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Geography Revision Notes

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Plate Tectonics

Plate Tectonic Theory

The Earth is divided into: crust outer mantle inner mantle core

The crust is broken into plates (e.g. Eurasian or South American plates). These plates move due to the hot liquid mantle moving underneath them (convection currents). Some plates move towards each other (Destructive boundaries), some plates move away from each other (Constructive boundaries) and some move past each other (Conservative boundaries). All plate boundaries cause tectonic activity – volcanoes and/or earthquakes.

Plate Boundaries

Constructive

Conservative - where plates move sideways, friction occurs. This causes pressure and the plates

tear apart, creating an earthquake (e.g. San Andreas Fault – San Francisco 1989).

Major Volcanoes: Pinatubo Etna Kilimanjaro Montserrat Hawaii Iceland (Can you place them on a world map?)

Effects from Volcanic Eruptions: Responses to Volcanic Eruptions:

Buildings & farmland destroyed Population Evacuation

Landslides/mudflows (lahars) Divert lava flow

Services cut (no electricity, no water) Monitor volcanic activity

Death, injury, homelessness Learn from past events

Ash clouds affect flights (e.g. UK 2010)

Magma forces plates to move apart and rises through the gap, where new crust is formed as it cools e.g. Mid-Atlantic Ridge (a volcanic mountain range under the ocean).

Destructive

Where plates meet, the oceanic plate sinks beneath the continental plate (subduction zone) where it melts. This causes intense friction and pressure and lava erupts to the surface. There will also be earthquakes.

Why do people live near volcanoes, despite the risk of an eruption?

a) The land is fertile eg. Philippines b) Income from tourism e.g. Etna

c) Geothermal energy supply e.g. Iceland d) Plate Boundaries rich in raw materials e.g. copper, diamonds

Europe North America

Volcanic Islands form along the Mid Atlantic Ridge, such as Iceland.

Oceanic plate vs Continental plate

Etna or Pinatubo


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Plate Tectonics

Effects of an Earthquake Responses to an Earthquake

Death, injury, homelessness Earthquake-proof buildings

Destruction of buildings/roads/bridges Earthquake drills for evacuation

Fires (from burst gas pipes) Rescue services/technology

Services cut (no electricity, no water) Earthquake prediction/prevention Why may the death toll vary greatly between earthquakes of a similar magnitude (power)?

The readiness of a country to deal with the quake (MEDC or LEDC?)

The population density of the affected area The quality of buildings (MEDC or LEDC?)

Quakes to know…

San Francisco 1989 Indonesia 2004 (cause of the Tsunami) Pakistan 2005

(Can you place them on a world map?)

LLLEEEAAARRRNNN YYYOOOUUURRR CCCAAASSSEEE SSSTTTUUUDDDIIIEEESSS!!!!!! TIP!

Make sure you know how volcanoes are formed and why earthquakes occur.

A question might ask you, “Why are volcanoes and earthquakes associated with plate boundaries?” Basically, this is asking you to explain how the plate movements at different boundaries result in volcanoes and earthquakes.

Sample C.E. