebody is in the process of

opening it) (somebody is in the process of writing

it) (somebody carried out the action of

destroying it) For this reason the sm-passive is often the equivalent of an English perfect or pluperfect tense, e.g.: Der Brief ist geschrieben The letter has been written Die Stadt war zerstört The town had been destroyed In practice, the difference in meaning may be very slight between the German ^'«-passive and the perfect or pluperfect tenses of the wrcfew-passive, e.g.: Der Brief ist geschrieben / Der Brief ist geschrieben worden Die Stadt war zerstört / Die Stadt war zerstört worden

Die Tür ist geöffnet

Der Brief ist geschrieben

Die Stadt war zerstört

Die Tür wird geöffnet

Der Brief wird geschrieben

Die Stadt wurde zerstört

On the other hand, the werden-passive, especially in the present, often corresponds to an English progressive tense because it indicates an action in progress, e.g.: Der Brief wird geschrieben The letter is being written Der Antrag wird bearbeitet The application is being dealt with As the sm-passive expresses a state resulting from a previous action, it is only ever used with verbs which have some tangible result, like verletzen, e.g.: Meine Hand ist verletzt i.e. you can see the resulting injury Der Wagen ist beschädigt i.e. you can see the resulting damage

Verbs which do not express a clear result cannot be used in the i m -passive at all, e.g.: Das Mädchen wurde bewundert The girl was admired war bewundert is quite impossible, as admiring does not produce a result which can be seen. Other common verbs which similarly cannot be used in the sein-passive are: anbieten bemerken erwarten schmeicheln befragen brauchen hindern schulden begrüßen erblicken loben zeigen In N and CH the sew-passive may be more widely used to refer to an action, e.g.: Die Anwesenden sind aufgefordert, ihre Plätze einzunehmen (In standard German, only werden is acceptable here.) Only in a very few cases is the distinction between werden and sein unimportant in standard German, most commonly when we are dealing with a general truth or a permanent state of some kind, usually referring to things, e.g.: Die Stadt wird/ist von etwa eine Million Menschen bewohnt Das Zentrum wird/ist durch die Ringstraße von den Außenbezirken getrennt

4.4.2 The impersonal ('subjectless') passive

A characteristic and frequent use of the passive in German is in an impersonal construction to refer, in general terms, to an action or activity going on. It is particularly common in written German (especially R3b), but it is by no means restricted to that register. The following examples illustrate this construction: Es wird wieder getanzt The dancing is starting up again Es wurde abgestimmt A vote was taken Es wurde noch lange diskutiert The discussion still continued for a

long time

If another part of speech is in initial position in a main clause statement, or in questions and subordinate clauses, the es is dropped (though the verb still agrees with it), giving the so-called 'subjectless' passive, e.g.: Jetzt wird wieder getanzt Nachmittags wurde Karten

gespielt Er langweilte sich, weil noch

lange diskutiert wurde Wurde noch lange diskutiert?

The dancing is starting up again now People played cards in the afternoons

He was bored because the discussion still continued for a long time

Did the discussion still continue for a long time?

4.4.3 The passive with dative objects

In German, only the accusative object of a transitive verb can become the subject of the passive, e.g.: Herr Altmann baut das Haus

Der Feind zerstörte die Stadt

Das Haus wird von Herrn Altmann gebaut Die Stadt wurde vom Feind zerstört

This means that dative objects and prepositional objects can never become the subject of a passive sentence; they remain as datives or prepositional phrases in the passive. This is quite different in English, e.g.:

Sie schenkte dem Mädchen eine Puppe

Er antwortete dem König nicht

Sie sorgten für die Kinder

Dem Mädchen wurde eine Puppe geschenkt The girl was given a doll Dem König wurde nicht geantwortet The king was not answered Für die Kinder wurde gesorgt The children were looked after

4.4.4 von or durch with the passive?

The equivalent of English by in the passive can be von or durch in German, von is much more frequent and is used for the agent, i.e. the 'doer' or the cause of an action. This is most often a person, but it can sometimes be some natural agency, e.g.:

Holger wurde von seiner Schwester informiert Diese Zeitschrift wird eher von anspruchsvollen Menschen gelesen Sie wurden von einer Lawine mitgerissen

durch refers to the means of doing an action, which is commonly a thing, or to an intermediary, e.g.:

Die Stadt wurde durch Bomben verwüstet Die Fähigkeit des Fahrers wurde durch Alkohol erheblich gemindert

Die Katastrophe wurde durch die ungewöhnliche Kälte herbeigeführt

However, this distinction between von and durch is not always strictly adhered to, especially in Rl. In particular, there are many instances where it is not clear whether one is dealing with a 'doer' or the means of doing an action, and either von or durch can be used, e.g.:

Die Stadt wurde durch/von Bomben verwüstet Alle unsere Erzeugnisse werden durch/von Fachexperten geprüft

NOTE: In general, von/durch phrases are only used with the werden-passive, not with the sm-passive.

4.4.5 Alternative passive constructions

It is rather misleading to say, as some books do, that the passive is used less in German than in English. If it is true to any extent it is because German can use an active construction with something other than the subject in initial position in a way which is not possible in English (see 5.1.4). However, the German passive is widely used, if rather more in R3 (especially R3b) than Rl, and it is certainly not to be 'avoided' almost as a matter of course.

Nevertheless, German is rich in alternative means of expressing passives, and it is worthwhile knowing these constructions. They are very frequent, and they can provide useful variation and differences in emphasis.

(a) man can be used if the subject is truly indefinite. It is much more used in all registers than English 'one': Man sagt = Es wird gesagt Das tut man nicht = Das wird nicht getan Man schloss die Sitzung = Die Sitzung wurde geschlossen

(b) bekommen, erhalten (R3) or kriegen (Rl) can be used to emphasize the person receiving something, e.g.: Ich bekam den Weg von einem = Mir wurde der Weg von einem

Passanten beschrieben Er erhielt das Geld ausgezahlt

(R3) Die Kleine hat eine Puppe

geschenkt gekriegt (Rl) = Der Kleinen wurde eine Puppe

geschenkt

= Ihm wurde das Geld ausgezahlt

Passanten beschrieben

(d)

(e)

gehören (S) has the force of müssen or sollen, e.g.: Das gehört doch bestraft = Das muss/soll doch bestraft

werden Dem gehört das deutlich gesagt = Ihm muss/soll das deutlich

gesagt werden Phrasal verbs, especially with kommen, are frequent in R3b, e.g.:

= Darüber wird demnächst entschieden

= Die Verhandlungen werden heute abgeschlossen

= Die Angelegenheit soll gründlich uberprüft werden

(f)

Es kommt demnächst zur Entschiedung (R3b)

Die Verhandlungen kommen heute zum Abschluss (R3b)

Die Angelegenheit soll einer gründlichen Überprüfung unterliegen (R3b)

Reflexive constructions are often used instead of passives in all registers, e.g.: Sie nennt sich Hildegard = Sie wird Hildegard genannt Der Schlüssel wird sich sicher = Der Schlüssel wird sicher

noch finden noch gefunden werden Das Buch liest sich schnell = Das Buch kann schnell

gelesen werden The natural German equivalent of many English passive (or passive-like) constructions is a reflexive verb, e.g.: sich ärgern to be annoyed sich schämen to be ashamed sich freuen to be pleased sich verbinden to be associated sich lassen, with an impersonal subject, has the force of können, e.g.: Das lässt sich noch machen

Der Apparat lässt sich nicht mehr reparieren

Dieser Satz lässt sich nur schwer übersetzen

(g)

= Das kann noch gemacht werden

= Der Apparat kann nicht mehr repariert werden

= Dieser Satz kann nur schwer übersetzt werden

sein with an infinitive phrase (the so-called 'modal infinitive' construction) has the force of können, müssen or sollen (and may then be ambiguous), e.g.: Die Arbeit ist bis morgen zu

erledigen Diese Säulen sind an jeder

Straßenecke zu finden

Diese Ausdrücke sind tunlichst zu vermeiden

= Die Arbeit muss bis morgen erledigt werden

= Diese Säulen können an jeder Straßenecke gefunden werden

= Diese Ausdrücke sollen tunlichst vermieden werden

This construction can be converted into an extended adjective based on the present participle. This is very typical of R3b: Diese tunlichst zu vermeidenden Ausdrücke . . .

(i) Adjectives in -bar (and some in -lich) have the force of passives with können, e.g.: Die Pfirsiche sind kaum essbar = Die Pfirsiche können kaum

gegessen werden

4.5 The subjunctive

The use of the subjunctive in German is subject to considerable variation dependent on register. 'Rules' which are given in many grammar books are only kept to strictly in R3. Everyday Rl usage can be very different, particularly in the area of indirect speech.

4.5.1 Forms of the subjunctive

In English, we usually call the main forms of the German subjunctive the present subjunctive and past subjunctive. However, the difference in meaning between these has nothing to do with time differences, and it is common practice in books on German nowadays to refer to them as Konjunktiv I and Konjunktiv // , as follows:

Das Ergebnis bleibt abzuwarten

Das Radio geht noch zu reparieren (Rl)

= Das Ergebnis muss abgewartet werden

= Das Radio kann noch repariert werden

Solche Wörter sind jederzeit bildbar

Seine Antwort war unverständlich

= Solche Wörter können jederzeit gebildet werden

= Seine Antwort konnte nicht verstanden werden

Konjunktiv I present subjunctive er schlafe perfect subjunctive future subjunctive

er habe geschlafen er werde schlafen er schliefe Konjunktiv II past subjunctive

pluperfect subjunctive conditional

er hätte geschlafen er würde schlafen

The terms Konjunktiv I and Konjunktiv II are used in this section as they are less misleading and make it simpler to explain the use of the subjunctive in modern German.

The forms of Konjunktiv I

Konjunktiv I only has a distinct form in the third person singular, except for the verb sein, and this is formed simply by dropping the -n of the infinitive. There are no irregularities or vowel changes with any other verbs. er mache er solle er habe er nehme er werde

Other forms sometimes found in grammar books, e.g. du machest, ihr machet, are artificial and never used in practice, even in R3.

The verb sein has distinct forms for all persons: ich sei wir seien du sei(e)st ihr seiet er sei sie seien In practice only the third person singular and plural are at all frequent.

The other tenses of Konjunktiv I are formed with auxiliary verbs, i.e.: perfect subjunctive the present subjunctive of haben or sein (see 4.3.3)

with the past participle of the main verb: er habe geschlafen er sei gekommen

future subjunctive the present subjunctive of werden with the infinitive:

er werde schlafen

The forms of Konjunktiv II

There are three tenses of Konjunktiv II:

Rl = spoken colloquial

RL* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

(a) past subjunctive

a one-word form based on the forms of the past tense. For weak verbs it is identical with the past tense; for strong (and some irregular) verbs it is formed by umlauting the vowel of the past tense, if possible, and adding -e, if possible, e.g.: machen ich machte du machtest er machte wir machten

kommen ich käme du kämest er käme wir kämen

gehen ich ginge du gingest er ginge wir gingen

können ich könnte du könntest er könnte wir

könnten ihr könntet sie könnten

(b) pluperfect subjunctive

(c) conditional

ihr machtet ihr kämet ihr ginget sie machten sie kämen sie gingen the past subjunctive of haben or sein (see 4.3.3) with the past participle of the main verb: er hätte geschlafen er wäre gekommen the past subjunctive of werden with the infinitive: er würde schlafen

NOTE: A few strong verbs have an irregular past subjunctive, with a different vowel, sometimes as an alternative. Only the following are used nowadays, even in literary R3a:

helfen: ich hülfe (less common: hälfe) stehen: er standi (less common: standi)

4.5.2 The use of the past subjunctive and conditional forms

The compound conditional form is often used instead of the simple past subjunctive, in exactly the same meanings and contexts, so that,

for example, people often say or write ich würde kommen or ich würde wissen rather than ich käme or ich wüsste. The one which is used depends on the individual verb involved and on register. German school-teachers and stylists have often tried to encourage the use of the simple forms as a mark of good style, but in practice they often sound stilted or archaic, and most people avoid using them in any register. Modern usage can be summarized as follows.:

(a) With weak verbs the one-word form is sometimes used in R3, if the meaning is otherwise clear from the context, i.e. from a distinct subjunctive form in the other half of a conditional sentence, e.g.:

Wenn er noch lebte, würde ich diese Frage nicht beantworten Wenn wir das Fenster aufmachten, hätten wir ein bisschen frische Luft hier im Zimmer

However, the conditional form with würde is always preferred in Rl, and it is used quite commonly in R2, and often in R3, e.g.:

Wenn er noch leben würde, würde ich diese Frage nicht beantworten

Wenn wir das Fenster aufmachen würden, hätten wir ein bisschen frische Luft hier im Zimmer

(b) With very common irregular verbs (i.e. sein, werden, haben and the modal auxiliaries) the one-word past subjunctive is almost always preferred in all registers, so that: wäre dürfte müsste hätte könnte sollte würde möchte wollte are almost always preferred to würde sein, würde haben, würde können, etc. This also means that the forms of the pluperfect subjunctive always have hätte and wäre, e.g.:

Ich hätte es getan Wir wären gefahren Forms like Ich würde es getan haben for English 'I would have done it' are very rare.

(c) With a few other common strong or irregular verbs the one-word past subjunctive forms are about as frequent as conditional forms with würde in the registers indicated:

Rl, R2 & R3: kommen: käme tun: täte wissen: wüsste brauchen: (S) bräuchte

R2 & R3: finden: fände gehen: ginge heißen: hieße stehen: stünde geben: gäbe halten: hielte lassen: ließe

(d) With a limited number of other strong or irregular verbs the one-word past subjunctive forms are found in R3 only, and even there they are less frequent than conditional forms with würde. The following are still not unusual in R3:

bleiben: bliebe bringen: brächte denken: dächte fallen: fiele fahren: führe gelingen: gelänge geschehen: geschähe hängen: hinge

helfen: hülfe kennen: kennte laufen: liefe liegen: läge nehmen: nähme scheinen: schiene schlafen: schliefe schlagen: schlüge

schreiben: schriebe sehen: sähe treffen: träfe tragen: trüge verschwinden:

verschwände ziehen: zöge

(e) With the remaining strong and irregular verbs, the one-word past subjunctive forms are still very occasionally found in R3a, but the conditional forms with würde are far more usual. These one-word forms, especially irregular ones in -o- and -ü- (e.g. begönne, hübe, würbe, etc.) sound pompous and comical nowadays and are best avoided entirely.

(f) The one context where the one-word past subjunctive forms and the conditional forms are not interchangeable is where the sense is of a 'future-in-the-past', i.e. where the speaker or writer is looking forward within a past-tense narrative, and there is no sense of it being a supposition or merely a possibility, e.g.:

Manfred wusste, dass sein Freund es nie so weit bringen würde Ich beschloss das Buch zu lesen, sobald ich groß sein würde

The conditional is always used in these contexts, never the one-word past subjunctive.

4.5.3 Indirect speech

In indirect speech (sometimes called 'reported speech') we report what someone said by putting it into a sentence of our own, typically introduced by that. This contrasts with direct speech, where we quote what someone said in the original spoken form. Compare the following English examples: Direct speech: He said, 'She knows it' Indirect speech: He said that she knew it In German the subjunctive is regularly used to indicate indirect speech. However, usage is highly variable and determined mainly by register. Grammatical 'rules' are widely ignored and those given in many reference works are misleading, inaccurate or unrepresentative of actual usage. A basic starting point is that whereas the most formal R3 uses Konjunktiv I wherever possible, informal Rl avoids it almost entirely.

Typical R3 usage • Konjunktiv I is used to indicate indirect speech, as long as there is a distinct subjunctive form. In practice, this means in the third person singular, or with the verb sein. The same tense is kept as in the original direct speech, although if this was the past tense, the perfect subjunctive is used:

original tense direct speech PRESENT : „Sie weiß es" PA s T : „Sie wusste es"

PERFECT:

FUTURE:

„Sie hat es gewusst"

„Sie wird es wissen"

indirect speech Er sagte, sie wisse es Er sagte, sie habe es

gewusst Er sagte, sie habe es

gewusst Er sagte, sie werde es

wissen

• However, if there is no clear Konjunktiv I form (typically in the third person plural of all verbs except sein), the corresponding Konjunktiv II forms are used:

direct speech „Sie wissen es" „Sie wussten es"

original tense PRESENT: PAST:

PERFECT:

FUTURE:

„Sie haben es gewusst"

„Sie werden es wissen"

indirect speech Er sagte, sie wüssten es Er sagte, sie hätten es

gewusst Er sagte, sie hätten es

gewusst Er sagte, sie würden es

wissen

• If the one-word Konjunktiv II form is unusual (see 4.5.2) then the würde-form is used, e.g.: Direct speech: „Diese Bäche fließen alle in den Neckar" Indirect speech: Sie sagte, diese Bäche würden alle in den Neckar fließen (the one-word form flössen is no longer used)

This pattern is most closely adhered to in the R3b of newspaper reports, where the subjunctive provides a handy means of indicating reported speech, for example (from Die Zeit): Der iranische Parlamentspräsident Rafsanjani ist mit dem äußeren Erscheinungsbild der schiitischen Revolutionäre unzufrieden. Die fundamentalistischen Moslems w ü r d e n immer mehr mit Begriffen wie „ungewaschen, unrasiert und unordentlich gekleidet" g le ichgesetzt . Außerdem sei es an der Zeit, den revolutionären Eifer etwas zu zügeln. [ . . . ] Im übrigen so l le man den Personenkult um den Ajatollah Chomeini nicht übertreiben. Etwas weniger Porträts des Imam täten es auch.

Note the alternation of Konjunktiv I and Konjunktiv II forms and the lack of any explicit verb of saying; only the subjunctive shows us that this is reported speech.

There are one or two common deviations from this pattern in R3, as follows:

(a) If the conjunction dass is used, the indicative is as frequently used as Konjunktiv I (but normally still in the tense of the original direct speech), e.g.:

Er sagte, dass er schon länger hier wohnt However, if dass is omitted, then Konjunktiv I is essential, e.g.:

Er sagte, er wohne schon länger hier (b) The indicative is often used even if the Konjunktiv I form is not clear

(i.e. in the third person plural), e.g.: Sie sagten, sie arbeiten schon in der Schweiz

If the indicative is used in indirect speech, there is no difference in meaning to the subjunctive, i.e. it does not represent 'fact' as opposed to 'mere report'.

(c) Konjunktiv II is common even when a clear Konjunktiv I form is available (i.e. in the third person singular), e.g.:

Er hat gefragt, ob sie schon lange in Göttingen wäre Er behauptete, er hätte ihn nicht geschlagen

If Konjunktiv II is used, there is no difference in meaning to Konjunktiv /, i.e. it does not imply 'doubt' as opposed to 'mere report'.

R2 usage R2 usage differs from R3 mainly in that Konjunktiv I forms are less frequent:

(a) Konjunktiv II forms are used rather than Konjunktiv /, with the exception of sein and haben:

Sie sagte, sie wüsste es schon Sie sagte, sie würde es versuchen Sie sagte, sie sei müde geworden

(b) One-word Konjunktiv II forms are used only with a few common verbs (see 4.5.2), e.g.:

Er sagte, er käme heute nicht Sie meinte, sie könnte es schon machen

(c) Otherwise, würde-forms or the indicative are used, e.g.: Der Schaffner sagte, dass unsere Rückfahrkarten nicht mehr gelten/gelten würden

Viele behaupten, sie lesen keine Tageszeitung mehr/ . . . sie würden keine Tageszeitung mehr lesen

In Rl, Konjunktiv I is not used at all (except in SW).

The indicative and Konjunktiv II are used interchangeably, with the indicative predominating, e.g.:

Sie hat gesagt, sie weiß es schon / sie wüsste es schon Sie hat gesagt, sie hat es verstanden / sie hätte es verstanden Sie hat gesagt, sie wird es versuchen / würde es versuchen

If Konjunktiv II is used, it is in the würde- form except with a few common verbs (see 4.5.2), e.g.:

Sie sagt, sie würde auf dem Land leben Er hat gesagt, er käme heute nicht

Konjunktiv II is used mainly if there is a longer stretch of reported speech covering more than one sentence, e.g.:

Der sagt, dass er 'nen neuen Wagen gekauft hat. Der hätte über 30 000 Euro gekostet und hätte eine Klimaanlage

4.5.4 Conditional sentences

• Typical conditional sentences consist of a subordinate clause, introduced by the conjunction wenn (= English i f ) , expressing a condition, and a main clause, expressing the consequence. There are other kinds, with the condition expressed in other ways, e.g. through an adverbial. Konjunktiv II is used in all registers in German in conditional sentences which express a possibility, e.g.:

Wenn wir Zeit hätten, könnten wir einen Ausflug machen Die Europäer wären erleichtert, wenn England wieder austreten würde

Wir würden es begrüßen, wenn du uns besuchen könntest Ich würde mich freuen, wenn sie es schaffen würde (R3: schaffte)

Wenn sie auf der Autobahn gefahren wären, hätten sie die Fähre auch rechtzeitig erreicht

Bei dem Wetter wäre ich nicht in Urlaub gefahren Ich würde sonst das Fenster aufmachen Ich hätte schon an sie geschrieben, nur habe ich ihre Adresse nicht gewusst

The choice of the one-word past subjunctive form or conditional würde-form depends on the individual verb or on register, see 4.5.2. Either can be used in either part of the sentence, as the examples show. This is different to English, where we typically always use a past tense in the if-clause, and a conditional with would in the main clause.

Rl usage

(a)

(b)

(c)

• A common variant in conditional sentences in all registers, but very frequent in Rl, is the combination of sollte in the wenn-clause and a future (or present) tense in the main clause. This is similar to the use of should or were to in English, e.g.:

Wenn er sich dazu entschließen sollte, werden wir zusammenarbeiten können

Wenn sich die Umstände nun ändern sollten, wird die Situation wohl etwas besser aussehen

Sollte ich die Vase fallen lassen, zerbricht sie sicher wollte is also a frequent alternative, especially (though not only) in R3 with wenn omitted, e.g.:

Es würde uns zu lange aufhalten, wollten wir alle diese Probleme ausfuhrlich behandeln

• For 'real' or 'open' conditions, where the present and future tenses are used in English, German uses the indicative, e.g.:

Wenn ich Zeit habe, komme ich I f l have time, 77/ come with you mit

Contrast: Wenn ich Zeit hätte, käme ich mit I f l had timey I would come with you

4.5.5 Other uses of the subjunctive

(a) In comparative clauses with als ob and other conjunctions with the meaning 'as if , Konjunktiv II is commonly used in all registers, e.g.:

als ob sie sich amüsierte als ob er nicht einverstanden wäre als ob sie nicht kämen als ob sie nicht bezahlt hätten

In R3, Konjunktiv I is sometimes found, if there is a distinct form. However, it is less frequent than Konjunktiv 77. There is no difference in meaning, e.g.:

als ob sie sich amüsiere als ob er nicht einverstanden sei

In R2 and Rl, würde-forms are frequent in appropriate cases (see 4.5.2), e.g.:

als ob sie sich amüsieren würde In Rl, the indicative is equally common, especially in N, without any distinction in meaning, e.g.:

als ob sie sich amüsiert als ob er nicht einverstanden ist als ob sie nicht kommen als ob sie nicht bezahlt haben

For English 'as if , als ob is possible in all registers. In written R3, it is at least as usual for ob to be dropped and the verb to be brought forward to a position immediately after als, e.g.:

als amüsierte sie sich als wäre er nicht einverstanden

As alternatives to als ob, als wenn is used in R3, e.g.: als wenn sie nicht kämen, and wie wenn, usually with the indicative, is frequent in Rl, e.g. wie wenn sich nicht kommen.

(b) Consecutive clauses with als dass, ohne dass Konjunktiv II is fairly regular with these in R3, e.g.:

Diese Hi-Fi-Anlage ist viel zu teuer, als dass ich sie mir leisten könnte

Diese Mannschaft ist seit Jahren in der Bundesliga, ohne dass sie je deutscher Meister geworden wäre

The indicative is used in other registers (and, in practice, main clause constructions are often preferred in Rl, see 5.2) and is not unknown in R3, e.g.:

Diese Hi-Fi-Anlage ist zu teuer, als dass ich es mir leisten kann Diese Mannschaft ist seit Jahren in der Bundesliga, ohne dass sie je deutscher Meister geworden ist

(c) Purpose clauses with damit Konjunktiv II (or Konjunktiv /, if there is a clear form) is occasionally found in R3a, e.g.:

Er zog sich zurück, damit wir ihn nicht sähen Er gab ihr Geld, damit sie einen neuen Mantel kaufe Ich will ihm die Uhr bringen, damit er sie repariere

However, even in R3, the indicative is now more usual, i.e.: Ich will ihm die Uhr bringen, damit er sie repariert

Nevertheless, the most natural construction in these sentences in all registers is to use können or sollen, i.e.:

Er zog sich zurück, damit wir ihn nicht sehen konnten/sollten Er gab ihr Geld, damit sie einen neuen Mantel kaufen konnte/sollte

Ich will ihm die Uhr bringen, damit er sie reparieren kann/soll

(d) Idiomatic uses Konjunktiv II is very common, especially in spoken Rl and R2, and particularly in S, to moderate the tone of an assertion, a statement, a request or a question and make it sound more polite, e.g.:

Das wäre eigentlich alles, was ich dazu zu sagen hätte Ich würde auch meinen, dass es jetzt viel zu spät ist Das dürfte Peter gewesen sein Das wäre nun das Letzte Somit hätten wir es geschafft Könnten Sie mir bitte sagen, wo hier die Paulskirche ist? Würden Sie mir bitte das Salz reichen?

Konjunktiv /, in particular of the ^m-passive, is frequent in technical R3b to express a proposition, e.g.:

In diesem Zusammenhang sei nur darauf verwiesen, dass diese Hypothese auf Humboldt zurückgeht

Hier sei nur vermerkt, dass ihm dieses Experiment nie einwandfrei gelungen ist

4.6 The modal auxiliaries

The verbs dürfen, können, mögen, müssen, sollen and wollen are known as 'modal auxiliary' verbs. They typically express the attitude of the speaker to the content of the sentence, expressing volition, possibility, necessity, permission, etc. They are very common, and the English-speaking learner needs to pay particular attention to them, not least because they all have a wide range of meanings which shade into one another, because they have a number of idiomatic uses, and because the English verbs to which they are deceptively similar are themselves irregular and elusive in meaning. It is good practice to treat each possible combination of modal auxiliary and main verb, in the various tenses and moods, separately and to know the possible equivalent(s) for each in the other language. In this section these major correspondences are illustrated as fully as possible.

A significant initial difference between these verbs in English and German is that, whereas the English modals have at most only a present tense and a past tense (often with conditional meaning), the German modals have a full range of moods and tenses. The following forms, illustrated here with können, are the most common and they have to be learned for all the verbs:

Tense Construction Example

present + infinitive sie kann es machen present + past infinitive sie kann es gemacht haben future + infinitive sie wird es machen können

past + infinitive sie konnte es machen perfect 4- infinitive sie hat es machen können

past subjunctive + infinitive sie könnte es machen past subjunctive + past infinitive sie könnte es gemacht haben

pluperf subjunctive + infinitive sie hätte es machen können

NOTE: There is no real difference in meaning between the past and perfect tenses of these verbs (see 4.3.2). In general usage, the past tense is commoner with most of them, even in Rl (except in S). Only with können and müssen is the perfect equally frequent.

Rl = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

4.6.1 The German modal auxiliaries

DÜRFEN dürfen expresses permission or, in Konjunktiv //, probability, e.g.:

Sie dürfen hereinkommen

Sie dürfen nicht hereinkommen

Das darf als Vorteil betrachtet werden

Das darf doch nicht wahr sein Wir freuen uns, Ihnen mitteilen zu

dürfen, dass . . . (R3b) Sie werden spielen dürfen Er durfte diese Reise machen

Endlich durfte er die Augen aufmachen

Dürfte ich das Fenster aufmachen?

Das dürfte sie doch gar nicht wissen

Sie dürfte krank sein

Sie dürfte krank gewesen sein

Das hätten Sie nicht unterschreiben dürfen

IThey may/can come in/ III let them come in

They are allowed to come in f They mustn 7 come in I They aren't allowed to come in That can/may be seen as an advantage

But that can 7 be true We are pleased to be able to inform you that...

They will be allowed to play He was allowed to go on that journey

At last he could open his eyes again

Would you mind if I opened the window?

She ought not to know that (i.e. it shouldn't be allowed)

She will be ill/ She is probably ill

She will have been ill/ She was probably ill

You ought not to have signed that (i.e. it shouldn't have been allowed)

KÖNNEN können expresses ability. In some contexts it can express possibility and, in Rl, permission, e.g.: Er kann gut schwimmen Sie kann es nicht machen

1 stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

Du kannst Fußball spielen (Rl)

Er kann jeden Augenblick kommen Sie kann es (auch) verloren haben Er kann es (auch) gesehen haben Er kann es nicht gesehen haben Er kann es auch 'nicht gesehen

haben Er kann Spanisch Du wirst es schon finden können

He can swim well She can 7 do it/ She isn7 able

to do it (You can/may play football 1/7/ let you play football He may come at any moment She may (well) have lost it He may (well) have seen it He can 7 have seen it He may not have seen it

He can speak Spanish You 7/ be able to find it

[KÖNNEN]

MÖGEN

Ich konnte ihm nicht helfen ) (/ couldn 9t help him Ich habe ihm nicht helfen können) 1/ wasn yt able to help him

I I could run just as fast I would be able to run just as fast That could/might be difficult He could/might (at least) pay

his debts Could you ask him for it? He could have eavesdropped on

us (i.e. it is possible that he did)

He could have eavesdropped on us (i.e. he would have been able to, but he didn't)

She couldn yt have written the letter (i.e. it wasn't possible that she did)

She couldn't have written the letter (i.e. she wouldn't have been able to)

You might have been rather more polite

NOTE : the use of können to express possibility (= English may, see 4.6.2) is limited to cases where it is not ambiguous (i.e. where it could not be interpreted as expressing ability = English be able to). It is most frequent with a past infinitive, but even then, especially in the negative, auch is usually added to resolve the possible ambiguity.

Ich könnte genau so schnell laufen

Das könnte schwierig sein Er könnte (wenigstens) seine

Schulden bezahlen Könnten Sie ihn darum bitten? Er könnte uns belauscht haben

Er hätte uns belauschen können

Sie könnte den Brief nicht geschrieben haben

Sie hätte den Brief nicht schreiben können

Sie hätten etwas höflicher sein können

mögen expresses liking or desire, normally in the present or Konjunktiv IL In R3, and some more generally used set phrases, it can express possibility (like English 'may'). In this case, it often has a concessive sense, with the force of'although'. Sie mag keinen Kaffee Wir mögen den Lehrer nicht Das mag (wohl) sein Wie dem auch sein mag Er mag etwa dreißig (gewesen) sein

(R3) Wie schwierig es auch sein

mag/(R3) möge Das mag deutschen Ohren etwas

fremd klingen, aber . . . (R3) Das mag vielen nicht einleuchten,

aber . . . (R3)

She doesn ft like coffee We don 9t like the teacher That may well be However that may be He is (was) perhaps about thirty

However difficult it may be

That may sound rather strange to German ears, but...

That may not be clear to many, but...

MÜSSEN

Er sagte ihr, sie möge unten warten (R3)

Das Zeichen x möge ein Winkel von 30° bezeichnen (R3b)

Die Herren mögen sich beim Direktor melden (R3)

Er mochte etwa dreißig sein (R3) Er hat sie auch nicht gemocht Er möchte nach Wien fahren Möchten Sie noch Wein? Ich möchte Sie nicht langer

aufhalten Sagen Sie ihr, sie möchte

(R3 möge) zu mir kommen Ich möchte, dass sie sofort weggeht Ich möchte dein Gesicht gesehen

haben

He asked her to kindly wait downstairs (indirect command)

Let x be an angle of 3(P

Would the gentlemen be good enough to go and see the principal

He was probably about thirty He didn't like her; either He would like to go to Vienna Would you like some more wine? I wouldn 9t want to keep you

any longer Ask her to be kind enough to come

and see me (indirect command) I want her to leave immediately I would like to have seen your face

müssen expresses necessity, compulsion or certainty, e.g.:

Wir müssen jetzt gehen

Wir müssen noch nicht gehen

Das muss das Richtige sein Etwas muss passiert sein

Sie wird sich beeilen müssen Ich musste zu Hause arbeiten \ Ich habe zu Hause arbeiten \

müssen ) Ich musste einfach lachen Etwas müsste passiert sein

Du müsstest den Chef fragen Er müsste es eigentlich besser

wissen

Er müsste schon dort sein

Er müsste langst angekommen sein

Er hätte heute ankommen müssen

(We must go now I We have (got) to go now We needn 9t/ don 9t have to go yet

That must be the right one Something must have happened

(i.e. just now) Shell have to hurry

I had to work at home

I couldn't help laughing Something must have happened

(i.e. a long time ago) You would have to ask the boss He really ought to/should know

better He should/ought to be there by

now He should/ought to have

arrived long ago (i.e. we can assume that he has arrived)

He should/ought to have arrived today (i.e. he ought to have done, but he hasn't)

SOLLEN sollen most commonly expresses an obligation, occasionally an assertion, a supposition or a condition, e.g.:

{I'm supposed/meant to stay here Ich soll hier bleiben

Du sollst die Tür zumachen

Er soll sofort kommen

Ich soll nicht hier bleiben

Er hat gesagt, ich soll unten warten (indirect command)

Hier soll das neue Rathaus gebaut werden

Sollen wir uns die Stadt ansehen? Sie soll sehr ehrgeizig sein

Sie soll sehr ehrgeizig gewesen sein

Wir sollten uns dort treffen

Es sollte eine Überraschung sein Jeder sollte das Buch lesen

Das solltest du mal probieren Sollte das wahr sein? Er sollte den Freund nie

wiedersehen Wenn/Falls es morgen regnen

sollte Ich trat zurück, damit sie mich

nicht sehen sollten Jeder sollte das Buch bis Freitag

gelesen haben

Jeder hätte das Buch voriges Jahr lesen sollen

Das sollte ihr inzwischen klar geworden sein

Er hätte es mir doch gleich sagen sollen

(I've got to stay here I want you to shut the door

{He is to/has got to come at once I Tell him to come at once {I'm not supposed to stay here \I mustn91 stay here He told me to wait downstairs

The new town hall is to be built here

Shall we look round the town? She's supposed/said to be very

ambitious She 's supposed/said to have

been very ambitious It was agreed that we should

meet there It was meant to be a surprise Everyone should/ought to read

the book You should/ought to try that Could that be true? He was (destined) never to see

his friend again If it should/ were to rain

tomorrow I stepped back, so that they

shouldn't see me Everyone should/ought to have

read the book by Friday (i.e. I would expect it of everyone)

Everyone should/ought to have read the book last year (i.e. it was expected of everyone, but they didn't)

She should/ought to have realized that by now (i.e. I would expect she has)

He should/ought to have told me right away (i.e. I would have expected it, but he didn't)

WOLLEN

NOTE: the form sollte is potentially ambiguous, as there is nothing to show the difference between indicative and subjunctive. Er sollte mitkommen could mean 'He was supposed to come with us' or 'He ought to come with us', depending on the context.

wollen most often expresses desire or intention, occasionally a claim or necessity, e.g.:

Ich will das Klavier verkaufen

Willst du uns nicht helfen? Der Regen will nicht aufhören Er will, dass du es liest Wollen wir uns die Stadt ansehen? Das will geübt sein Ein solcher Wagen will gut gepflegt

werden Er will krank sein Er will krank gewesen sein Sie wird dort nicht arbeiten wollen

Sie wollte ihn darum bitten Sie hat ihm darum bitten wollen

(Rl)

Das Fenster wollte nicht zugehen

Ich wollte, ich müsste es nicht tun Wenn er es nur zugeben woll te, . . . Wenn wir ihn fragen wollten,

würde er es bestreiten Es sah aus, als wollte er jeden

Augenblick einschlafen Ich hätte es auch nicht machen

wollen

(7 want to/will sell the piano lI'm going to sell the piano Won't you help us? The rain isn't going to stop He wants you to read it Shall we look round the town That needs to be practised A car like that needs looking

after well He claims/says he is ill He claims/says he was ill She won9t want to work there

She wanted to ask him for it She was going to ask him for it

(The window wouldn 9t shut I The window refused to shut I wish I didn 't have to do it If he would only admit it... If we were to ask him, he would

deny it It looked as if he was going to fall asleep at any moment

I wouldn 9t have wanted to do it either

4.6.2 The English modal auxiliaries

In this section we take the various forms of the English modal auxiliary verbs and give their most common German equivalents.

CAN • can most often expresses ability or possibility, and können is the usual German equivalent. However, können is ambiguous, and if the context permits, it is naturally interpreted as expressing ability (i.e. = 'be able to'), vielleicht or a paraphrase has to be used in such sentences, rather than können, to make it clear that possibility is meant.

1 stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

She can play tennis Pigs can't fly

I can't come tomorrow

He can 'not come

Can he be mending the car?

Sie kann Tennis spielen Schweine können nicht

fliegen Ich kann morgen nicht

kommen Er kann auch 1nicht kommen Repariert er den Wagen

vielleicht? Kann es sein, dass er den

Wagen repariert? Ist es möglich, dass er den

Wagen repariert? NOTE: Kann er den Wagen reparieren? = Can he mend the car?

He can't be mending the car Es ist unmöglich, dass er den Wagen repariert

NOTE : Er kann den Wagen nicht reparieren = He can't mend the car.

Can they have missed the connection?

The road can be blocked

Können sie den Anschluss verpasst haben?

Haben sie vielleicht den Anschluss verpasst?

Die Straße kann gesperrt werden

• In all but the most formal English, can expresses permission. This is usually expressed by dürfen in German, although können is quite common in Rl, or where there is a sense of possibility, e.g.: Can I go to the cinema?

This can be regarded as a valid objection

Darf (Rl: Kann) ich ins Kino gehen?

Das darf/kann als berechtigter Einwand angesehen werden

• With verbs of sensation (e.g. see, hear,; smell, feel) can is often used in English with no real idea of ability. In these contexts können is not used in German, e.g.: We can hear the music Wir hören die Musik I can see him quite well Ich sehe ihn ganz gut

COULD • could can be used as the past tense of can in the senses given above (i.e. = was able to). In such cases appropriate past or perfect tense forms will be found in German, e.g.:

I could swim well then

' Ich konnte damals gut schwimmen

Ich habe damals gut schwimmen können

Ich konnte gestern nicht kommen

Ich habe gestern nicht kommen können

Sie durfte (Rl: konnte) ausgehen, wenn sie wollte

Sie sahen die Kirche Sie haben die Kirche

l gesehen

• could frequently has a conditional sense (i.e. = would be able to). The German equivalent is könnte (or dürfte, if permission is involved). As with can, it may be preferable in some contexts to use vielleicht or a paraphrase with es ist möglich to avoid ambiguity.

I couldn't come yesterday

She could go out whenever she liked

They could see the church

I would be pleased if you could come

Could I open the window?

Ich würde mich freuen, wenn Sie kommen könnten

Dürfte/Könnte ich das Fenster aufmachen?

Sie könnten Recht haben Das könnte schwierig sein

' Könnte der Zug Verspätung haben?

Hat der Zug vielleicht Verspätung?

Wäre es möglich, dass der Zug Verspätung hat?

Repariert er den Wagen vielleicht?

Wäre es möglich, dass er den Wagen repariert?

NOTE: Könnte er den Wagen reparieren? could mean Would he be able to mend the car?

You could be right That could be difficult

Could the train be late?

Could he be mending the car?

• could have is ambiguous and has two possible equivalents in German depending on the sense of the English: He could have done it (i.e. it is

possible that he did it) He could have done it (i.e. he

would have been able to, but he didn't)

Er könnte es getan haben

Er hätte es tun können

• There are a number of German equivalents for couldn't help: Sie musste einfach lachen

She couldn't help laughing

Sie konnte nicht anders, als zu lachen

Sie konnte nicht umhin zu lachen (R3)

Sie konnte nichts dafür, sie musste lachen (Rl)

MAY

This survey may be correct

• may expresses permission in rather formal English (for more usual can). The equivalents are dürfen or können (see can above). You may go now Sie dürfen (Rl: können) jetzt

gehen We may take it as our starting point Wir dürfen/können davon

that. . . ausgehen, dass . . . • The commonest use of may is to express possibility. The usual German equivalent is vielleicht or a phrase with möglich (see can above). können can be used, often in the past subjunctive form könnte, but only if it cannot possibly be misunderstood in another sense (i.e. 'be able to'). mögen is restricted to R3 or S, apart from a few set phrases, and most often expects or implies a concessive qualification, e.g. that may well be, (but...).

Vielleicht stimmt diese Umfrage

Es ist möglich, dass diese Umfrage stimmt

Diese Umfrage kann/könnte stimmen

Diese Umfrage mag , stimmen(, aber . . . ) (R3)

Vielleicht stimmt diese Umfrage nicht

Es ist möglich, dass diese Umfrage nicht stimmt

Diese Umfrage kann auch t nicht stimmen

NOTE: . . . kann nicht stimmen would mean ' . . . cannot be correct'

I Es kann sein, dass er im Garten arbeitet

Vielleicht arbeitet er im Garten

Es ist möglich, dass er im i Garten arbeitet

NOTE: Er kann im Garten arbeiten means 'He is able to work in the garden'. Er könnte im Garten arbeiten means 'He would be able to work in the garden'.

This survey may not be correct

He may be working in the garden

MIGHT

The road may be blocked

He may have seen the bear

He may not have seen the bear

Die Straße ist vielleicht gesperrt

Die Straße kann/könnte k gesperrt sein Er kann/könnte den

Bären gesehen haben Vielleicht hat er den Bären gesehen

Er kann den Bären auch nicht gesehen haben

Vielleicht hat er den Bären nicht gesehen

• may after verbs of hoping, fearing, wishing, etc. and after so that, has no equivalent in German: I hope that he may recover Ich hoffe, dass er sich bald

erholt I am telling you this so that you Ich sage Ihnen das, damit

may know exactly what I am going Sie genau wissen, was ich to do vorhabe

• might is sometimes used to ask permission (= dürfte), e.g.: Might I ask you a favour? Dürfte ich Sie um einen

Gefallen bitten? • The most frequent use of might is to express possibility. This is close to could (see under could above) and the usual German equivalent is könnte, unless this is ambiguous, as explained above under can and may.

Sie könnte jetzt in Berlin sein Die Straße könnte gesperrt

sein Du könntest die Tür

zumachen I Er kommt möglicherweise

nicht Er kommt vielleicht nicht Es wäre möglich, dass er

' nicht kommt NOTE: Er könnte nicht kommen = 'He wouldn't be able to come'

She might be in Berlin now The road might be blocked

You might shut the door (reproachful)

He might not come

• might have, like could have, is ambiguous in English and the two senses have different German equivalents:

IEr könnte umgekommen sein Er ist vielleicht

umgekommen He might have been killed (i.e. it is Er hätte umkommen können

possible, but he wasn't)

He might have toldUrsula (i.e. it is possible that he did)

He might have told Ursula (i.e. possible, but he didn't)

He might not have received it

Er könnte es Ursula gesagt haben

Vielleicht hat er es Ursula gesagt

Er hätte es Ursula (doch) sagen können

Er hat es vielleicht nicht bekommen

Er hat es möglicherweise nicht bekommen

Es wäre/ist möglich, dass er es nicht bekommen hat

MUST • must expresses necessity or compulsion; müssen is the usual German equivalent, e.g.: I must talk to him today Ich muss ihn heute sprechen They must leave at seven Sie müssen um sieben

abfahren Sabine must be mad Sabine muss verrückt sein They must have left at seven Sie müssen um sieben

abgefahren sein I must have lost it Ich muss es verloren haben

• mustn V is usually nicht dürfen. nicht müssen (see under müssen above) = English don't have to or needn 't (although it is sometimes heard for mustn 7 in N): You mustn't play football here Ihr dürft hier keinen Fußball

spielen I mustn't forget that Das darf ich nicht vergessen (Sie hat den Brief wohl nicht

gesehen Sie kann den Brief nicht

gesehen haben SHALL • The use of shall is much restricted in modern English. Apart from its

use to form the future tense (see under will below), its usual German equivalent is sollen: Shall I bring you the flowers? Soll ich dir die Blumen

bringen? He shall pay for this Er soll mir dafür büßen Thou shalt not steal Du sollst nicht stehlen • Shall we... ? often corresponds to Wollen wir... ? rather than Sollen wir . . . which has more the sense of'do you want us to . . . ?', e.g.: Now what shall we do? Nun, was wollen wir machen? Shall we have lunch here? Wollen wir hier zu Mittag

essen?

SHOULD/ OUGHT TO

• In English, should is usually interchangeable with ought to in its commonest sense of expressing obligation or probability. The German equivalents are sollte or müsste, which are close in meaning but not always interchangeable: sollte carries more the sense of being obliged, whereas müsste has rather the idea of probability or necessity. We should/ought to try that

She should/ought to be in the office today (i.e. it is her duty)

She should/ought to be in the office today (i.e. it is most likely)

We ought to hurry (i.e. we are obliged to)

The letters ought to be on my desk (i.e. it is probable)

Das sollten/müssten wir mal probieren

Sie sollte heute im Büro sein

Sie müsste heute im Büro sein

Wir sollten uns beeilen

Die Briefe müssten auf meinem Schreibtisch liegen

• For negative shouldn V or ought not to, sollte nicht is the usual equivalent, but dürfte nicht emphasizes the idea that something ought not to be or have been allowed, e.g.: She ought not to know that

Sales shouldn't/ought not to have fallen off so much

Das dürfte/sollte sie eigentlich nicht wissen

So viel dürfte/sollte der Absatz nicht nachgelassen haben

• Simple dürfte can also express the idea of probability, and in this meaning it is very close to that of the future tense (see 4.3.1), e.g.: That should/ought to be enough Das dürfte/müsste reichen That should/ought to be right Das dürfte/müsste stimmen • should have/ought to have is ambiguous in English, but the ambiguity is resolved in German by using sollte/müsste with a past infinitive or hätte... sollen/müssen, e.g.: He should/ought to have grasped

that now (i.e. it is an obligation on him)

You should/ought to have told me that yesterday (i.e. it was an obligation on you, but you didn't)

He should/ought to have written the letter by now (i.e. it is probable that he has)

He should/ought to have written the letter yesterday (i.e. it was most likely, but he seems not to have done)

Das sollte er nun begriffen haben

Das hätten Sie mir gestern sagen sollen

Er müsste den Brief schon geschrieben haben

Er hätte den Brief schon gestern schreiben müssen

[SHOULD/ OUGHT TO]

WILL

gekommen ist Es ist erstaunlich, dass er

durchgefallen ist

• should is used in some subordinate clauses in English as a kind of subjunctive substitute. In most cases this has no equivalent in German, although sollte is found in damit-clauses in R2 and R3 (see 4.5.4). I am pleased that she should have Ich freue mich, dass sie

come It is surprising that he should have

failed • should is sometimes used rather than would (see under would below) in the first person conditional, but it is frequent, alongside were to, in other conditional sentences, where German uses sollte (see 4.5.3), e.g.: If you should/were to change your Sollten Sie es sich anders

mind, please let me know überlegen, dann sagen Sie mir bitte Bescheid

Wenn er schon am Vormittag ankommen sollte, dann kann ich ihn am Bahnhof abholen

If he should/were to arrive in the morning, I can pick him up from the station

• will (often simply '//) is in its most familiar use the auxiliary verb for the future tense. This may correspond to a present or a future in German (see 4.3.1). However, if will has a sense of desire or intention, then wollen is quite possible as an equivalent in German, e.g.: He will do everything in his power Er will alles tun, was in seiner

The door won't close Will you come with us tonight?

He won't listen

Macht steht Die Tür will nicht zugehen Wollt ihr heute Abend mitkommen?

Er will nicht hören

That'll be the postman

He'll have left from Hamburg yesterday

• If the future tense expresses probability, German, too, can use a future, often with wohl (see 2.6). Common alternatives are dürfte or, especially in Rl, simply wohL

i Das wird (wohl) der Briefträger sein

Das dürfte der Briefträger sein

1 Das ist wohl der Briefträger ' Er wird (wohl) gestern von

Hamburg abgefahren sein Er dürfte gestern von

Hamburg abgefahren sein Er ist wohl gestern von

t Hamburg abgefahren • will can also express a characteristic or habitual activity. This has a variety of possible equivalents in German, depending on the context, e.g.:

Pigs will eat anything

Boys will be boys She will sit there for hours doing

nothing

Schweine fressen nun einmal alles

Jungen sind nun einmal so Oft sitzt sie stundenlang da

und macht nichts

WOULD

1 stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

• would (often simply *d) is characteristically used for the English conditional (= Konjunktiv // , see 4.5.4). However, it can occur for the past tense of will in the other senses given above: She wouldn't come when I called Sie wollte nicht kommen, als

her The lift wouldn't come

Every evening he would go for a walk by the river

She would get up early in the morning

It 'would rain today

He 'would say that

ich sie rief Der Aufzug wollte nicht

kommen Jeden Abend ging er am

Fluss spazieren Sie stand gewöhnlich

morgens früh auf Sie pflegte morgens früh

aufzustehen (R3) Ausgerechnet heute musste

es regnen

{Natürlich hat er das gesagt Von ihm war ja nichts

anders zu erwarten

5 Syntax and word order

5.1 Word order

German word order is much more flexible than English word order. Apart from the basic framework, it is rarely a matter of'rules' and 'exceptions' because the order can often be varied for emphasis. This section gives some simple basic guidelines to help you construct sentences in German.

5.1.1 The verbal bracket

The basic framework for any German sentence (or clause - the distinction is unhelpful in this context, and both are called Satz in German) can be seen as a pair of'brackets' which is made up of the verb and certain other elements linked to the verb. The position of these is fixed and most of the rest of the sentence is contained between these brackets. There are three main types of'bracket' construction in German:

Initial element Opening bracket [

Central elements Closing bracket ]

Type 1 (a) Gestern hat er früh damit aufgehört (b) Warum hat er gestern früh damit aufgehört?

Type 2 (a) Hat er schon damit aufgehört? (b) Hören Sie sofort damit aufl

Type 3 (a) weil er gestern damit aufgehört hat (b) statt sofort damit aufzuhören

The three types of bracket construction in German are as follows:

Type 1: The opening bracket is formed by the finite verb, which is always in finite verb second place after a single initial element (see 5.1.3). The closing SECOND bracket is usually another part of the verb, i.e. a separable prefix, an

infinitive or a past participle, although this is of course lacking in the simple tenses of simple verbs. This type is found:

Type 2: finite verb FIRST

Type 3: finite verb LAST

(a) in statements, including those where clauses are joined by und, aber, denn, oder and sondern

(b) in ß?A-questions: the initial element is always a question word such as was, wer, warum, welcher, etc.

The opening and closing brackets are formed by the same elements as in type 1, but the finite verb is the first element in the sentence. This type is found: (a) in yes/no questions (b) in commands The verb is also first in conditional clauses if the conjunction wenn is left out, see 4.5.4.

The opening bracket is formed by a conjunction or preposition and the closing bracket is formed by all parts of the verb. This type is found: (a) in subordinate clauses: here the opening bracket is a

conjunction (b) in infinitive clauses: the opening bracket may be one of the

prepositions ohne, (an)statt or urn but otherwise there is no word in this position.

This basic framework covers all German sentences in all registers; the only exception is that, especially in Rl, some element may follow the closing bracket (see 5.1.6).

5.1.2 The closing bracket

The closing bracket may be formed by more than one element. The order is then as follows:

R l = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

Closing bracket Full verb Auxiliary verb

Er hat es mir nicht sagen wollen Das ist mir doch gesagt worden Er wird es bald geschrieben haben . . . , ohne es mir gesagt zu haben

In subordinate clauses the finite verb usually follows all infinitives and participles:

Closing bracket Full verb Auxiliary verb Finite verb

. . . , weil er es mir nicht gesagt hat

. . . , weil er es mir nicht sagen will

. . . , weil es mir nicht gesagt worden ist

. . . , weil es mir nicht gesagt werden kann

. . . , weil er es bald geschrieben haben wird

There is one exception to this rule. If there are two infinitives at the end of the clause (e.g. in the compound tenses of modal verbs), then the finite verb comes before them:

Closing bracket Finite verb Full verb Auxiliary verb

. . . , weil er es mir hat sagen wollen

. . . , weil er es mir wird sagen müssen

5.1.3 The initial element in a main clause

It is an invariable rule of German that in main clause statements (i.e. type la clauses) one and only one element can occur before the finite verb which forms the opening bracket. This initial element can be a single word, a phrase or a subordinate clause:

Finite verb Initial element t Central elements ] Gestern haben wir hitzefrei gehabt Vor drei Tagen sind wir nach Ulm gefahren Als ich klein war, habe ich in Berlin gewohnt

Sometimes an interjection, a name or certain adverbs are placed before the initial element, usually separated by a comma. These are not really exceptions to the basic rule that the verb is the second element; they are simply too loosely linked to the rest of the sentence to be thought of as part of it. The most common of these apparent exceptions are:

(a) Interjections, exclamations, names, etc. e.g. ach, ja, nein, du liebe Zeit, Herr Kollege',

Ach, dort kommt sie! Mensch, das ist doch nicht wahr! Karl, du spielst auch, oder? Gut, das machen wir!

(b) Some linking adverbs or phrases, e.g. das heißt, weißt du, kurz (gesagt), mit anderen Worten:

Kurzum, er hat unrecht Wissen Sie, das hätte er mir doch gestern sagen können

(c) A few adverbs can occur initially with another element or be placed in their usual position in the clause. The commonest are: aber, also, allerdings, freilich, höchstens, immerhin, sozusagen, übrigens, wenigstens, e.g.: EITHER: Sonntag also kannst du nicht kommen

OR: Also kannst du Sonntag nicht kommen OR: Sonntag kannst du also nicht kommen

(d) Two elements can precede the verb if one simply extends the other. This is commonest with adverbs of time or place, e.g.:

Dort in der kleinen Dorfschule hat der Junge wenig gelernt Morgen u m zwei U h r kommt ihr Zug an

(e) Main clauses which begin with two or more elements are common in English. Apart from the few cases explained above, in the corresponding German sentences all but one of these elements will be shifted into a position between the brackets (with no commas), e.g.:

IDann ist er jedoch eingeschlafen Er ist dann jedoch eingeschlafen Jedoch ist er dann eingeschlafen

5.1.4 The use of initial position in German

In German main clause statements (type la in the table in 5.1.1), almost any element can occupy initial position. It is thereby given prominence as the 'topic' of the clause, about which some new information is given later on in the sentence. Very often it refers back to something just mentioned or is something well known to both speaker and listener. Time phrases are particularly common in this position.

This facility in German of using the initial position whilst keeping the basic construction of the clause intact is not shared by English, where the subject must come before the verb. In English the position of the subject is the only way we can tell that it is the subject, because, unlike German, the subject is not distinguished by having special endings (i.e. for the nominative case). As a result, things are often put in a different way in German compared to English; we have to use complicated constructions in order to manoeuvre an element into initial position to make it the topic of the clause if it is not the subject of the verb. The following examples show how German can cope with such shifts in emphasis within the basic bracket construction and has no need for the complex constructions which we often use in English.

Subject there/es In both English and German the subject can be moved out of initial position to give it more emphasis later in the clause, in which case it is replaced by there in English and es (or in Rl, da) in German, e.g.:

There was no-one ( Es hat niemand auf sie gewartet waiting for her l Da hat niemand auf sie gewartet (Rl)

On the other hand, German does not need to use this construction if there is another element which can be placed in initial position, e.g.:

There was no one waiting for her There are some pages missing in this book

There's no one there, though

Auf sie hat niemand gewartet In diesem Buch fehlen ein paar

Seiten Da ist doch niemand

have + participle In English we can shift something into initial position by making it the subject of to have; the 'real' verb of the sentence then becomes a participle. There is no need for this construction in German, where the elements are simply shifted within the basic construction, e.g.:

This book has some pages missing

They've had their windows smashed

The room next door has a student living in it

In diesem Buch fehlen ein paar Seiten

Ihnen wurden die Fenster eingeworfen

Im Zimmer nebenan wohnt ein Student

Passive A common reason for preferring a passive construction in English is to put what would normally be the object of the verb into initial position. This is usually unnecessary in German, where we can simply move the object and the subject round within the basic construction, e.g.:

These words must now be followed by deeds

They were being helped by the gipsies

Auf diese Worte müssen nun Taten folgen

Ihnen haben die Zigeuner geholfen

Cleft sentences An element can be shifted into initial position in English by putting it into a clause of its own, usually with it and the verb to be. These so-called 'cleft sentence' constructions are unnecessary in German; the relevant element simply goes into the initial position of the basic construction, e.g.:

It was only yesterday that I saw him Erst gestern habe ich ihn gesehen

It's that television I wanted to Über diesen Fernseher habe ich complain about mich beschweren wollen

It's what you do that counts Was man tut, zählt

There are many variations on this construction, all of which have simpler equivalents in German, e.g.:

That's the book I'm supposed to read Das Buch da soll ich lesen This is where she lives Dort wohnt sie That's the sort of man he is So einer ist er Autumn is when it's lovely here Im Herbst ist es hier schön

5.1.5 The central section of German clauses

Except for the initial element in type 1 clauses, all the words in a German clause come inside the bracket explained in 5.1.1, i.e. between the various parts of the verb. The relative order of these central elements is exactly the same for all clause types. The table on page 269 gives a rough guide to the most usual order of these elements. A more detailed explanation is given in (a)-(e) below.

(a) Pronouns We must distinguish:

(i) the personal pronouns: ich, dir, Ihnen, ihm, etc. (ii) the demonstratives: der, dieser, etc. used without a noun following.

The order is then:

(i) Personal pronouns come before demonstratives, e.g.:

[VERB1 pronoun demonstrative VERB2]

Gestern hat Möchten Hat

mich Sie er

der diese die

nicht gleich wohl

erkannt mitnehmen? gesehen?

(ii) Personal pronouns have the order: nominative-accusative-dative, e.g.:

[VERB1 nom acc dat VERB2]

Wann werden Sie es ihm geben? Wenn er sie Ihnen bringt,. . .

. . . . , statt es mir zu sagen

However, in Rl an unstressed 's can follow a dative pronoun, e.g.: Er will mir's nicht sagen The only exception to the rule that pronouns are always found immediately after the opening bracket is that a subject noun in the nominative can come before a pronoun, e.g.: EITHER: Gestern hat mein Mann ihn in der Stadt gesehen

OR: Gestern hat ihn mein Mann in der Stadt gesehen However, it is common in all registers for the pronoun to come first.

Adverbials and subject/object noun phrases Within the bracket, adverbials and subject/object noun phrases come immediately after the pronouns and before the complements. The table on page 269 shows the order in which they most commonly occur in relation to one another. It must be stressed, though, that this order is not an absolute rule of German grammar; much variation is permitted for reasons of emphasis. Basically, the more we want to stress one of these elements, the later it will come. Conversely, an element may be given less prominence by being placed earlier, e.g.: Das hat er dann seinem \

Vorgesetzten nach langem In the second sentence who he Zögern mitgeteilt I told is seen a more important

than the hesitation, and the dative object follows the adverb.

Das hat er dann nach langem Zögern seinem Vorgesetzten mitgeteilt

Der Lehrer hat nach der Pause When the action took place is less dem Jungen das Heft gegeben important, and the adverbial

precedes both objects. Die Tatsache, dass der EG What will run out is by far the unausweichlich 2004 das Geld most important piece of new ausgeht information, and thus the

subject comes last. Ich habe mir diesen neuen \ T , . . , , . . r r , , ~ In each case it is the second Anzug im Herbst gekauft I , , . , . . -, , , . . Tf i / phrase which is given the Ich habe mir im Herbst diesen

neuen Anzug gekauft greater emphasis.

Adverbials An adverbial is an optional element giving additional information about the circumstances of an action, i.e. how, when, where, etc. it took place. It is not dependent on the verb in the way that complements are. Adverbials can be:

(i) single words: schlecht, trotzdem, vorhin, gründlich, etc. (ii) noun phrases: den ganzen Tag, eines Abends, eine Weile, etc. (iii) preposition phrases: in der Kirche, zum Glück, ohne Zögern, am

Ende, etc.

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These differences in form do not affect word order in any way. The same form can have different functions, though, and its position changes accordingly, e.g.:

Verb complement dependent on the verb. It cannot be left out and is always the last element before the closing bracket (see (e) below):

Er wohnt seit drei Jahren in Frankfurt Phrase qualifying the preceding noun and placed immediately after it:

Im Römer in Frankfurt wurden die deutschen Kaiser gekrönt Adverbial giving extra information. It is in the usual position for adverbials:

Er möchte in Frankfurt Jura studieren

The table on page 269 shows that most adverbials - with the exception of adverbials of manner, which invariably come immediately before the complements - tend to come between the dative object and the accusative object, whether the adverbial is a single word such as trotzdem or a phrase such as voriges Jahr or in der Stadt. If there is more than one adverbial, they will most often appear in the order given in the table on page 272. However, this order, too, can be varied for emphasis; an adverbial can be stressed more or less by being placed later or earlier, e.g.:

Wir sollten zehn Minuten vor dem Bahnhof auf sie warten Wir sollten vor dem Bahnhof zehn Minuten auf sie warten Er hat ihr trotzdem gestern geschrieben Er hat ihr gestern trotzdem geschrieben Sie hat sehr lange dort gewartet Sie hat dort sehr lange gewartet

The position of nicht In general, nicht (and all other negatives, such as nie and kaum) comes after all adverbials except those of manner and after the accusative object, but before adverbials of manner and all complements, e.g.:

after place and time adverbials but before manner adverbials: Die Berliner haben gestern in Frankfurt nicht schlecht

gespielt Sie haben sich seit langem nicht mehr ausführlich unterhalten

after the accusative object: Er will mir das Kleid nicht kaufen Sie hat die Vase nicht zerbrochen

before all complements: Wir fahren morgen nicht ans Meer Er ist sicher nicht groß

The above guideline applies if nicht is understood to refer to the whole clause. With a change in emphasis, though, i.e. if a particular element

1 stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

in the sentence is to be negated, then nicht precedes it. In such instances there is usually an implied contrast with sondern, e.g.:

Er will mir nicht 'das Buch geben

Ich war nicht am 'Sonntag in der Stadt

Ich fahre nicht mit meinen 'Eltern nach Italien

not that book, but a different one

not on Sunday, but some other time

not with my parents, but perhaps with someone else

(e) Complements Complements are those elements which are most closely linked with the verb in a sentence (or 'governed' by it, see 4.1) and 'complete' its action in some way. With the exception of the subject and the accusative and dative objects, which have their own place in the clause (see above), they invariably come last, immediately before the closing bracket. The following list gives all the types of complement to which this rule applies:

(i) Genitive object (restricted to R3, see 4.1.3), e.g.: Das Gericht hat den Hausierer zu Unrecht des Diebstahls beschuldigt

(ii) Prepositional object (see 4.1.4), e.g.: . . . , weil sich die Mutter nun um ihre beiden Kinder kümmern wird

(iii) Phrases of place after verbs expressing position, e.g. bleiben, wohnen, sitzen, stehen, liegen, sich befinden (R3), sich aufhalten (R3), e.g.:

Warum willst du unter keinen Umständen in Würzburg wohnen?

(iv) Direction phrases after verbs of motion, e.g.: Dann hat Peter den Stein in den Bach geworfen Ich will schnell mit dem Auto in die Stadt fahren

(v) Nominative noun phrases and adjectives after the verbs sein, werden, bleiben, scheinen, heißen, e.g.:

Immerhin ist Hans-Jürgen längere Zeit der beste Schüler gewesen

Hedwig ist in den letzten Jahren sehr groß geworden (vi) The noun portion of phrasal verbs, e.g.:

Der Betriebsrat hat uns gestern davon in Kenntnis gesetzt

5.1.6 Can anything follow the closing bracket?

It is by no means an absolute rule of German that the verb has to go right to the end of the clause, i.e. that a sentence (or clause) must end with the closing bracket. This has never been the case in Rl, but so-called Ausklammerung (i.e. putting some element after the

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closing bracket) has recently become common in R2 and R3. Nevertheless, there are limitations on what can follow the closing bracket, as follows.

(a) Some elements are rarely enclosed within the bracket in any register. These include: (i) Subordinate clauses. In particular, constructions where a number of clauses are enclosed within one another (the so-called Schachtelsatz), with a cluster of verbs at the end, are now avoided, even in R3a:

NOT: Mein Vater, der selten, obwohl er immer zeitig aufstand, frühstückte, aß an dem Tag vier Butterbrote

RATHER: Mein Vater, der selten frühstückte, obwohl er immer zeitig aufstand, aß an dem Tag vier Butterbrote To achieve this, even a relative clause can be separated from the noun it refers to:

NOT: Else hatte dem Fremden, dem sie am Tag vorher mittellos auf dem Paradeplatz begegnet war, geholfen

RATHER: Else hatte dem Fremden geholfen, dem sie am Tag vorher mittellos auf dem Paradeplatz begegnet war (ii) Infinitive clauses are not enclosed unless they consist merely of the simple zu + infinitive, and even this is only common in R3:

Er fing zu weinen an (R3) Er fing an zu weinen NOT: Er hat eine kleine Atempause zu machen beschlossen RATHER: Er hat beschlossen, eine kleine Atempause zu machen

(iii) Comparative phrases with als or wie are never enclosed, e.g.: . . . , wo wir uns bewegten wie Tiere auf der Wildbahn Gestern hat es mehr geschneit als heute

(b) Less regular, but still common, is the postponement of prepositional phrases of any kind or, in Rl only, of any adverbial. (i) In Rl, a prepositional phrase or an adverbial may follow the closing bracket, either as an afterthought or to emphasize it, e.g.:

Du hast ihn doch gestern gesehen in der Stadt (Rl) Der wird doch nix lernen bei dem Lehrer da (Rl)

(ii) Especially in written R3, a long prepositional phrase may be postponed in order not to make the bracket construction too long, or if a further clause depends on it, e.g.:

Diese Aufgabe kann nun gelöst werden auf der Grundlage eines einheitlichen Systems des Bildungswesens (R3b)

Von dieser Höhe aus konnte er wenig sehen von der kleinen Stadt, die am anderen Ufer im Dunst lag (R3a)

5.2 Alternatives to subordinate clauses

A characteristic feature of modern German is a tendency not to use subordinating constructions if alternatives are available. This varies from register to register, i.e.:

Rl: main clauses used predominantly. R2: some subordination, but each main clause will rarely have more

than one subordinate clause dependent on it. R3a: fairly free use of subordinate clauses, but complex sentences

with numerous such clauses are still less frequent than in English. R3b: little subordination and a clear preference for phrases with

verbal nouns instead.

The texts in 1.6 illustrate how the extent of subordination varies with register, but English uses subordinate clauses in all registers much more readily than German. This means that, if English learners of German express themselves in German using the main and subordinate clause constructions which sound most natural in English, their German can sound rather forced, artificial and foreign.

It is difficult to give any hard and fast rules for this. Subordinate clauses are not ungrammatical in German; they are simply used less, and other constructions often sound much more natural. For this reason it is important for English-speaking learners to be aware of possibilities of expressing themselves in German through main clauses or noun phrases - rather than through the subordinate clauses which may often appear to be the nearest equivalent to the corresponding English sentence.

Examples of these possibilities are given in the following sections. However, the possibilities are endless and the list cannot hope to be exhaustive.

5.2.1 Alternatives to relative clauses

The main alternatives to relative clauses include the use of extended epithets (esp R3b), compounds (esp R3b) and simple main clauses (esp Rl).

Subordinate clause construction Alternative

das Gebiet, das an Bodenschätzen das an Bodenschätzen reiche reich is t , . . . Gebie t . . . (R3b)

das Gebiet, an Bodenschätzen re ich , . . . (R3)

Rl = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

Subordinate clause construction Alternative

ein Ereignis, das das Leben ein lebensbedrohendes bedroht,... Ereignis . . . (R3b)

Die Stahlarbeiter, die um ihre Die um ihre eigenen eigenen Arbeitsplätze fürchten, Arbeitsplätze fürchtenden wollen nicht streiken Stahlarbeiter wollen nicht

streiken (R3b)

Ich bemerkte den Mann, der Ich habe den Mann bemerkt, neben meiner Frau saß der hat neben meiner Frau

gesessen (Rl)

Techniken, durch die Abgase Abgasreinigungstechniken... gereinigt werden, (R3b)

Techniken zur Reinigung von Abgasen . . . (R3b)

ein Formular, in dem ein Auftrag ein Auftragsbestätigungs-bestätigt wird formular (R3b)

5.2.2 Alternatives to noun clauses with dass or wie and infinitive clauses

Especially in R3b, verbal nouns (often compounded) are used as an alternative to noun clauses with dass or wie and infinitive phrases. Rl often uses main clause constructions if possible.

Subordinate clause construction Alternative

Vorschläge, wie das Vorschläge zur Neugestaltung herkömmliche Jurastudium neu des herkömmlichen gestaltet werden kann Jurastudiums (R3b)

Sie haben dagegen protestiert, dass zwanzig Zechen stillgelegt werden sollen

Sie haben gegen die geplante Stilllegung von zwanzig Zechen protestiert (R3b)

Zwanzig Zechen sollen stillgelegt werden, und dagegen haben sie protestiert (Rl)

Subordinate clause construction contd

Er bestreitet, an dieser Demonstration teilgenommen zu haben

Er bestreitet, dass er an dieser Demonstration teilgenommen habe

Alternative contd

Er bestreitet die Teilnahme an dieser Demonstration (R3b)

5.2.3 Alternatives to other subordinate clauses

It is worth knowing some common alternatives to subordinating constructions with other conjunctions:

Subordinate clause construction Alternative

als Als sie hinausging, bemerkte sie einen roten Schein in der Ferne

Beim Hinausgehen bemerkte sie einen roten Schein in der Ferne (R3)

Sie ging hinaus, und da bemerkte sie einen roten Schein in der Ferne (R1/R2)

als dass Das Wasser ist zu kalt, als dass man da baden könnte (R3)

Das Wasser ist zu kalt, da kann man nicht baden (R1/R2)

als ob (see 4.5.5) Es sieht aus, als ob es in der Nacht geschneit hätte

Es sieht aus, als hätte es in der Nacht geschneit (R2/R3)

außer wenn Ich gehe spazieren, außer wenn es stark regnet

Ich gehe spazieren, außer es regnet stark (Rl)

bevor Bevor er einschlief, hat er den Brief gelesen

Er hat den Brief vor dem Einschlafen gelesen

Er schlief ein, aber vorher hatte er noch den Brief gelesen

d a m i t / u m . . . zu Wir machen es immer so, damit Missverständnisse vermieden werden

Zur Vermeidung von Missverständnissen machen wir es immer so (R3b)

Wir machen es immer so, um Missverständnisse zu vermeiden

Wir machen es immer so; so können wir auch Missverständnisse vermeiden

5.2 Alternatives to subordinate clauses 277

Subordinate clause construction Alternative

dadurch, . . . dass/indem

Sie verrieten ihre Ziele dadurch, dass sie die demokratischen Institutionen missachteten (R3)

Sie verrieten ihre Ziele, indem sie die demokratischen Institutionen missachteten (R3)

Sie verrieten ihre Ziele durch ihre Missachtung der demokratischen Institutionen (R3b)

nachdem Nachdem er Monate lang gewartet hatte, erhielt er die Nachricht von seinem Erfolg

Nach monatelangem Warten erhielt er die Nachricht von seinem Erfolg (R3)

Nachdem ich den Brief geschrieben hatte, ging ich im Park spazieren

Ich schrieb den Brief und ging dann im Park spazieren

obwohl Obwohl er alt ist, geht er jeden Sonntag im Wald spazieren

Trotz seines Alters geht er jeden Sonntag im Wald spazieren (R3)

Er ist zwar alt, aber er geht jeden Sonntag im Wald spazieren Er ist schon alt, trotzdem geht er jeden Sonntag im Wald spazieren

ohne dass/ o h n e . . . zu

Er hat jahrelang studiert, ohne dass er jemals ein Hauptseminar belegt hätte (R3)

Er hat jahrelang studiert, ohne jemals ein Hauptseminar belegt zu haben

Er hat jahrelang studiert und hat nie ein Hauptseminar belegt (Rl)

Sie ging in die Stadt, ohne dass er es wüsste (R3)

Sie ging ohne sein Wissen in die Stadt

Sie ist in die Stadt gegangen, und er hat nichts davon gewusst (Rl)

seit(dem) Er hinkt, seitdem er vom Fahrrad gestürzt ist

Er hinkt seit seinem Sturz vom Fahrrad

Er ist vom Fahrrad gestürzt, und seitdem hinkt er (Rl)

278 5 Syntax and word order

Subordinate clause construction contd Alternative contd

so dass Er stand mitten im Gang, so dass keiner vorbeikommen konnte

Er stand mitten im Gang, also konnte keiner vorbeikommen (Rl)

während Während er in Marburg studierte, hat er immer den evangelischen Gottesdienst besucht

Während seines Studiums in Marburg hat er immer den evangelischen Gottesdienst besucht (R3)

weil Hier gibt es eine Umleitung, weil die Marienkirche restauriert wird

Hier gibt es eine Umleitung, die Marienkirche wird nämlich restauriert (Rl)

Wegen der Restaurierung der Marienkirche gibt es hier eine Umleitung (R3b)

Hier gibt es eine Umleitung, denn die Marienkirche wird restauriert (R2/R3)

Die Marienkirche wird restauriert, deshalb gibt es hier eine Umleitung

wenn Wenn man diese Zeitschrift regelmäßig bezieht, erhält man viele Sonderangebote

Beim regelmäßigen Bezug dieser Zeitschrift erhält man viele Sonderangebote (R3b)

Bezieht man diese Zeitschrift regelmäßig, dann erhält man viele Sonderangebote (R3)

Wenn der Dollar nochmals aufgewertet würde, so würde das zu einer schweren Krise fuhren

Eine nochmalige Aufwertung des Dollars würde zu einer schweren Krise fuhren (R3b)

Wir werden es schon schaffen, wenn wir auch wenig Hilfe

Wir werden es schon schaffen, allerdings können wir wenig

erwarten können Hilfe erwarten (Rl) Wir werden es zwar schaffen, aber wir können wenig Hilfe erwarten

Wir können wenig Hilfe erwarten, aber wir werden es trotzdem schaffen

5.2.4 Adverbials rather than clauses

(a) In many cases German can use an adverbial construction or a subordinate clause where English generally uses a clause. In general the German constructions on the left, with adverbials, sound more idiomatic.

Das ist allerdings richtig Ich muss zugeben, dass das richtig ist

I have to admit that this is correct Er wird allmählich (Rl Er beginnt ungeduldig zu werden

langsam) ungeduldig He is beginning to get impatient

Er ist angeblich krank Er behauptet, dass er krank ist He claims to be ill

Er ist anscheinend nicht Es scheint, dass er nicht gekommen gekommen ist

He seems not to have come Hast du auch deine Socken Bist du sicher, dass du deine

eingepackt? Socken eingepackt hast? Are you sure you *ve packed your socks?

Wir können Ihnen Wir bedauern, dass wir Ihnen bedauerlicherweise nicht nicht weiter behilflich sein weiter behilflich sein (R3b) können

We regret that we can be of no further assistance to you Er ist bekanntlich ein Es ist bekannt, dass er ein

hervorragender Physiker hervorragender Physiker ist Everyone knows that he is an outstanding physicist

Hier können Sie beliebig lange Hier können Sie so lange bleiben, bleiben wie Sie wollen

You can stay here as long as you wish Thomas kommt bestimmt mit Ich bin sicher, dass Thomas

mitkommt Vm sure Thomas is coming with us

Es ist freilich nicht einfach Man muss zugeben, dass es nicht einfach ist

It must be admitted that it isn yt easy Gegebenenfalls kann man auch Wenn es nötig sein sollte, kann eine andere Taste wählen man auch eine andere Taste

wählen If the need should arise, another key may be chosen

Hoffentlich erreicht er die Ich hoffe, dass er die Hütte vor Hütte vor Sonnenuntergang Sonnenuntergang erreicht

I hope he reaches the cabin before sunset Sie kann leider nicht kommen Ich furchte, dass sie nicht

kommen kann I'm afraid she can't come

Meiner Meinung nach ist er Ich meine, dass er dazu kaum dazu kaum fähig fähig ist

I think that he is hardly capable of it Er kommt möglicherweise noch Es ist möglich, dass er noch vor

vor dem Abendessen dem Abendessen kommt It is possible that he will come before dinner

Die Firma stellt diese Ersatzteile Die Firma hat aufgehört, diese nicht mehr her Ersatzteile herzustellen

The firm has ceased/stopped making these spare parts Alle Passagiere sind vermutlich Man vermutet, dass alle ums Leben gekommen Passagiere ums Leben

gekommen sind It is presumed that all the passengers lost their lives

Er hat wohl keine Lust dazu Ich nehme an, dass er keine Lust dazu hat

I imagine/suppose he doesn *t want to Zweifellos ist dieses Jahr die Es besteht kein Zweifel darüber, Ernte besser als letztes Jahr dass dieses Jahr die Ernte besser

ist als letztes Jahr There is no doubt that the harvest is better this year than last

In some cases a German adverbial is the only natural idiomatic equivalent for an English verb.

Er hat andauernd gelacht Es wird bestimmt regnen Sie stört mich dauernd Im Sommer spielt er gern Tennis

Sind Sie mit dem Lesen fertig? Er hat früher im Garten

gearbeitet Sie zieht sich gern/oft extravagant an

Er arbeitet abends gewöhnlich im Garten

Jetzt sehe ich ein, dass ich mich geirrt habe

He kept on laughing It is sure to rain She keeps (on) disturbing me He likes playing tennis in the summer

Have you finished reading? He used to work in the garden

She tends to dress extravagantly

He tends to work in the garden in the evenings

I have come to realize I was wrong

Im Winter spielt er lieber Handball

Er kam nicht rechtzeitig an Sei ja/nur pünktlich! Nimm dir ruhig noch etwas zu

trinken Er las weiter Ich habe sie zufallig in der

Straßenbahn gesehen

He prefers playing handball in the winter

He failed to arrive on time Mind you're on time! Don 9t be afraid to help yourself to

another drink He continued to read I happened/chanced to see her in

the tram

5.2.5 Other alternatives to subordinate clauses

(a) Some modal verb constructions correspond to more elaborate constructions in English (see also 4.6), e.g.:

Wir dürfen hier nicht so viel Lärm machen

Man muss nicht so fest ziehen Ich soll den Brief morgen

schreiben Er soll bleich geworden sein Dieses Zeugnis soll uns helfen Sie soll eine Fünf in Latein gekriegt haben

Du sollst das Licht ausmachen Es sollte ein Geschenk sein Er will es ihr erzählt haben

We're not allowed to make so much noise here

It is not necessary to pull so hard I'm supposed to write the letter

tomorrow People say that he went quite pale This certificate is intended to help us I've heard that she got a five in

Latin I want you to switch off the light It was meant to be a present He claims to have told her

(b) Especially in R3, German often uses adjectives and participles as nouns where a full clause is needed in English.

Die Farbe dieser Vögel war das für mich Interessante

Er hat sich über das Gesagte aufgeregt

Sie hat das Übrige kaum beachtet

Er wollte die Ankommenden begrüßen

Das Erschreckende an diesem Vorfall war seine scheinbare Unabwendbarkeit

The colour of these birds was what interested me

He got annoyed about what had been said

She hardly paid attention to what remained

He wanted to welcome the people who were arriving

What was terrifying about this occurrence was its apparent inevitability

Where emphasis can be given in English by the use of cleft sentences with two clauses, German almost always prefers a single main clause construction, using the initial position to give emphasis (see 5.1.4 for further details), e.g.:

It was there that we met This is the house (which) she lives in

(d)

Dort sind wir uns begegnet In diesem Haus wohnt sie

Klar will er nicht mitmachen It's obvious that he won yt join in

English often uses to do to repeat the idea of a previous verb. German does not use tun in this way but prefers constructions without a verb at all.

Ein Gebiet, das alle Tiere meiden, nur die Vogel nicht

Ich schreibe genau wie meine Mutter

Er fühlt sich jetzt besser als gestern

An area which all animals avoid and only the birds do not

I write just like my mother does

He feels better now than he did yesterday

5.3 The present participle in German and English

The English ing-iovm (sometimes called 'present participle' or 'gerund') appears to correspond to the German present participle in -end, e.g. lachend, lesend, sterbend, etc. However, it is used far less often than the English ing-form, and English-speaking learners of German need to know when present participles can occur in German -and when German prefers to use other constructions.

5.3.1 The use of the German present participle

• The German present participle is used most often simply as an adjective or an adverb; this is found in all registers, e.g.:

die schreienden Vögel das kochende Wasser die streikenden Arbeiter das laufende Jahr überraschend schnell überzeugend dargestellt

• Like all adjectives, it can be used as a noun (mainly R3), e.g.:

der Hinkende etwas Erschreckendes

Rl = spoken colloquial

Rl* = vulgar R2 = neutral R3 = formal R3a = literary R3b = non-literary (see 1.1.5)

It can be used with zu to make an adjective from an infinitive (typically R3b), e.g.: das abzufertigende Gepäck die zu schreibenden Briefe It can be compounded with a noun (most often in R3), e.g.: von atemberaubender die fußballspielenden Jungen

Schönheit die Arbeitssuchenden die Zuspätkommenden The use of extended adjectives with a present participle is characteristic of R3b, e.g.: diese von den vorgeschriebenen Normen abweichende

Aufmachung A few present participles have become true adjectives and can even be used after sein, sometimes with a change in meaning. The most common are:

abstoßend abwesend ansteckend anstrengend anwesend auffallend aufregend bedeutend

beruhigend dringend drückend einleuchtend empörend entscheidend glühend reizend

rührend spannend überzeugend umfassend verblüffend verlockend zwingend

Note that there are very few of these. English speakers must beware of confusing them with the ing-forms of the progressive tenses. Only the above are real adjectives and can be used after the verb sein, e.g.:

ein überzeugendes Argument das Argument ist überzeugend

Compare the above with:

die fehlenden Seiten die Seiten fehlen

a convincing argument the argument is convincing

the missing pages the pages are missing

A sentence like *die Seiten sind fehlend is not possible, since fehlend is not an adjective and present participles are not used in German to form progressive tenses. A present participle can be used in isolation, most commonly in R3:

Er antwortete mir lachend Die Kinder strömten singend durch die Gassen

Phrases with present participles are sometimes to be found, e.g.: Ich saß, meine Puppe auf den Knien haltend, zwischen meinen Eltern am großen Tisch

Using present participles in German like this is limited to R3a and, although it is not uncommon there, there are complex restrictions on when it can be used, and English students are best advised not to imitate it but instead to use one of the alternative constructions detailed in 5.3.2.

5.3.2 German equivalents of English in^-form constructions

As the German present participle is used almost exclusively as an adjective or an adverb (see 5.3.1), the German equivalents for the many constructions possible with the English wg-form need to be mastered. The possibilities are almost endless, and only the most common are illustrated below. In many instances, some registers of German may prefer alternatives without subordinate clauses, the details of which are given in 5.2.

(a) ing-form qualifying a noun

German usually uses a relative clause or, especially in R3b, an extended adjective: The passengers waiting to be Die Reisenden, die auf Einlass

admitted were becoming warteten, wurden ungeduldig impatient

The steel-workers, fearing for Die um ihre eigenen their own jobs, did not want to Arbeitsplätze fürchtenden strike Stahlarbeiter wollten nicht

streiken (R3b)

(b) mg-form expressing simultaneous actions or attendant circumstances

AU = Austrian CH = Swiss N = North NE = North East NW = North West S = South SE = South East SW = South West (see 1.2.3)

The commonest German equivalent in all registers is simple main clauses joined by und, possibly with dabei to stress the link. Note that in modern German a clause with indem is not found in these contexts. He gazed into the book, biting his

up He would sit watching her for

hours She turned round, her heart beating with joy

Er starrte in das Buch und biss sich (dabei) auf die Lippe

Er saß oft stundenlang da und sah ihr zu

Sie drehte sich um, und dabei klopfte ihr das Herz vor Freude

If the English sentence begins with a phrase with an wg-form, a clause with als or wenn may be possible in German if the actions are simultaneous:

Als wir zum Fenster hinausschauten, sahen wir den Polizisten

Wir schauten zum Fenster hinaus und sahen den Polizisten

Depending on the sense of the English phrase, other conjunctions may be appropriate in German: It being late, they decided to take

a taxi

Looking out of the window, we saw the policeman

Standing on top of the tower you can see both the streets

Having changed the wheel, he set off

Finding the door open, I nevertheless rang the bell

Da es schon spät war, beschlossen sie, ein Taxi zu nehmen

Wenn man oben auf dem Turm steht, kann man die beiden Straßen sehen

Nachdem er das Rad gewechselt hatte, fuhr er los

Obwohl ich die Tür offen fand, klingelte ich

ing-iovms used as nouns

The German equivalent for these is most commonly a dto-clause, an infinitive clause with zu or, especially in R3b (see 5.2), a verbal noun:

Es ist wichtig aufmerksam

Attentive listening is important

He admitted having broken the window

zuzuhören Es ist wichtig, dass man

aufmerksam zuhört Aufmerksames Zuhören k ist wichtig (R3b) Er gab zu, dass er das Fenster zerbrochen hatte

Er gab zu das Fenster zerbrochen zu haben

Entering the operating-theatre is Das Betreten des Operationsaals forbidden

I can't imagine her selling her ring

the art of writing

ist verboten (R3b) Ich kann es mir nicht

vorstellen, dass sie ihren Ring verkauft

die Kunst des Schreibens

Where a verb (or noun or adjective) takes a preposition, the same options are available in German, but the rf^ss-clause or infinitive clause will usually be anticipated by the adverb da(r) + preposition. (More details about this construction are given in 4.1.5.)

Ich erinnere mich nicht

I don't remember having met her

their objection to entering the hall of the temple

(daran), ihr begegnet zu sein

Ich erinnere mich nicht (daran), dass ich ihr

\ begegnet bin (ihr Einwand dagegen, die

Tempelhalle zu betreten ]ihr Einwand gegen das

Betreten der Tempelhalle

(d) iwg-form after prepositions

by

on

by + wg-form: a common equivalent is a clause with dadurch .. ., dass or indem, or durch followed by a verbal noun, e.g.:

Wir konnten ihr dadurch helfen, dass wir den Termin verschoben

Wir konnten ihr helfen, indem wir den Termin verschoben

Wir konnten ihr durch eine Verschiebung des Termins helfen

We were able to help her by postponing the deadline

on + ing-form: a common equivalent is a clause with als or wenn, or beim followed by a verbal noun, e.g.:

(Als sie den Brief las, wurde sie rot On reading the letter she blushed {Beim Lesen des Briefes wurde sie

l rot

for for + wg-form: a common equivalent is (um)... zu, or zu followed by a verbal noun, e.g.:

(Sie hat keine Zeit mehr, (um) zu She no longer has any time for practising

They use them for drinking beer out of

\ üben VSie hat keine Zeit mehr zum Üben Sie benutzen sie, um daraus Bier zu

trinken

with with + ing-form: there are various possible types of equivalent for this, e.g.: She stood in the hall with Sie stand im Flur, und Tränen liefen tears Streaming down her ibr (dabei) über das Gesicht face

The proposal was accepted with France voting against

We could see the old town with the castle towering over it

With unemployment increasing even in Germany, we can expect little improvement in the other European countries

It's lovely here in autumn, with the leaves turning

With enemy troops approaching from the East, the position is hopeless

Der Vorschlag wurde akzeptiert, wobei Frankreich dagegen stimmte

Wir sahen die alte Stadt, über die das Schloss emporragte

Mit dem Anstieg der Arbeitslosigkeit auch in Deutschland können wir wenig Verbesserung in den übrigen europäischen Ländern erwarten

Da die Arbeitslosigkeit auch in Deutschland gestiegen ist, können wir wir wenig Verbesserung in den übrigen europäischen Ländern

i erwarten Es ist im Herbst hier schön, wenn die Blätter sich verfärben

Jetzt, wo sich die feindlichen Truppen von Osten nähern, ist die Lage hoffnungslos

(e) Other miscellaneous instances with verbs

see, hear, feel We saw them approaching |

He felt his heart beating J wildly ]

They heard the boys crying for help

fWir sahen, wie sie näher kamen tWir sahen sie näher kommen (R3) [Er fühlte, wie sein Herz heftig 1 schlug | Er fühlte sein Herz heftig schlagen 1 (R3) Sie hörten, wie die Jungen um Hilfe schrieen

Sie hörten die Jungen um Hilfe k schreien (R3)

keep We were kept waiting Man ließ uns warten

leave She left her things lying Sie ließ ihre Sachen herumliegen about

288 5 Syntax and word order

have I have a coat hanging in the Ich habe einen Mantel im Schrank closet hängen

go We went sailing Wir sind segeln gegangen

come They came running towards Sie kamen auf uns zugelaufen us

6 Spelling and punctuation

German spelling and punctuation are markedly more consistent than English, but some of the rules are quite different, and the most important differences are explained in this chapter. An important distinction from English is that spelling and punctuation are set down officially for the German-speaking countries on the basis of agreements between the countries involved, and not simply left to the compilers of dictionaries and guides to style, and these official rulings (including those for the placement of commas) are taught systematically in schools, with considerable attention paid to correctness in all respects.

A uniform official spelling for German was only finally established just over a hundred years ago, and many people came to feel that the rulings made then still left some unnecessary inconsistencies and anomalies. For this reason, the countries where German is used as an official language agreed in 1994/95 on a set of reforms which began to be introduced in 1996. For a transitional period the old and the new spellings are permitted, but from 2005 only the new spellings will be regarded as correct. This spelling reform has been immensely controversial and generated much vociferous opposition. Although most books and newspapers now published have gone over to the new rules, not all are using them fully and consistently, and it is by no means certain whether the target date of 2005 for the abandonment of the old rules will be held to. Most people who grew up with the old rules are still keeping to them for private and business correspondence, and there seems to be considerable variation in practice even in schools. In late 2002 opinion polls reported that only 10 per cent of German speakers accepted the new rulings and used them consistently. It is quite possible that both systems (and mixtures of them) will continue to co-exist for many years yet.

In this book, the new rulings have been adhered to consistently throughout, with the exception of certain texts in 1.6 which were published before the new rules were introduced. Foreign learners of German (and their teachers) are best advised to adopt the new rulings consistently for their own usage (they are in many ways much simpler, particularly in respect of punctuation). In this section we set out the main features of the new rulings, pointing out the most important differences to previous practice.

6.1 Spelling

6.1.1 Capital letters

It is a basic rule of German that every noun is written with an initial capital letter. However, there are a few areas of uncertainty and variation, although the intention of the revised spelling rules is to extend the use of capitals to all cases where there may have been doubt.

(a) Other parts of speech used as nouns have a capital letter, e.g.: das Entweder-Oder das Ich eine Fünf das Warten das Für und Wider das Zögern This is in particular the case with adjectives used as nouns (see 3.4.4),

There are a few (mainly apparent) exceptions to this rule: (i) A small letter is used for an adjective if a preceding or following

noun is understood, e.g.: Die grüne Bluse gefällt mir nicht, ich nehme die rote Es ist sicher das schnellste von diesen drei Autos

(ii) Superlatives with am have a small letter, e.g. am schnellsten. In the revised spelling superlatives with aufs can be spelled with a small or a capital letter, e.g. aufs heftigste or aufs Heftigste.

(iii) ander and beide always have small letters, even where it would appear that they are being used as nouns, e.g. etwas anderes, diese beiden.

Under the old spelling rules there were many occasional exceptions to the rule that all nouns should have capital letters, in particular in respect of set phrases like im allgemeinen 'in general' or im voraus 'in advance', and number words like das erste, das nächste, das letzte, etc. Most of these exceptions have been eliminated under the revised spelling, and capitals are to be used consistently, e.g.: im Allgemeinen im Klaren sein des Öfteren das Erste das Letzte im Voraus als Erstes das Nächste However, small letters are still to be used in a number of idiomatic expressions where we are not dealing with distinct nouns. The most frequent are:

e.g.: der Alte alles Angenehme ein Bekannter

das schon Gesagte etwas Neues nichts Schlimmes

bei weitem by far durch dick und dünn through thick and thin gegen bar for cash ohne weiteres without thinking schwarz auf weiß in black and white seit langem for a long time über kurz oder lang sooner or later von klein auf from childhood von nah und fern from near and far von weitem from afar

(b) A few nouns in set phrases have small letters, in particular in the following indefinite expressions of number: ein bisschen ein paar (see 2.2.1) The number of these has been much reduced in the revised spelling, and most nouns in set phrases are now spelled with a capital, e.g.: außer Acht lassen, Recht haben. In practice, a small letter is now to be used only in very few instances, i.e. the above expressions of number and nouns in phrases with the verb sein, e.g.: ihr ist angst er ist schuld daran das ist schade ich bin es leid

(c) Nouns used as time adverbs generally have small letters, e.g.: abends morgens vormittags anfangs sonntags zurzeit beizeiten tagsüber zuzeiten derzeit von morgens bis abends

However, under the revised spelling rules: (i) nouns indicating periods of the day used with gestern, heute and

morgen are spelled with a capital letter, e.g.: gestern Morgen heute Vormittag morgen Abend

(ii) nouns indicating a period of the day have a small letter when used with days of the week (or can be written together with them), e.g.: Dienstag mittag OR Dienstagmittag

(iii) -mal can be compounded with numerals, e.g. einmal 'once', dreimal 'three times', hundertmal 'a hundred times' and in two or three other phrases, i.e. diesmal 'this time', ein paarmal 'a few times', ein andermal 'another time'. In all other contexts Mai is written as a separate word and given a capital letter, e.g.: das erste Mal jedes Mal zum ersten Mal

Compounds like das erstemal, jedesmal are no longer used.

(d) Adjectives of nationality are spelled with a small letter when they are used as adjectives or adverbs. This contrasts with usage in English, e.g.:

das deutsche Volk the German people ein britisches Schiff a British ship italienische Weine Italian wines russische Lieder Russian songs Der Minister hat mit ihr deutsch gesprochen Redet sie jetzt deutsch oder niederländisch? However, they have capital letters when used as nouns to refer to the language, e.g.: Er kann kein Wort Deutsch Das ist (kein) gutes Deutsch Sie spricht / kann / liest (kein) Deutsch Das Buch ist in Deutsch und Englisch erschienen Under the revised spelling rules this also applies to usage after the preposition auf, e.g.: auf Deutsch, auf Englisch in German, in English

(e) Nouns which have become prepositions have small letters, e.g.: angesichts kraft mittels statt trotz

(f) As in English, capitals are used for titles and proper names, e.g.: das Deutsche Eck die Olympischen Spiele der Heilige Abend der Rote Milan Karl der Fünfte das Schwarze Meer die Lange Gasse der Stille Ozean die Letzte Ölung

However, adjectives in idiomatic combinations which are not names of unique things are spelled with a small letter, e.g.: die erste Hilfe first aid die goldene Hochzeit golden wedding das schwarze Brett the notice board der schwarze Markt the black market Adjectives from proper names ending in -sch or -sch are written with small letters under the revised spelling rules: das elisabethanische Drama das ohmsche Gesetz

(g) The pronoun Sie and its forms (Ihr, Ihnen, etc.) always have capitals. In letters, the pronouns du, ihr and their forms (dich, euch, dein, etc.) are no longer to be written with capitals under the revised spelling. This ruling is being widely ignored.

6.1.2 One word or two?

The general principle of German spelling is that compound words are written as a single word if they are felt to express a single idea (even if

' stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark

the resulting words can be quite long). If, on the other hand, the individual words are still felt to retain full meaning, they are written separately. The word stress often gives a clue to this, as a true compound only has one main stress, whereas separate words are still stressed independently. Compare the following: 'gut 'schreiben to write well 'gutschreiben to credit 'so 'weit so far 'soweit on the whole There has always been considerable uncertainty about how to apply this principle, and the revised spelling rules have attempted (not always successfully) to eliminate some of the more troublesome inconsistencies. The general principle of the revised spelling rules is to prefer spelling as separate words in cases of uncertainty. The rest of this section gives details on some of the main areas of difficulty and the major changes prescribed by the revised spelling rules.

(a) Separable and other compound verbs Separable verbs are normally written as a single word when the prefix is not at the end of the clause, e.g. ankommen, angekommen, anzukommen, wenn sie ankommt. However, there are some exceptions and uncertainties in respect of this ruling.

• Combinations of a noun with a verb are written consistently as separate words. The noun has a capital letter:

Not tun to be necessary Rad fahren to cycle Ski laufen to ski Weh tun to hurt

Acht geben to pay attention Eis laufen to skate Halt machen to stop Leid tun to be sorry Maß halten to be moderate However, some nouns are taken to have lost their full meaning in combination with a verb, i.e.: heim- irre- preis- stand- statt- teil- wett- wunder-These are seen as separable prefixes and written together with the verb, e.g.: heimgehen to go home stattfinden to take place irreführen to mislead teilnehmen to participate preisgeben to expose wettmachen to make up for standhalten to stand firm wundernehmen to surprise Combinations of an adjective, an adverb, an infinitive or a participle with a verb are normally written as separate words, e.g.: anheim fallen to fall victim to liegen bleiben to remain lying durcheinander bringen to muddle up nahe legen to suggest fallen lassen to drop gefangen nehmen to take captive kennen lernen to get to know leicht machen to make sth easy

spazieren gehen to go for a walk stehen bleiben to stop übrig bleiben to be left over verloren gehen to be lost

However, adjectives and adverbs are seen as forming fixed idiomatic combinations with the verb and written together with it if they cannot be used in the comparative or with sehr without changing the meaning. For example, fernsehen 'to watch television' is regarded as a single idea, because ich sehe sehr fern can only have the literal meaning of 'I am looking a long way'. Similarly: bereithalten to have ready gutschreiben to credit bloßstellen to show up schwarzarbeiten to moonlight festsetzen to fix totschlagen to kill Combinations with the verb sein are always written as separate words, e.g.: da sein to be there inne sein to be conscious of los sein to be up vorbei sein to be past zufrieden sein to be satisfied zurück sein to be back Compound verbs which are only used in the form of the infinitive and/or the past participle, like brustschwimmen 'to swim breast-stroke' and seiltanzen 'to walk the tightrope' are always written as a single word. These verbs tend to have specialized meanings and are especially frequent in R3b.

Combinations of prepositions with a noun These form adverbs or prepositions and they are written separately if the individual words are still felt to retain independent meanings. The noun has a capital letter, e.g.: mit Bezug auf with reference to zu Ende gehen to come to an end nach Hause gehen to go home in Kraft treten to come into effect Such combinations are written as single words if they are considered to be single entities, e.g.: beiseite to/on one side infolge as a result of inmitten in the middle of vonnöten necessary vorderhand for the present zurzeit at present Alternative forms are accepted in some set phrases where it is questionable whether the words involved retain their separate meanings or not, e.g.: anhand/an Hand on the basis of anstelle/an Stelle instead of

aufgrund/auf Grund on the basis of imstande/im Stande sein to be capable infrage/in Frage stellen to call into question mithilfe/mit Hilfe with the aid of zugrunde/zu Grunde gehen to perish zugunsten/zu Gunsten in favour of zumute/zu Mute sein to feel zustande/zu Stande bringen to manage zuwege/zu Wege bringen to manage

(c) Combinations of a noun or an adverb with an adjective or participle

• In principle these are written as separate words, with the noun being given a capital letter, e.g.: ein Aufsehen erregendes Ereignis die weit gehende Ubereinstimmung ein schwer beschädigter Wagen die Eisen verarbeitende Industrie die dicht bevölkerte Stadt ein hoch gelegener Ort

• Idiomatic combinations with an adjective (i.e. those where the meaning is not literally the sum of the parts) are written as a single word, e.g.: altmodisch old-fashioned schwerwiegend serious zeitraubend time-consuming

• Combinations with a noun which come from a phrase are written as a single word, e.g.: das bahnbrechende Werk (from: sich eine Bahn brechend) die staubbedeckten Bücher (from: mit Staub bedeckt)

(d) Other common forms ( i rgendso- , wie-, -viel, -wenig) • All compounds with irgend are spelled as one word under the revised

spelling rules, e.g.: irgendetwas something irgendjemand somebody irgendwo somewhere However, if another word intervenes, all are spelled separately, e.g. irgend so etwas.

• Combinations with so or wie are spelled as one word if they have a distinctive meaning, but separately if each word retains its own meaning, e.g.: sobald as soon as so bald so soon solange as long as so lange so long sooft as often as so oft so often

wieweit? to what extent? wie weit? how far, what distance? woanders elsewhere wo anders? where else? womöglich possibly wo möglich if possible NOTE: The conjunction sodass 'SO that' can alternatively be spelled as two words, i.e. so dass.

• Combinations with viel and wenig are all spelled with two words under the revised spelling, e.g. so viel, wie viel?, zu wenig, etc. However, as a conjunction, soviel is spelled as a single word, e.g. soviel ich weiß 'as far as I know'.

6.1.3 The use o f ß and ss

The letter ß (usually called scharfes s or eszet) is used universally, both in handwriting and printing, throughout Germany and Austria. However, it is not normally used in Switzerland, where only ss is usual and one sees, for example, Bahnhofstrasse rather than Bahnhofstraße. It is advisable for foreign learners to follow the majority practice and use ß where appropriate.

Originally,^ was only used as a small letter and not used in capitals, e.g. Straße, but STRASSE. However, it has become increasingly common to useß in capitals, too, e.g. STRAßE.

The ruling on the use o f ß and ss is probably the most obvious change brought about by the revised spelling rules, affecting the largest number of common words. The new rule is that, in the middle or at the end of a word:

(a) ß is used after a long vowel or diphthong: beißen der Fuß, die Füße groß, größer der Maß, die Maße

(b) ss is used after a short vowel: dass müssen, ich muss, ich musste der Fluss, die Flüsse das Wasser lassen, er lässt wissen, ich wusste This ruling extends the principle of German spelling that short vowels are indicated by being followed by double consonants, long vowels by a single consonant. It means that there is no longer the confusing alternation between ss and ß in the declension of many common words.

6.1.4 Miscellaneous spelling changes

• The spelling of a few other words has been revised in the new spelling rules. The aim is to achieve greater consistency. Some of the most noteworthy are:

new spelling old spelling

aufwändig costly belämmert sheepish die Gämse chamois nummerieren to number die Rohheit roughness sich schnäuzen to blow one's nose der Stängel stem, stalk überschwänglich effusive der Zierrat decoration

aufwendig belemmert Gemse numerieren Roheit sich schneuzen Stengel überschwenglich Zierat

Some words borrowed from other languages have an alternative spelling which corresponds more closely to their pronunciation in German. In all these cases either spelling is permissible, although the one given first is preferred:

die/der Chicoree/Schikoree chicory der Fotograf/Photograph photographer die Fotografie/Photographie photography das Getto/Ghetto ghetto der/das Joghurt/Jogurt yoghurt die Majonäse/Mayonnaise mayonnaise das Mikrofon/Mikrophon microphone das Portmonee/Portemonnaie purse potenziell/potentiell potential die Soße/Sauce sauce der Spaghetti/Spagetti spaghetti das Telefon/Telephon telephone

6.2 Punctuation

6.2.1 The use of the comma

The comma in German is not used to mark a pause in speaking but to show the beginning and end of a grammatical unit (especially clauses). English learners should be aware that Germans regard the placing of commas as part of correct spelling, and mistakes in comma placement are penalized in German schools in the same way as spelling words incorrectly.

The previous rules for the placement of commas were full of exceptions and inconsistencies, and the new rules represent a considerable (and very welcome) simplification. The basic principle is

that all clauses within a sentence should begin and end with a comma, e.g.: Der Bauer, der dabei war, seinen dicken Wintermantel anzuziehen, war der Meinung, dass man in den nächsten Tagen Schnee erwarten dürfte Among other things, this means that, unlike typical English usage, adverbials within a clause are never surrounded by commas, e.g.: Sie hat jedoch recht gehabt She was, however, correct Nach dem Krieg ging er However; after the war; he returned

jedoch nach Köln zurück to Cologne There are a few exceptions to this basic rule:

(a) No comma is required before a clause beginning with und or oder, e.g.: Der junge Mann öffnete ihm die Tür und er ging mit ihm hinein Almut rief an und er erzählte ihr, was passiert war Gehst du morgen ins Theater oder bleibst du zu Hause? However, a comma can be used if the writer feels the need to make the sentence clearer or avoid ambiguity: Jürgen fotografierte die Berge(,) und seine Frau lag in der Sonne Leaving the comma out might lead you to think, on first reading, that Jürgen took a photograph of the mountains and his wife.

(b) No comma is required before clauses with an infinitive with zu or a participle: Sie beschloss den Betrag von €2000 möglichst bald zu überweisen Ich brauche heute nicht nach Mannheim zu fahren Ich konnte nichts tun um sie zu beruhigen Er verließ ihr Haus ohne gesehen zu werden Aus vollem Halse lachend nahm er das Geschenk entgegen Er sank zu Tode getroffen auf das Bett However, a comma may be used if the writer feels it necessary to avoid ambiguity or make the sense clear. Compare the following pair of sentences, where the placing of the comma shows which clause heute belongs to: Das Kind versprach heute, nichts mehr von dem Kuchen zu essen Das Kind versprach, heute nichts mehr von dem Kuchen zu essen

(c) A comma is always required before infinitive clauses which are anticipated by es or a prepositional adverb with da(r) in the preceding clause, e.g.: Ihm steht es nicht zu, ein Urteil zu fällen Wichtig ist es vor allem, den Satz richtig zu verstehen Wir sind dazu bereit, Ihnen darüber Auskunft zu geben Sie erinnerte sich daran, ihn in der Stadt gesehen zu haben

(d) Insertions, exclamations, interjections, explanatory phrases, phrases in apposition and the like usually have commas, e.g.:

Fleisch, insbesondere Rindfleisch, war jetzt sehr knapp geworden Er war, wie schon gesagt, durch den Tod seines Freundes bestürzt Wir wurden durch Herrn Meißner, den Direktor des Instituts, in der

Eingangshalle empfangen Petra, komm bitte schnell in die Küche!

6.2.2 Other punctuation marks

(a) Quotation marks are used much as in English, though it is normal practice to place the first set on the line rather than above it, and foreign learners should follow this, e.g.: Er sagte: „Vater will, dass ich Jura studiere." NOTE: a colon is used to introduce direct speech.

(b) The exclamation mark is normally used with commands, e.g.: Komm bitte sofort in den Garten! Geben Sie mir diese beiden Schachteln! This rule is not adhered to consistently, and a full stop is now sometimes preferred. For the use of the exclamation mark in letters, see 2.8.

Index

The index gives all the German and English words, and the grammatical and linguistic topics about which specific information is given in this book. Individual words in lists illustrating points of grammar or usage are not included.

To facilitate finding particular entries, German words are given in regular type, English words in italics and grammatical (and other general) topics in SMALL CAPITALS (with any German terms ITALICISED). Prefixes and suffixes are indicated with a hyphen, e.g. an-, -lich, etc. Phrases are listed under the head-word, e.g. zum Schluss under Schluss.

ab 131,147 ab-114 abbiegen 86 ABBREVIATIONS 176, 185 Abdruck, der 104 aber (conjunction) 158,

159,263,265 aber (particle) 156,161,

163 abfahren 71 sich abfinden 216 Abgeordente(r), der 197 abgesehen von 145 abhalten 78,83,219 Abhang, der 56 abhängen 217 abholen 58,60,73 abkratzen 62 ablehnen 80 ableugnen 62 abmachen 54 about 141,217 above 141 abraten 53,217,219 in Abrede stellen 62 Absatz, der 88 abschließen 72 absehen 217,220 Absender, der 168 Absicht, die 69 absonderlich 75 absperren 72 abstellen 83 abstoßend 283 abwaschen 88 Abwasser, das 174

(sich) abwenden 86 abwesend 283 ACCENT 10 accept 53 accident 53 accidentally 53 accomplishment 53 according to 141 ACCUSATIVE CASE 19,

146,211,225\ see also accusative object, preposition

ACCUSATIVE OBJECT

207,211,213,214, 232,236,270; see also word order

Achse, die 93 Achsel, die 93 Acht geben 219,293 achten 213, 215, 220 across 141 ACTIVE VOICE 233 actually 53,79 ADDRESSES 168 ADJECTIVE

AFTER PRONOUN 194 COMBINED WITH

NOUN OR ADVERB 295

DECLENSION 193-6 FROM NAMES 195,

292 OF COLOUR 195 OF NATIONALITY 291 STRONG DECLENSION

193,194

USED AS NOUN 85, 196-8,201,281,282, 290

WEAK DECLENSION 194

WITH SEIN 271 see also extended

epithet, word formation

Admiral, der 177 admit 53, 279 ADVERB/ADVERBIAL 264,

273,279-81,298 DIRECTIONAL 124 OF ATTITUDE 272 OF MANNER 270, 272 OF PLACE 2 6 5 , 2 7 0 , 2 7 2 OF REASON 272 OF TIME 265,270,272,

291 see also prepositional

adverb, word order advertisement 54 advertising 54 advise 53 afraid 54, 280,281 after 142 again 54 against 142 age 54 AGE (effect on register) 6 AGENT 236 agree 54 Ahnung, die 69 Akt, der 93 Akte, die 93

aktuell 78 akzeptieren 53 -al 172 Album, das 178 all-/alles/alle 193-6,198,

201,204-6 allerdings 265, 279 im Allgemeinen 290 allmählich 279 allow 281 ALLTAGSSPRACHE 1\ See

also spoken German along 142 als 'than' 21, 273 als 'when' 230,276,285,

286 als dass 247,276 als ob 246,276 als wenn 247 also 265 Alter, das 54 alter 54 although 250 among(st) 142 an 133, 143,144,150, 151,

153,212,214-15 an-114 -an 172 -än 172 an . . . entlang 142 an . . . vorbei 152 anbauen 67 anbieten 75,211,235 Anblick, der 87 -and 172 andauernd 280 Andenken, das 74 ander 62-3 ,290 (sich) ändern 59 androhen 85 sich aneignen 212 Anfang, der 179 anfangen 19,216,219,232 anfassen 85 anfordern 55 anfragen 55 sich anfühlen 64 angeben 220 angeblich 279 angehen 220 angehören 56 Angelegenheit, die 97 angesichts 292 Angestellte(r), der 197 angreifen 85 angst sein 291

Angst haben 64,218 Angst machen 64 in Angst versetzen 64 sich ängstigen 217 anhalten 83 anhand/an Hand 294 anheim fallen 293 Anhöhe, die 98 anklagen 213 ankommen 220 Anlass, der 58 sich anmaßen 212 (sich) annehmen 53,88,

213 Annonce, die 54 anordnen 76 sich anpassen 212 anrufen 58 anrühren 85 (sich) ansammeln 60 Anschein, der 55 anscheinend 279 sich anschließen 212 Ansicht, die 87 anspringen 232 (an)statt 139,149,292 (an)statt . . . zu 263 ansteckend 283 anstelle/an Stelle von 149,

294 Anstellung, die 70 anstreichen 76 anstrengend 283 answer 208 -ant 172,183 Antrag, der 93 antworten 209 anvertrauen 101 anwenden 87 anwesend 78,283 -anz 172 Anzahl, die 75, 228 Anzeige, die 54 (sich) anziehen 88 anzweifeln 62 Aperitif, der/das 181 appearance 55 APPOSITION 149,298 -ar 172 -är 172 Arbeit, die 70 arbeiten 214 Arbeitsanzug, der 179 Arbeitslose(r), der 197 Archiv, das 179 arg 56

(sich) ärgern 217, 219 argwöhnisch 84 -arm 110 den Arsch zukneifen 62 ARTICLE 17-18,226; see

also definite article, determiner, indefinite article

-artig 110 as if 246 Asche, die 179 ask 55 ASSIMILATION 17 at 143 -at 172 at last 72 Atem, der 180 Atlas, der 178 auch 156,160,161,250,

279 auf 133—4,143,146,150,

153,214—15,292 auf- 114 a u f . . . zu 154 auf Wiederschauen 165 auf Wiedersehen 165 aufbewahren 70,101 auffallend 283 auffordern 55 sich auffuhren 56 Aufführung, die 93 Aufgabe, die 70 ,93 aufgehen 76,79, 210 aufgrund / auf Grund 294 aufhaben 76 aufhalten 83 aufheben 70 ,72 aufhören 83 ,216,219 aufmachen 76 Aufnahme, die 63 aufnehmen 53 aufpassen 215, 219 aufregend 283 aufrüsten 93 aufsammeln 60 aufschlagen 57, 76 aufschließen 76 aufsparen 81 aufstehen 80 Auftrag, der 70 ,93 auftragen 93 Auftritt, der 55,63 aufwachen 87 aufwachsen 67 aufwändig 297 aufwecken 87

aufzwingen 66 augenblicklich 78 aus 127,147, 149, 151 aus- 114 ausbilden 94 Ausbildung, die 94 ausbleiben 68 Ausblick, der 87 (sich) ausbreiten 82 (sich) ausdehnen 82 Ausdruck, der 95 ausdrücken 95 ausfallen 68 ausfragen 55 Ausfuhrung, die 93 Ausgabe, die 93 ausgeben 82 AUSKLAMMERUNG 22,

271 Auskunft, die 180 auslassen 74 ausmachen 54 ausnutzen/ausnützen 87 ausrichten 93 ausrüsten 93 aussehen 217 Aussehen, das 55,179 außer 127,145 außer wenn 276 Äußere(s), das 55,197 außergewöhnlich 101 außerhalb 140,151 Aussicht, die 87 AUSTRIA 13 ,23 ,26-7 ausweichen 55 (sich) ausweiten 82 Automat, der 183 AUXILIARY VERB 20, 21,

229,231-4 ,240,263; see also modal auxiliary verb

avoid 55

Backe, die 105 Backen, der 105 backen 188,191 bad 56 Balkon, der 177 Ball, der 93 Ballen, der 93 Ballon, der 177 Band, der 94,102 Band, die 102 Band, das 94 ,102 ,104 Bande, die 94 bangen 211

bank 56 Bank, die 56,104 -bar 109,239 Barock, der/das 181 basieren 215 Bauer, der 183 be-111-12 ,209 be able to 250 be going to 229 be intended to 281 be meant to 281 be supposed to 281 Beamte(r), der 75 BEAMTENDEUTSCH 9 beantragen 93,190 beauftragen 93 (sich) bedanken 215 bedauerlich 95 bedauerlicherweise 279 bedauern 95 bedauernswert 95 bedenken 95 bedeuten 73 bedeutend 283 sich bedienen 87,213 bedingungslos 94 bedrängen 95 bedrohen 85 bedürfen 213 -bedürftig 110 beeindrucken 95 sich befassen 216 befehlen 76,187 befolgen 65 befördern 97 befragen 55,235 befreien 217 befriedigen 80 befurchten 64 begabt 59 sich begeben 68 Begebenheit, die 63 begegnen 73,209 sich begeistern 215 begin 279

beginnen 19,187,216, 219,232

begleichen 77 begleiten 190 sich begnügen 216 begraben 97 begreifen 67,79 Begriff, der 69 begrüßen 67,98 ,235 behalten 70 beharren 215

behave 56 behindern 78 behutsam 58 bei 128, 143,144,151,286 bei weitem 291 bei-210 beibehalten 70 beide 193,195,196,290 beid(er)seits 140 beinhalten 190 beiseite 294 beißen 186,225 beitragen 218 bekämpfen 64 bekannt 71 Bekannte(r), der 197 bekanntlich 279 sich beklagen 60,219 bekommen 232,237 belämmert 297 belehren 213 beliebig 279 belong 56 sich bemächtigen 67,213 bemerken 75 ,79 ,88 ,235 sich bemühen 217,219 sich benehmen 56 Benehmen, das 179 beneiden 217 benutzen/benützen 87 beraten 53 berauben 213 berechtigen 218 Berechtigung, die bereit 79 sich bereit erklären 54 bereithalten 294 Berg, der 74 bergen 187 bersten 187 Beruf, der 70 ,94 Berufstätigkeit, die 70 Berufung, die 94 beruhen 215 beruhigend 283 berühren 86 besagen 73 beschädigen 61 sich beschäftigen 216 beschließen 62 beschränken 215 beschuldigen 56 beschützen 218 sich beschweren 60,219 Besen, der 57 sich besinnen 213

Besitz, der 179 (sich) bessern 69 bestehen 215,216,220 besteigen 59 bestellen 76 bestimmen 62 bestimmt 279,280 bestreiten 62 besuchen 58,65 betasten 64 beten 94 betrachten 85 sich betragen 56 betrügen 189,217 betteln 94 beurteilen 94 Bevölkerung, die 69 bevor 276 bewahren 70,101 bewähren 101 bewegen 77,86, 188,

191

Bewohner, der 69 bewundern 102,235 beyond 144 bezahlen 77 bezeichnen 94 sich beziehen 215 bezweifeln 62 bezwingen 66 biegen 86,187,232 bieten 75,94, 187 Bild, das 94 Bildung, die 94 billigen 54 binden 187 Bindfaden, der 84 binnen 131,148 bis 124, 144,154 bis auf 124,145 bitten 55 ,94 ,217,219 blame 56 blasen 188 Blatt, das 88 blechen 77 bleiben 186,230,232,239,

242,271 blenden 94 Blick, der 87 blinken 94 blinzeln 94 Blitz, der 180 blöde 18 bloß 76,160,163 bloßstellen 294 Boden, der 89

Bodensatz, der 179 Bogen, der 177 Bonbon, der 181 Böschung, die 95 böse 56,94 boshaft 94 böswillig 94 box 56 boxen 64 BRACKET

CONSTRUCTION see word order

Brand, der 65 braten 188 Brauch, der 95 brauchen 21, 84,95,235,

241 break 57 brechen 57, 187, 232 breit 74 breitschlagen 77 brennen 190 bright 57 Brille, die 179 bringen 84, 190,217,221,

242 Broiler, der 11 Brot, das 180 brüllen 61 brush 57 Büchse, die 56 Buchstabe, der 183 Bulle, der 102 Bulle, die 102 bummeln 233 Bund, der 94,102 Bund, das 94,102 Bündnis, das Burg, die 58 Bursch, der 183 Bürste, die 57 Busch, der 95 Butter, die 181 by 144-5,236,286

Cafe, das 95 call 58 can 238 CAPITAL LETTERS 166,

290-2 care 58 careful 58 careless 58 case 58 CASE 181-5,192,207,

224—8; see also

accusative case, dative case, genitive case, nominative case, valency

castle 58 cathedral 58 cattle 61 cause 58 cease 280 Cello, das 178 chance 281 change 59 Charme, der 175 -chen 107,172 Chicoree/Schikoree, die

297 claim 279, 281 CLAUSE 262; see also

comparative clause, conditional clause, itfss-clause, infinitive clause, main clause, purpose clause, relative clause, subordinate clause

CLEFT SENTENCE 266, 282

clever 59 clever 59 climb 59,208 close 59 CLOSING BRACKET see

verbal bracket CLOTHING, ARTICLES

OF 180,224 coat 59 collect 60 COLLECTIVE NOUNS see

nouns COLLOQUIAL SPEECH

see spoken German come 280,288 COMMA 169,264,265,

297-9 COMMANDS 161-3, 263,

299 COMMERCIAL

CORRESPONDENCE 169

COMPARATIVE CLAUSES 246

COMPARATIVE PHRASES 273

complain 60 COMPLEMENT 268,270;

see also word order

COMPOUND TENSE see tense

COMPOUND WORD see word formation

CONDITIONAL see subjunctive

CONDITIONAL SENTENCE 2 4 5 - 6 , 263

WITH 'OPEN' CONDITIONS 246

congratulate 208 CONJUNCTION 263 content (s) 60 continue 60,281 CONTINUOUS ACTION

19 copy 61 could 196 couldn't help 196 cow 61 cross 61 cry 61 cut 208

da 22,201,266 da sein 294 DA (R) + PREPOSITION

see prepositional adverb

dabei 284 dadurch . . . , dass 277,

286 dalassen 71 damage 61,208 damals 84 damit 247,276 Damm, der 56 daneben 74 Dank, der 95,179 danken 209,215 dann 84 dark 61

Darm, der 179 das (demonstrative)

199-200 dass 244 DASS-CLAUSE 2 1 9 , 2 7 5 ,

285 DATIVE CASE 19, 153,

209 EXPRESSING

POSSESSION 20, 224-5,227

see also dative object, noun, preposition

DATIVE OBJECT 207, 209-12,214,236; also word order

dauern 95 dauernd 280 DAYS OF THE WEEK 185,

291 decide 62 Decke, die 89,95 Deckel, der 95 Deckung, die 95 DECLENSION see

adjective, noun DEFINITE ARTICLE 20,

182,193,199,224 (sich) dehnen 82 demand 62 dementieren 62 DEMONSTRATIVE

(DETERMINER/ PRONOUN) 2 1 , 1 9 2 , 198-200,267

(sich) denken 69,85,95, 190,214,242

denn (conjunction) 263 denn (particle) 18,84,

160-2 deny 62 DEPENDENT CLAUSE see

subordinate clause der see definite article der (demonstrative) 198,

267 der (relative pronoun) 200 der . . . da/hier 199 derer 201 DERIVATION see word

formation derjenige 200 derselbe 80 derzeitig 78 DETERMINER 1 7 , 1 8 2 ,

192-206 DECLENSION 1 9 2 - 6 see also definite article,

demonstrative, indefinite article, possessive

Deutsche(r), der 197 DIALECT 1 0 , 1 2 dicht 84,89 -dicht 110 dichtmachen 59 dick 64,84,89 die 62

dienen 209,218

dieser 192, 199,267; see also demonstrative

diesseits 140 different 62 DIMINUTIVES see word

formation Ding, das 84,177 Dings, das 84 Dingsbums, das 84 Dingsda, das 84 DIRECT OBJECT see

accusative object DIRECT SPEECH 242 DIRECTION PHRASES

271 do 282 doch 156,162, 164 doch mal 162 doch wohl 159 Dom, der 58 don ft have to 236 Dose, die 56 Dossier, das/der 181 Dotter, der/das 181 DOUBLET 1 0 5 - 6 doubt (noun) 280 doubt (verb) 62 down 145 Drama, das 178 (sich) drängeln 78 (sich) drängen 78,95,215,

221 (sich) drehen 86 dringen 95,187,232 dringend 283 drohen 85,209,216 drop 208 drucken 95 (sich) drücken 78,95,218 drückend 283 Dschungel, der/das 181 du 166-8,292 Duft, der 82 duften 217 dunkel 61 durch 125,144,152,236,

272,286 durch- 115-16 durch dick und dünn 291 durcheinander bringen

293 Durchführung, die 53 durchqueren 61 dürfen 249,281 during 145 düster 61

-e (noun suffix) 107, 175, 182

eben 157,160-2 echt 79 -echt 110 Eck, das 105 Ecke, die 105 ehrbar 96 Ehre, die 96 ehrenhaft 96 Ehrfurcht, die 96 Ehrgeiz, der 96 ehrlich 96 ehrwürdig 96 -ei 172 Eigenart, die 96 eigenartig 75 Eigenschaft, die 96 eigentlich 79, 157, 160 Eigentum, das 96 eigentümlich 75 Eigentümlichkeit, die 96 sich eignen 215,218,221 ein- 114 ein bisschen 291 ein paar 99,205-6,291 einbiegen 86 sich einbilden 69, 212 Eindruck, der 95 eindrücken 95 einer 203,204 einfach 81,96 Einfahrt, die 63 Einfall, der 69 einfallen 89,96,210 einfältig 81,96 einfrieren 66 einfuhren 216 Eingang, der 63 Eingeborene(r), der 69 einhalten 70 Einheimische(r), der 69,

197 einheitlich 96 einig (sein) 54,96 einige(r) 193,195-6,

205 sich einigen 54 Einkommen, das 179 einladen 55,218 einleuchtend 283 einnehmen 60 einreden 77 Einreise, die 63 einrichten 93 einsam 96

einsammeln 60 einschenken 78 einschließen 72 einsehen 53,79 Einsicht, die 86 einsperren 72 einstellen 83 Eintrag, der 63 Eintritt, der 63 einverstanden sein 54 Einverständnis, das 86 einwilligen 54,216 Einwohner, der 69 einzeln 96 einzig 96 Eis laufen 293 Eisenbahn, die 179 (sich) ekeln 211, 218,219 -el 174 empfänglich 96 empfehlen 187,211 empfinden 64 empfindlich 96 empörend 283 -en (adjective suffix) 109 -en (noun suffix) 174 im Endeffekt 65 endgültig 65 ENDING see adjective,

noun, verb endlich 65,96 endlos 96 eng 74 ent-112,210 -ent172,183 entfallen 210 entgegen- 210 entlang 134,142 entnehmen 215 entrance 63 entrichten 77 entry 63 sich entscheiden 62, 216,

219 entscheidend 283 entschlafen 62 sich entschließen 62,218,

219 Entschlossenheit, die 96 Entschluss, der 96 sich entsinnen 213 entsprechen 80 entsprechend 141 sich entziehen 55 -enz 172 -er (adjective suffix) 195

-er (noun suffix) 107,172, 174

er- (verb prefix) 112-13 Erbe, der 102 Erbe, das 102 erbleichen 186 erblicken 235 -erei 107 sich ereignen 68 Ereignis, das 63 erfahren 71 Erfahrung, die 63 erfassen 67 erfolgen 68 erfordern 55,97 sich erfreuen 213 erfrieren 66 erfüllen 80 sich ergeben 212,215,216,

221 sich ergießen 78 ergreifen 67 erhalten 70, 237 (sich) erheben 72, 80 erhöhen 72 sich erholen 217 (sich) erinnern 213, 214,

219 Erinnerung, die 74 erkennen Erkenntnis, die erklären 89 erkranken 214 sich erkundigen 55,98,

216 Erlass, der/das 177 Erlebnis, das 63 erlernen 71 erlöschen 189,191 ermächtigen 218 ermöglichen 211 ermutigen 218 -ern 109 eröffnen 76 erraten 68 Erscheinen, das 55 Erscheinung, die 55 erschrecken 64, 187, 191,

218 erschweren 211 (sich) ersparen 81 erst 65,76,89,96,154,157 erst mal 65 erst recht 157 das Erste 290 als Erstes 290

ersteigen 59 zum ersten Mal 65 erstens 65,96 erstmals 65,96 sich erstrecken 82 ersuchen 55 erwachen 87 erwachsen 67 Erwachsene(r), der 197 erwarten 235 erwecken 87 (sich) erweitern 82 Erwerbstätigkeit, die 70 Erz- 108 erzwingen 66 es 266, 298; see also

pronoun, personal Espresso, der 178 essen 188 Essen, das 66,180 -et 172 Etikett, das 96,177 Etikette, die 96 etliche(r) 193,195,205 -ett 172 etwa 141,158,160 etwas 198,201 -eur 172 event 63 Examen, das 178 examine 63 except (for) 145 EXCLAMATION 264,298 EXCLAMATION MARK

169,299 Exemplar, das 61 experience 63 EXTENDED EPITHET 22,

238 ,274 ,283 ,284

Fach, das 89 FACHSPRACHE 7, 43-5 -fähig 110 fahren 188,232,233,242 Fahrer, der 96 fail 281 Fakt, der/das 181 Fall, der 63 ,89 fall 63 fallen 63, 188,242 fallen lassen 293 fangen 189 Farbe, die 89 Fasan, der 177 fassen 67 fat 64

fear (A fechten 64,187 feel 64,208,287 Fehl- 109 fehlen 74 ,190 ,210 ,214 Fehler, der 74 Fehlgriff, der 74 Feiertag, der 68 feige 18 feixen 67 Fell, das 81 Fels, der 105 Felsen, der 105 FEMININE see gender Ferien, die 68 Fernglas, das 179 fernsehen 294 fertig 79 ,89 ,280 Fertigkeit, die 53 -fest 110 festsetzen 294 feststellen 79 fett 64 fettig 64 Feuer, das 65 Feuerwerk, das 179 fight 64 finally 65 finden 187,241 finish 280 FINITE VERB see verb finster 61 fire 65 Firma, die 178 (at) first 65 Fischotter, der 103 flechten 188 Fleck, der 105 Flecken, der 105 flehen 55 fliegen 187, 233 fliehen 187, 218 fließen 65,187 Flitterwochen, die 179 flow 65 Flur, der 102 Flur, die 102 folgen 65 ,66 ,210,215,

221,233 folgende(r) 193,195,

196 folgern 215 follow 65 food 66 for 145-6,212,286 force 66,208

fordern 55,97 fördern 97 Forderung, die 97 Förderung, die 97 FOREIGN WORDS 18,

177,178,185 FORMAL SPEECH 38-40 FORMAL WRITING see

written German -förmig 110 fortfahren 60 Fortschritt, der 180 fortsetzen 60 Fossil, das 178 Foto, das 181 Fotograf/Photograph, der

97, 297 Fotografie/Photographie,

die 97,297 eine Frage stellen 55 fragen 55,191,216,219 Fraß, der 66 Frau, die 168 Fräulein, das 168 freeze 66 -frei 110 Freie(s), das 197 freilich 265, 279 Freiwillige(r), der 197 fremd 75,90 fremdartig 75 fressen 188 sich freuen 214,215, 217,

219,222 Friede(n), der 183 frieren 66,187,233 frighten 64 from 147 Frucht, die 66 früher 280 fruit 66 sich fugen 212 (sich) fühlen 64 führen 218 Führer, der 96 Funke(n), der 183 für 125,145,146,212 (sich) furchten 64, 218,

219 Fürsorge, die 58 Fürst, der 183 fußen 215 Fußtritt, der 83 Futter, das 66 FUTURE PERFECT

TENSE see tense

FUTURE SUBJUNCTIVE see subjunctive

FUTURE TENSE see tense

Gämse, die 297 Gang, der 90,102 Gang, die 102 ganz 205 Garage, die 67 garage 67 Gasse, die 83 gather 67 G D R (GERMAN

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC) 11

Ge- / G e - . . . -e 107,173 geben 79,187,211,241 gebieten 76 Gebirge, das 74 Gebrauch, der 95 gebrauchen 87,95 gebräuchlich 95 Gebrauchsanweisung, die

179 gebraucht 95 Gedächtnis, das 74 Gedanke, der 69,95,183 Gedeck, das 95 gedenken 95,213 gefallen 72,210 Gefallen, der 102 Gefallen, das 102 gefangen nehmen 293 Gefangene(r), der 197 gefrieren 66 gegebenenfalls 279 gegen 125,142,154 gegen bar 291 Gegenstand, der 84 gegenüber 128 gegenwärtig 78 Gehacktes 197 Gehalt, der 60,102 Gehalt, das 102 geheim 81 gehen 189,217,230,239,

241 gehorchen 210 gehören 56,210,218,238 geistig 97 geistlich 97 Geistliche(r), der 197 geistreich 97 Gelegenheit, die 97 Gelehrte(r), der 197 gelingen 187,210, 242

gelten 187,222 gelten lassen 53 Gemach, das 80 Gemahl, der 99 gemäß 131,141 Gemeinheit, die 97 Gemeinsamkeit, die 97 Gemeinschaft, die 97 GENDER (effect on

register) 6 GENDER (of noun) 20,

171-81,195 DOUBLE 1 0 2 - 4 FEMININE 1 7 2 - 6 MASCULINE 172-5,

180,182,184 NEUTER 172-6, 180,

182,184 VARIABLE 1 8 0 - 1

General, der 177 genesen 188 Genick, das 74 GENITIVE CASE 21, 149,

213,224-8 IN MEASUREMENT

PHRASES 228 POSITION OF

GENITIVE PHRASES 227

IN TIME EXPRESSIONS 227

see also genitive object, preposition

GENITIVE OBJECT 213, 271

genügen 80 Geräusch, das 82 Gerechtigkeit, die 99 Gericht, das 66 gering 82 gern 72,280 gern haben 72 Geruch, der 82 GERUND 282 Gesandte(r), der 197 gesättigt 80 geschehen 68 ,188,242 Geschehen, das 63 gescheit 59 Geschichte, die 90 geschickt 59 Geschmack, der 82,177 Geschworene(r), der 197 Gestank, der 82 gestern 291 Getto/Ghetto, das 297

gewahren 101 gewähren 101 Gewalt, die 78 Gewinn, der 179 gewinnen 187 sich gewöhnen 97, 215 gewöhnlich 280 gewohnt 97 (es) gibt 20 gießen 78,187 Gipfel, der 74 glänzen 81 glänzend 57 Glaube, der 183 glauben 85,215,219 Gläubige(r), der 97 Gläubiger, der 97 gleich 80 ,90 ,97 -gleich 110 gleichfalls 97 gleichgültig 97 gleichmäßig 97 gleichviel 97 gleiten 186 glühend 283 go 288

Golf, der 102 Golf, das 102 Grab, das 97 graben 97,188 Graben, der 97 Graf, der 183 -graph 172 grapschen 67 ins Gras beißen 62 grasp 67 gratulieren 210,218 grauen 64, 211 grauenhaft 97 grausam 97 greet 67 GREETINGS 1 6 4 - 6 greifen 67, 82 ,186,216 grin 67 grinsen 67 groß 84 groß werden 67 grow (up) 67,208 Grund, der 58,90 Grund-109 gründlich 97 grundsätzlich 97 grüßen 67,98 guess 196 Gulasch, der/das 181 Gummi, der 102

Gummi, das 102,181 gutschreiben 294

haben 230-3,241 Hafer, der 179 -haft 109 Hahn, der 90 ,98 Hals, der 74 halt 157 Halt machen 293 (sich) halten 70 ,71 ,83 ,85 ,

188,189,215,216, 222,241

-haltig 110 Handel, der 98 sich handeln 217 handhaben 190 Handlung, die 98 Hang, der 74 hängen 79, 189, 191, 242 happen 68,281 harm 68 harren 213 Harz, der 102 Harz, das 102 (es) hat 20 (sich) hauen 65, 191,225 Haufen, der 228 (sich) häufen 60 Haupt- 109 Hauptquartier, das 179 Hausaufgabe, die 180 Haut, die 81 have 288 have + PARTICIPLE 266 hear 281, 287 heben 72,188 Heide, der 102 Heide, die 102 Heilige(r), der 197 heim- 293 heimlich 81 heiraten 73 heißen 58 ,73 ,186,241,

271 -heit 107,172 heiter 57 Held, der 183 helfen 187,210,240,242 hell 57,90 Henne, die 98 her- 124 herab 145 heranwachsen 67 herauf 155 herausbilden 94

herausfordern 218 herbeirufen 58 Herd, das 98 Herde, die 98 hereinfallen 96 Herr, der 183,185 herrühren 217 herum 141 (sich) herumdrehen 86 herunter 145 Herz, das 183 heulen 61 heute 291 HIGHLIGHTING 22 hill 68 Himmel, der 90 hin- 124 hin-/hereinlassen 53 hinab 145 hinauf 155 hindern 78 ,214,219,235 hindurch 125 hineingeben 79 hinnehmen 53 hinter 142,152 hinter- 116 hinterher- 65 hinterlassen 71 hinüber- 61 hinunter 145 hire 68 Hirt, der 183 hoch 84 HOCHDEUTSCH see

Standard German hochheben 72 höchstens 265 hoffen 215,219 hoffentlich 280 Höhe, die 98 holiday (s) 68 HOMONYMS 88 hope 280 Hopfen, der 179 Hose, die 179 Hügel, der 74 Huhn, das 98 Hut, der 103 Hut, die 103 sich hüten 218,219

-ich 172 idea 69 Idee, die 69 IDIOMS 119-23 -ie 172

-ier 172 */245 -ig (adjective suffix) 109 -ig (noun suffix) 172 ihr (second-person

pronoun) 166,292 -ik 172 -il 172 Illustrierte, die 197 imagine 69, 280 immerhin 265 IMPERATIVE 21,188 IMPERFECT TENSE see

tense IMPERSONAL PASSIVE

see passive IMPERSONAL VERB see

verb impress 208 improve 69 imstande / im Stande sein

295 in (German preposition)

135-6,147-9,151, 153,216

in (English preposition) 147-8

-in (noun suffix) 108,172 incident 69 INDEFINITE

(DETERMINER / PRONOUN) 195, 204-6

INDEFINITE ARTICLE 182,193,194

indem 111, 284,286 Inder, der 98 Indianer, der 98 INDIRECT OBJECT see

dative object INDIRECT SPEECH 22,

242-5 Industrielle(r), der 197 INFINITIVE 186,229,248,

262,283 MODAL INFINITIVE

238 PAST INFINITIVE 248 WITH AM 19 see also infinitive clause

INFINITIVE CLAUSE 21, 219,263,273,275, 285,286,298

INFLECTION see adjective, noun,verb

infolge 294

INFORMAL SPEECH see spoken German

informieren 217 infrage / in Frage stellen

295 ING-FORM 282-8; see also

participle inhabitant(s) 69 Inhalt, der 60,179 INITIAL

ELEMENT/INITIAL POSITION see word order

inmitten 294 inne sein 294 Innere(s), das 197 innerhalb 140,148 INSEPARABLE VERB see

prefix, verb Inserat, das 54 inside 148 instead of 149 intelligent 57, 59 (sich) interessieren 214,

216 INTERJECTION 264, 298 INTERROGATIVE 202-3,

263 into 149 INTRANSITIVE VERB see

verb -ion 172 irgend- 295 irgendwelcher 193,195 irre- 293 irren 233 Irrtum, der 74 -isch 109 -ismus 172 -ist 172

ja 158,162,164,281 ja wohl 159 Jäckchen, das 70 Jacke, die 70 jacket 70 Jackett, das 70 jeder 193,194,196,

205 jedoch 156 jemand 21,204 jener 193,199 jenseits 140,144 jetzt 280 job 70 Job, der 70

Joghurt/Jogurt, der/das 181,297

JOURNALISM 45-51,231, 243

Jugendliche(r), der 197 Junge, der 103 Junge, das 103

Kabarett, das 177 Kaffee, der 95 Kaktus, der 178 Kamerad, der 183 Kammer, die 80 kämpfen 65,217 Kapelle, die 90 kaputt sein 57 kaputtgehen 57 kaputtmachen 57 Karre, die 105 Karren, der 105 Karte, die 90 Kartoffel, die 177,181 Karton, der 56,177 Karussell, das 177 Käse, der 175 Kaserne, die 179 kassieren 60 Kästchen, das 56 Kasten, der 57 Kathedrale, die 58 kaum 270 keep 70,208, 287 keep on 280 Kegel, der 98 Kehle, die 74 kehren 86 Kehrricht, der 179 kein 193,194 keiner 204 -keit 107,172 Keks, der/das 181 kennen 71, 190,242 kennen lernen 73, 293 Kenntnis, die 71,180 (in) Kenntnis setzen 53 Kenntnisse, die 71,180 Kiefer, der 103 Kiefer, die 103 Kissen, das 90 Kiste, die 57 klagen 60,219 Klang, der 82 klar werden 79 im Klaren 290 klein 82 klettern 59

klingen 187 klopfen 225 Kloster, das 174 klug 59 Knäuel, der/das 181 kneifen 186 know 11, 279 knowledge 71 komisch 75 Komma, das 178 kommen 189,222,230,

241 KONJUNKTIV i/nsee

subjunctive können 71,238,239,

247-50,257 Konto, das 178 kontrollieren 63 sich konzentrieren 215 Kopie, die 61 Kork, der 105 Korken, der 105 korrigieren 69 Kost, die 66 ,98 kostbar 98 kosten 90,211 Kosten, die 98,179 köstlich 98 Kotelett, das 177 Krach, der 82 kraft 292 Kraft, die 78 Kragen, der 177 Kran, der 178 -krat 172 krepieren 62 Kreuz, das 90 Kreuzotter, die 103 sich kreuzen 61 kriechen 187 kriegen 237 Kugel, die 98 Kuh, die 61 sich kümmern 217 Kunde, der 103 Kunde, die 103 kündigen 98 Kundschaft, die 179 künstlerisch 98 künstlich 98 küssen 225

Labor, das 177 lächeln 67 lachen 217 laden 188,189

Laden, der 178 Lager, das 178 Land, das 90,104 Landschaft, die 91 lang 84,146 langen 67 langsam 279 Lärche, die 99 Lärm, der 82 (sich) lassen 71, 188,238,

241 Laster, der 103 Laster, das 103 laufen 189,233,242 laugh 208 laut (preposition) 131,141 Laut, der 82 learn 71 leave 71,72,208,287 LEAVE-TAKING 165 leben 72 ums Leben kommen 62 lebendig 98 Lebensmittel, die 66,

179 lebhaft 98 lediglich 76 -leer 110 legen 79,98 lehren 211 leicht 81 leicht fallen 210 leicht machen 293 leichtsinnig 58 Leid, das 98 leid sein 291 Leid tun 64,210,293 leiden 186,214 nicht leiden können 72 Leiden, das 98 Leidenschaft, die 98 leider 280 leihen 186-90,211 -lein 107,172 leise 79 Leistung, die 53 Leiter, der 103 Leiter, die 103 -ler 108,172 Lerche, die 99 lernen 71 lesen 188 LETTERS OF ALPHABET

176 LETTER-WRITING

168-70

Letzte, der/die/das 91, 290

letzten Endes 65 letztendlich 65 leuchten 81 leuchtend 57 leugnen 62 Leute, die 77 Lexikon, das 178 -lieh 110,239 lieb haben 72 lieben 72 lieber 281 liegen 19,98, 187,222,

232,242 liegen bleiben 293 liegen lassen 71 lift 11 like 72,280 -ling 108,172 Linke, die 197 Liter, der/das 181 LITERARY REGISTER 7,

9,41-3 little 12 live 12 loben 235 lock 12 -löge 172 Lohn, der 179 löhnen 77 -los 110 los- 115 los sein 294 löschen 191 losfahren 71 losgehen 71 love 73 lügen 98,189 Lunge, die 179

Macht, die 78 Mädel, das 178 Magnet, der 178 Mahl, das 99 mahlen 190 Mahlzeit, die 99 Majonäse/Mayonnaise,

die 297 mal (particle) 162 -mal 291 Mal, das 85 malen 76 Malheur, das 53 man 77,203,237 man 73

mancher 193-5,205 Mangel, der 103 Mangel, die 103 mangeln 210 Mann, der 73 Mantel, der 70 Mark, die 103 Mark, das 103 marry 73 Marsch, der 103 Marsch, die 103 MASCULINE see gender Maß, die 103 Maß, das 103 Maß halten 293 -mäßig 110 Match, der/das 181 Material, das 178 Mauer, die 87 may 250 mean 73

MEANING 5 2 - 1 7 0 MEASUREMENT

PHRASES 1 8 0 , 2 2 8 meckern 60 MEDIUM (effect on

register) 4 meet 73 mehrere 193,195 meiden 55,186 meinen 64,73,85,91 Meinung, die 69,87

meiner Meinung nach 280

melken 191 memory 7 4 Menge, die 228 Mensch, der 73, 103,183 Mensch, das 103 Menschen, die 77 -ment 172 merken 75,79 merkwürdig 75 messen 188 Messer, der 103 Messer, das 103 Meteor, der/das 181 Meter, der/das 181 mieten 80,99 might 196

Mikrofon/Mikrophon, das 297

milde 18 mind (verb) 281 Mineral, das 178 Miss- (noun prefix) 109

miss- (verb prefix) 116 miss 74 Missgeschick, das 53 misstrauisch 84 miss ver stehen 116 mistake 7 4 mit 128-9, 144, 155, 164,

216,272 mithilfe / mit Hilfe 295 mitteilen 211 -mittel 108 Mittel, das 179 Mittelalter, das 179 mittels 292 Möbel, die 179 MODAL AUXILIARY

VERB 230, 241, 248-61

ENGLISH MODAL AUXILIARIES 2 5 3 - 6 1

MODAL INFINITIVE See infinitive

MODAL PARTICLES 155, 272

IN COMMANDS 161 -3 IN EXCLAMATIONS

163^4 IN QUESTIONS 160-1 IN STATEMENTS 1 5 6 - 9

mögen 72,250-1 möglich 196 möglicherweise 280 Moment, der 103 Moment, das 103 MONTHS 185 MOOD see imperative,

subjunctive morgen 291 mountain 7 4 Mühe, die 179 Münster, das 58 Muschel, die 99 Museum, das 178 Muskel, der 99 müssen 238,248,251,258,

281 must 258 Mut, der 181 Mutter, die 104,174 Mythos, der 178

nach 19,129,141,142, 152, 153,216

nach- 65,210 Nachbar, der 183 nachdem 19,277

nachdenken 85,217 nachfolgen 66 nachfragen 55 nachlässig 58 nachmachen 211 Nachricht, die 180 Nächste, der/die/das 91,

290 Nacken, der 74 nahe legen 293 sich nähern 212 Nahrung, die 66 Nahrungsmittel, die 66 Name, der 183 namendich 99 NAMES 185

GEOGRAPHICAL 185, 226

OF ARTISTIC STYLES 185

OF CITIES 195 OF COLOURS 198 OF GERMAN REGIONS

197 OF LANGUAGES 198,

292 PERSONAL AND

PROPER NAMES 20, 185,226-8,264,292

namhaft 99 nämlich 99 narrow 7 4 neben 136 necessary 281 neck 7 4 needn't 196 NEGATIVE 21 \ see also

nicht nehmen 53,84, 188,211,

242 neigen 218 nennen 58,190 -ner 172 Nerv, der 183 NEUTER see gender NEUTRAL REGISTER 7 - 8 ,

29 NEWSPAPER REPORT

45-51 nicht 16,270-1,281 Nicht- 109 nicht mehr 280 nichts 198,201 nie 270 niemand 204-5 -nis 173

noch einmal 54 nochmals 54 noise 75 -nom 172 NOMINATIVE CASE 265,

271 NON-LITERARY

REGISTER 7, 9, 43-51

nörgeln 60 NORTH GERMAN 13, 15,

16,19,23-* Not tun 293 notice 75 NOUN

COLLECTIVE 108, 179 DATIVE SINGULAR IN

-E 184 DECLENSION 171 -85 FROM OTHER PARTS

OF SPEECH 177, 185, 290

GENITIVE SINGULAR IN -(E)S 182,184-5

MIXED 1 7 5 , 1 8 3 USE OF SINGULAR

179,180,224 VERBAL NOUN 128,

274,275,285,286 WEAK MASCULINE 21,

172, 175, 176, 182-3, 196

see also adjective, capital letter, doublet, gender, measurement phrases, plural, umlaut, word formation

NOUN CLAUSE see dass-chwst

NOUN PHRASE 192 NUMBER 192; see also

plural number 75 NUMERALS 1 8 , 1 8 0 Nummer, die 75 nummerieren 297 nun 163 nur 76, 160, 162,281 Nutz, der 105 nutzen/nützen 87, 105,

210 Nutzen, der 105

oberhalb 140,141 Oberst, der 183

Obhut, die 58 OBJECT see accusative

object, dative object, genitive object, prepositional object

Obst, das 66,180 obwohl 22, 111 occur 68,75 occurrence 15 odd IS oder 263,298 of 149-50 off 150 offer IS officer IS offiziell 99 Offizier, der 75 offiziös 99 (sich) öffnen 76 oft 280 des Öfteren 290 ohne 126,272 o h n e . . . zu 263,277 ohne dass 247,277 ohne weiteres 291 on 150-1,286 -on 172 only 76 open 76,208 opposite 151 -or 172 order 76 ordnen 76 Organ, das 76 organ 76 Orgel, die 76 sich orientieren 214 Ort, der 77 Ortschaft, die 77 Otter, der 103 Otter, die 103 ought to 196 out of 151 outside 151 over 152

Paar, das 99 Pack, der 103,106 Pack, das 103 Päckchen, das 76 packen 67,91 Packen, der 106 packet 76 Packung, die 76 paint 76 Paket, das 76

Papagei, der 183 PAPIERDEUTSCH 9 Parfüm, das 177 Park, der 177 PARTICIPLE 2 2 , 2 9 8

PAST PARTICIPLE 186, 229,262

PRESENT PARTICIPLE 282-4

see also extended epithet, have + participle, ing-form

PARTITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS 226

PARTS OF THE BODY 180,224

passen 210,218,223 passieren 61,68,210,223 PASSIVE 2 3 3 - 9 , 2 6 6 , 2 7 2

ALTERNATIVE PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS 237-9

IMPERSONAL PASSIVE 235-6

SE/N-PASSIVE 2 3 4 - 5 , 248

SUBJECTLESS PASSIVE 235-6

TENSE USE 230 VORGANGSPASSIV 234 WERDEN-PASSWE

234-5 WITH DATIVE

OBJECTS 236 ZUSTANDSPASSIV 234

past 152 PAST PARTICIPLE see

participle PAST SUBJUNCTIVE see

subjunctive PAST TENSE see tense Pastor, der 178 path 76 Patzer, der 74 pay 11 Pension, die 179 people 11 per 126 PERFECT TENSE see tense PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE

see subjunctive PERSONAL PRONOUN see

pronouns persuade 11

Pfad, der 83 Pfau, der 183 pfeifen 186 Pfeil, das 99 Pfeiler, der 99 Pferd, das 23 Pflege, die 58 Pfosten, der 99 PHONETIC ALPHABET

13-14 PHRASAL VERBS see verbs Physik, die 179 Pinsel, der 57 place 11 Plakat, das 54 Planet, der 183 Plaste, die 11 Platz, der 77 PLUPERFECT TENSE see

tense PLUPERFECT

SUBJUNCTIVE see subjunctive

PLURAL, OF NOUNS 19, 20,171-80

ALTERNATIVE PLURAL 177

DATIVE PLURAL 19, 182

DIFFERENT USAGE IN ENGLISH AND GERMAN 178-80

DOUBLE PLURAL 104 IN —5 176-7 see also noun, umlaut

Pocken, die 179 Politik, die 91,179 Polizei, die 179 Polster, das/der 181 Pony, der 103 Pony, das 103 Portmonee/Portemonnaie,

die 297 Porträt, das 177 POSSESSIVE (DETER-

MINER/PRONOUN) 193, 194, 196, 199, 202,224

possible 280 Post, die 99 postcode 168 Posten, der 70,99 potenziell/potentiell 297 pour 78 power 78 prefer 281

PREFIX INSEPARABLE VERB

PREFIX 111-14 , 115-18

NOUN, SHOWING GENDER 171, 173

SEPARABLE VERB PREFIX 1 1 4 - 1 8 , 2 6 2 , 293

see also word formation preis- 293 Preis, der 91 preisen 186 PREPOSITION 18,

123-55,214 COMBINED WITH A

NOUN 294 ENGLISH 140-55 PREPOSITIONAL

PHRASES 273 USED WITHOUT

ARTICLE 185 WITH ACCUSATIVE

CASE 1 2 4 - 6 WITH ACCUSATIVE OR

DATIVE CASE 131 -9 WITH DATIVE CASE

127-32 WITH GENITIVE CASE

139-40 see also prepositional

object, relative pronoun

PREPOSITIONAL ADVERB 19, 22, 201, 203,219,286,298

PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT 111 ,207 , 214-19,236,271

present 78 PRESENT PARTICIPLE see

participle PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE

see subjunctive PRESENT TENSE see tense presume 280 prevent 78 PRINCIPAL PARTS see

verb Prinz, der 183 Prinzip, das 178 Privileg, das 178 pro 126 PROGRESSIVE TENSE see

tense PRONOUN 1 7 , 2 2

PERSONAL PRONOUN 21,199,226,267

PRONOUNS OF ADDRESS 1 6 6 - 8

REFLEXIVE PRONOUN 212

see also demonstrative, indefinite, possessive, relative pronoun

PRONUNCIATION 13-18 Protokoll, das 179 prüfen 63 sich prügeln 65 PUNCTUATION 289,

297-9 PURPOSE CLAUSE 247 pushlü put 79 Pyjama, der/das 179,181

QUESTIONS see interrogatives, jpA-questions, yes/«ö-questions

quiet 79 QUOTATION MARKS 299

Rad fahren 293 Radio der/das 181 Rahm, der 99 Rahmen, der 99 raise 80 Ränke, die 179 rascheln 99 rasen 99 Rasen, der 180 rasseln 99 Rat, der 91,104 raten 53,68,91,188,189,

210,218,219 rau 99 'rauf 155 Raum, der 80 rauschen 99 ready 79 reagieren 215 realize 79 really 79 rechnen 215,216,218,223 Recht, das 99 Rechte, die 197 Rechtfertigung, die 99 REFLEXIVE PRONOUN

see pronoun REFLEXIVE VERB see verb refuse 80

REGIONAL VARIATION 7, 13,15-16,19-20, 23-9

REGISTER 3 - 1 0 , 16 -18 , 20-2,29-51

regret 279 reiben 186 -reich 110 reichen 91,210,223 Reichtum, der 179 reisen 100 Reisende(r), der 197 reißen 57, 100, 186,233 reiten 186,233 reizend 283 Reklame, die 54 reklamieren 60 RELATIVE CLAUSE 22,

200,273,274,284 RELATIVE PRONOUN 19,

200-2 AFTER PREPOSITION

201 rennen 190 rent 80 REPORTED SPEECH see

indirect speech Reptil, das 178 retten 81,218 Rhythmus, der 178 riechen 187,214,217 Riesen- 108 Rind, das 61 Rindvieh, das 61 ringen 187 rinnen 187 rise 80 Risiko, das 178 Ritz, der 106 Ritze, die 106 road 80 Rock, der 70 roh 99 Rohheit, die 297 Rohr, das 106 Röhre, die 106 romanisch 100 römisch 100 room 80 rope 80 Ross, das 178 round 152 rudern 233 rufen 58,61,189,216 ruhig 79, 158,163,281 sich rühmen 213

rühren 86 rührend 283 Ruin, der 106 Ruine, die 106 'runter 145

Saal, der 80 Sache, die 85 Saite, die 84,100 Sakko, der/das 70 -sal 173 salzen 190 Same(n), der 183 same 80 (sich) sammeln 60 Sammlung, die 100 sämtliche(r) 193,195,196 Sandbank, die 56 satisfy 80 satt 80 saufen 189 saugen 191 save 81 say 281 Schachtel, die 57 SCHACHTELSATZ 273 schade sein 291 schaden 61,210 Schaden, der 180 Schadenersatz, der 179 schadhaft 100 schädigen 61 schädlich 100 schaffen 188, 189,191 -schaft 108,172 Schal, der 100,177 Schale, die 81,100 Schall, der 82 sich schämen 213,218,

219,223 schätzen 68 schaudern 211 Scheck, der 177 Schein, der 55,91 scheinen 81,91,242, 271 scheißen 186 Schema, das 178 Schere, die 179 scheren 188,191 scheu 81 sich scheuen 218,219 schieben 78,187 schießen 187,225,233 Schild, der 103 Schild, das 103 Schilf, das 179

schlafen 188,242 (sich) schlagen 65,225,

242 Schlager, der 100 Schläger, der 100 schlau 59 schlecht 56,100 schleichen 186 schleifen 186,191 schlicht 81,100 schließen 59, 187,215,223 schließlich 65 schlimm 56 Schloss, das 58,91 schluchzen 61 Schlüpfer, der 179 zum Schluss 65 schmal 74 schmecken 72,210, 217 schmeicheln 210,235 schmeißen 186 schmelzen 188,191 schmieren 83 schmunzeln 67 schnappen 67 Schnapsidee, der 69 sich schnäuzen 297 schneiden 186,225 Schnitzer, der 74 Schnur, die 84 schon 158-9,161,163 schonen 81 schottische Hochland, das

179 Schreck, der 106 Schrecken, der 106 schreiben 186,242 schreien 61,186, 216 schreiten 186 SCHRIFTDEUTSCH 11 Schritt, der 83 schubsen 78 schüchtern 81 schuld sein 291 die Schuld geben 56 schulden 235 schütten 78 Schutzbrille, die 179 schwarz auf weiß 291 schwarzarbeiten 294 schwatzen 106 schwätzen 106 schweigen 186 schwellen 188 schwimmen 187, 233 schwindeln 211

schwören 189 secret 81 see 279,287 See, der 103 See, die 103,180 seem 279 segeln 233 sehen 73,188,242 sich sehnen 216,219 Seil, das 80 sein (possessive) see

possessive sein (verb) 19,230-4,238,

239,241,271,283, 291,294

5£/N-PASSIVE see passive seit (preposition) 129,146 seit(dem) (conjunction)

111 seit langem 291 Seite, die 100 seize 81 -sei 172 seil 209 seltsam 75 senden 190,191 SEPARABLE VERB SEE

prefix, verb setzen 79 shall 229 shine 81 should 246 shut 81 shy 81 sicher 91 -sicher 110 Sicht, die 87 Sie 166-8,292 simpel 81 simple 81 Sims, der/das 181 singen 187 Single, der 103 Single, die 103 Single, das 103 sink 209 sinken 187 sinnen 187 SITUATION (effect on

register) 5 sitzen 19,187, 232 Ski laufen 293 skin 81 small 82 smell 82 so-295

so dass / sodass 278,296 so (ein) 206 sobald 295 SOCIAL STATUS 6 Socke, die 106 Socken, der 106 solange 295 solch/solche(r) 21,193-6,

206 Soldat, der 183 sollen 238,246,247,248,

252-3,281 sonderbar 75,100 sonderlich 100 sondern 263,271 sooft 295 Sorge, die 58 (sich) sorgen 217, 219 Sorgfalt, die 58 sorgfältig 58 sorglos 58 Soße/Sauce, die 297 sound 82 SOUTH GERMAN 13, 15,

16, 19-20,24-5 soviel 296 sozusagen 265 space 82 Spagat, der 84 Spaghetti/Spagetti, die

297 Spalt, der 106 Spalte, die 106 spalten 190 spannend 283 sparen 81 Spatz, der 183 spazieren gehen 293 Speicher, der 74 Speise, die 66 SPELLING 2 8 9 - 9 7 spend 82 sperren 59 sich spezialisieren 215 Spielzeug, das 180 spinnen 187 SPOKEN GERMAN 4, 29,

35-40 Sport, der 180 spotten 213, 217 spread 82 sprechen 187,217 sprengen 100 springen 100,187 spülen 88 spüren 64,75

ß (letter) 28,296 Stadion, das 100 Stadium, das 100 Stadtrand, der 179 stand 209 stand- 293 STANDARD GERMAN 9,

11-12,23 Stängel, der 297 -stark 110 Stärke, die 78 STATEMENTS 263 Statistik, die 179 statt see anstatt statt- 293 stattfinden 68 stechen 187, 225 stecken 79,191 stehen 19, 189,230,232,

240,241 stehen bleiben 83, 293 stehen lassen 72 Stehleiter, der 179 stehlen 187 steigen 59, 80,186 Stelle, die 70,77 stellen 79 Stellung, die 70 step 83 sterben 62, 187, 214 Steuer, die 103 Steuer, das 103 Stiefel, der 178 Stiege, die 83 Stift, der 103 Stift, das 103 still 79 stillstehen 83 Stimme, die 92 stimmen 223 stinken 187 Stock, der 92,104 -stoff 108 Stoff, der 92 stop 83,280 stoppen 83 stoßen 78, 189,225,

233 strahlend 57 strange 83 Straße, die 83 Strauß, der 104 streben 216 street 83 streichen 76, 83,

186

Streik, der 177 (sich) streiten 65,186,217,

219 strength 84 streuen 78 Strick, der 80 string 84 strömen 65, 78 STRONG ADJECTIVE

DECLENSION see adjective

STRONG VERB see verb Stube, die 80 Stück, das 178 Stufe, die 83 stürzen 63,100 stutzen 100 (sich) stützen 100, 215 stutzig 84 SUBJECT 2 6 5 , 2 6 8 ; see also

agent, nominative case, word order

SUBJECT MATTER (effect on register) 5

SUBJECTLESS PASSIVE see passive

SUBJUNCTIVE 22, 239-48

CONDITIONAL 2 3 9 - 4 2 , 245-6

FUTURE SUBJUNCTIVE 239, 240

KONJUNKTIV I 239-40,242-8

KONJUNKTIV II 239-47,249

PAST SUBJUNCTIVE 239-42,245

PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE 239, 240

PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE 239, 240

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE 239

WÜRDE-FORM 240-2 SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

263,273-82 such (a) 206 suchen 216 SUFFIX

OF NOUN, SHOWING GENDER 171-5

see also word formation

SUPERLATIVE WITH AM 290 WITH AUFS 290

suppose 280 sure 279, 280 suspekt 84 suspicious 84 SWITZERLAND 12, 1 3 , 2 3 ,

26,28-9

Tablett, das 100 Tablette, die 100 tadeln 56 TAG QUESTIONS 156 take 84 tall 84 Tankstelle, die 67 tanzen 233 tasten 64 in der Tat 79 -tat 172 tatsächlich 79 Tau, der 103 Tau, das 80,103 tauschen 59,100 (sich) täuschen 100,

216 Taxe, die 106 Taxi, der/das 106,181 Teil, der/das 181 teil-293 teilnehmen 214 -tel 172 Telefon/Telephon, das

297 telefonieren 216 tend to 280 TENSE 2 2 9 - 3 3

COMPOUND TENSE 229

FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST 242

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 2 2 9 - 3 1

FUTURE TENSE 158, 159,229-30,246

IMPERFECT TENSE 230

PAST TENSE 22, 186, 229-31,248

PERFECT TENSE 19, 229-33,248

PLUPERFECT TENSE 20,229,231

PRESENT TENSE 20, 229,246

PROGRESSIVE TENSE 283

then 84 there 266 thick 84 thing 84 think 85,280 threaten 85 through 152 till see until time 85 tippen 68 TITLES 292 to 153-4,211 Tochter, die 174 Tod, der 180 Ton, der 82 TOPIC 265 Tor, der 104 Tor, das 104 totschlagen 294 touch 85 towards 154 tragen 92, 188,242 TRANSITIVE VERB see

verb trauen 73,101,210 träumen 217,219 (sich) trefTen 73,92, 187,

242 treiben 186,218 Treppe, die 83,179 treten 188,225,233 trinken 187 Tritt, der 83 Tropf, der 101 Tropfen, der 101 trotz 139,272,292 trübe 18,61 Trümmer, die 179 Trupp, der 106 Truppe, die 106 tschüs(s) 165 -tum 108,172 tun 21,79, 189,241,282 Tür(e), die 106 turn 86

Typ, der 106,183 Type, die 106

übel 56 über 61,136-7,141,144,

151,152,217 über- 116-17 über. . . hinaus 144 über kurz oder lang 291

übereinkommen 54 übereinstimmen 54,216 überhaupt 159,161 überhören 74 überlassen 72 sich überlegen 85 übernehmen 53 überqueren 61 überreden 77,218 überschreiten 61 überschwänglich 297 übersehen 74 überzeugen 77,80,217,

219 überzeugend 283 übrig bleiben 293 im Übrigen 101 übrigens 101,265 Ufer, das 56 um 126, 143,144,152,217 um-117 -um 172 um . . . zu 263,276,286 umbinden 211 (sich) umdrehen 86 umfassend 283 UMGANGSSPRACHE 1 see

also spoken German Umgebung, die 179 umgehen 55 umkehren 86 umkippen 86 umkommen 62 UMLAUT

IN NOUN PLURAL 174-6,177-8

IN PAST SUBJUNCTIVE 240

IN PRESENT TENSE OF VERBS 20, 189

IN WORD FORMATION 107-10,112,113

umsichtig 58 umsteigen 59 umtauschen 59 (sich) umziehen 59,92 un- (adjective prefix) 110 Un- (noun prefix) 109 unbedingt 94 und 263,284,298 under 154 understanding 86 unendlich 96 Unfall, der 53 -ung 15,108,172 ungefähr 141

ungerade 75 ungewöhnlich 101 unglaublich 101 unglaubwürdig 101 Unglück, das 53 unheimlich 75 Unkraut, das 179 unter 137-8,142,154 unter- 117-18 unterbrechen 57 unterhalb 140 (sich) unterhalten 71,92,

216 Unterhose, die 179 unterschiedlich 62 untersuchen 63 until 154 unvorsichtig 58 unweit 140 up 155 ur- (adjective prefix) 110 Ur- (noun prefix) 109 -ur (noun sufüx) 172 Urlaub, der 68 Ursache, die 58 urteilen 217,219 use 81 used to 280

VALENCY (verb) 20, 207-23

VARIANT 1 VARIATION 1 - 5 1 VARIETY 1 ver-113 verabreden 54 (sich) verändern 59 veranlassen 62,190,218 Veranstaltung, die 63 VERB

AGREEMENT IN SINGULAR 179

CONJUGATION 18, 186-91

EINEM ETWAS VERB 211-12

FINITE VERB 2 6 2 - 5 GOVERNMENT 207-19 IMPERSONAL VERB

232 INSEPARABLE VERB

111-14,115-18 INTRANSITIVE VERB

111,208,232 IRREGULAR VERB

186-91,240-2

PHRASAL VERB 238 PRINCIPAL PARTS 186 REFLEXIVE VERB 211,

213,232,238 SEPARABLE VERB

114-18,293-4 STRONG VERB 21,

186-91,240-2 TRANSITIVE VERB

111,208,232,236 VERBS OF GIVING

AND TAKING 211 VERBS OF MOTION

112,232,233 VERBS OF SAYING,

HEARING 230 VERBS OF SENDING

212 VOWEL CHANGE IN

PAST TENSE 1 8 6 - 9 VOWEL CHANGE IN

PRESENT TENSE 188, 189

WEAK VERB 186, 189-91,240,241

see also auxiliary verb, imperative, modal auxiliary verb, subjunctive, tense, valency, word formation, word order

VERBAL BRACKET see word order

VERBAL NOUN see noun Verband, der 94 (sich) verbessern 69 Verbindlichkeit, die 94 Verbindung, die 94 sich verbitten 212 verblüffend 283 verbrauchen 82,87,95 Verbraucher, der 95 (sich) verbreiten 83 verbringen 82 Verbundenheit, die 94 verdächtig 84 verderben 187 Verdienst, der 104 Verdienst, das 104 vereinbaren 54 vereinzelt 96 verfehlen 74 verfolgen 66 verfugen 217 verführen 218

vergessen 188 vergleichen 186,216 sich verhalten 56,218 Verhalten, das 101 Verhältnis, das 101 sich verheiraten 73,216 verheiratet 73 verhindern 78 verhüten 78 verkünden 98 verlangen 55, 216 (sich) verlassen 72, 215 verleiden 190 verleugnen 62 sich verlieben 216 verlieren 187 Verlobte(r), der 197 verlockend 283 verloren gehen 293 sich vermählen 73 vermeiden 55 vermieten 80,99 vermissen 74 vermuten 68 vermutlich 280 verneinen 62 Vernunft, die 86 verpassen 74 verrichten 93 versagen 80 sich versammeln 60 Versammlung, die 100 versäumen 74 verscheiden 62 verschieden 62 verschließen 72 verschonen 101 verschönen 101 verschweigen 211 verschwinden 187,242 versehen 216 aus Versehen 53 versehentlich 53 versichern 213 versorgen 71 Versprechen, das 180 Verstand, der 86 verständigen 54, 217 Verständigung, die 86 Verständnis, das 86 verstehen 66 Versuch, der 92,101 Versuchung, die 101 (sich) verteilen 83 sich vertiefen 216 vertrauen 101

verurteilen 94 verwandeln 59 Verwandte(r), der 197 verweigern 62, 80,211 verweisen 213 verwenden 87 verwerten 87 verwirklichen 79 verwunden 102 verwunderlich 101 verwundern 102 verzeichnen 94 verzeihen 186 verzichten 215 Vetter, der 183 Vieh, das 61 viel 198,201,206,226,296 viele 193, 195,196,206 vielleicht 161,164 view 87 Villa, die 178 Virus, der/das 178,181 Visum, das 178 VOCABULARY 2 3 - 3 5 ,

52-170 VOICE see passive Volk, das 77 voll- 118 -voll 110 Vollendung, die 53 von 130, 147, 149,217,

225-8,236,272 v o n . . . an 131,139,147 von . . . her-/hinunter 150 von klein auf 291 von nah und fern 291 von weitem 291 vonnöten 294 vor 138,154,214,218 vor- 115 im Voraus 290 vorbei sein 294 Vorbeigehende(r), der 197 vorbeikommen 58 vorderhand 294 Vorfall, der 63 vorfallen 68 Vorgang, der 63 VORGANGSPASSIV See

passive vorgehen 68 Vörgesetzte(r), der 197 vorhaben 73 vorhanden 78 vorher 101 vorhin 101

vorkommen 68 Vorkommen, das 63 Vorkommnis, das 63 sich vornehmen 212 Vorsicht, die 58 vorsichtig 58 Vorsitzende(r), der 197 (sich) vorstellen 69,92,

212 Vorstellung, die 69 vorwerfen 56 VULGARISM 8

Waage, die 179 wach werden 87 wachen 87 wachsen 67,188 Wagen, der 101,178 Waggon, der 101 Wahl, die 179 wählen 92 wahren 101 währen 101 während (conjunction) 278 während (preposition)

139,145 wahrhaftig 79 wake (up) 87,209 Wald, der 179 walk im Wall, der 87 wall 87 walten 213 Wand, die 87 want 281 warnen 218 warten 215 was (interrogative) 21,

203-206 was (relative pronoun) 201 was für ein 203,205-206 waschen 88,188 wash (up) 88,209 WEAK ADJECTIVE

DECLENSION see adjective

WEAK MASCULINE NOUN see noun

WEAK VERB see verb weben 188,191 wechseln 59 wecken 87 Weg, der 83

aus dem Weg gehen 55 wegen 139,272 weggehen 71

weglassen 72 wegschließen 72 Weh tun 293 Wehr, die 104 Wehr, das 104 sich wehren 101 weichen 186,191 sich weigern 80 weil 22,278 weinen 61 weisen 186 weit 74,92 weiter 60,281 weiterfuhren 60 weitermachen 60 welcher (interrogative)

193,194,203, 205-206

welcher (relative pronoun) 200,201

welcome 88 wenden 86,190, 191 wenig 206,226,296 wenige 193,195,196,206 wenigstens 265 wenn 245,263,278,285,

286 wer 21,202,206 werben 187 Werbespot, der 54 Werbung, die 54 werden 67,188,234,241,

271 WERDEN-PASSIVE See

passive were to 246 werfen 187 Werkstatt, die 67 -wert 110 -wesen 108 wessen 202 wett- 293 what 202 WH-Q UESTIONS 160-1 ,

202-3,263 wider 101,126,142 wider-118,210 widerfahren 68 widerhallen 118 sich widersetzen 212 widerspiegeln 118 wie 21,230,273,275 wie- 295 wie wenn 247 wieder 54,101 wieder- 118

wiederholen 118 wiederum 54 wiegen 187 wieweit 296 will 229 Wille, der 183 willkommen heißen 67 wirklich 79 Wirren, die 179 Wirtschaft, die 92 wissen 71, 190,241 Wissen, das 71 with 155,286 wo 19,201,203 WO + PREPOSITION see

prepositional adverb woanders 296 woher 203 wohin 203 wohl 158,159,161, 163,

230,280 wohnen 72 Wolkenbank, die 56 wollen 80,246,253,281 womöglich 296 WORD FORMATION

107-18 ADJECTIVES 109-11 BY PREFIXES 108-18 BY SUFFIXES 107-10 COMPOUND WORD 17,

274,283,292,294 DIMINUTIVES 107 NOUNS 107-9 VERBS 111-18 VOWEL CHANGES 107 see also umlaut

WORD ORDER 2 6 2 - 7 3 ADVERBIALS 268-70 ,

272 AFTER THE CLOSING

BRACKET 2 7 1 - 3 CENTRAL SECTION

267-71 COMPLEMENTS 271 INITIAL POSITION

262,264,282 OBJECTS 268 PRONOUNS 267 SUBJECT 268 VERBAL BRACKET

262-4

Wort, das 104 would 245 wozu 203 WRITTEN GERMAN 4,

7-9,29,41-51 wunder- 293 wunderbar 101 wunderlich 75,101 sich wundern 102,217,

219 WÜRDE-FORM see

subjunctive -würdig 110 würdigen 213

YES/NO QUESTIONS 160-1,263

zähe 18 Zahl, die 75 zahlen 77 zählen 215,218 Zange, die 179 Zeh, der 106 Zehe, die 106 zeigen 92,235 Zeit, die 85 Zeitalter, das 54 Zentrum, das 178 zer- 113 zerbrechen 57 zerreißen 57 zerschlagen 57 zerschmettern 57 -zeug 108 Zeug, das 85 Zeugs, das 85 Ziegenpeter, der 179 ziehen 68,187,233,

242 Zierrat, der 297 Ziffer, die 75 Zimmer, das 80 Zinsen, die 179 Zirkel, der 179 Zoll, der 179 zu 19, 130-1, 146, 153-4,

218,286 zu-210 zubringen 82 züchten 68 zuerst 65,96

zufällig 53,281 zufolge 132,141 sich zufrieden geben 80 zufrieden sein 80,294 zufrieden stellen 80 zufrieren 66 Zug, der 92 Zugang, der 63 zugeben 53, 54 zugehen 59 zugleich 97 zugrunde / zu Grunde

gehen 295 zugunsten / zu Gunsten

295 zulassen 53 zuletzt 65 zumachen 59 zumute / zu Mute sein

295 zunächst 65 zunehmen 68 zuraten 54 zurück sein 294 zurückfuhren 215 zurückhalten 71 zurücklassen 72 zurufen 58 zurzeit 294 zusammen- 115 zusammenkommen 60,

73 zusammenstoßen 216 zusammentreffen 73 zusammentreten 73 zustande / zu Stande

bringen 295 ZUSTANDSPASSIV See

passive zustimmen 54 zustoßen 68 sich zutragen 68 Zutritt, der 62-3 zuwege / zu Wege bringen

295 zwar 158,159 zweifellos 280 zweifeln 62,214,219 zwingen 66,187,218 zwingend 283 zwischen 138,142 Zwischenfall, der 63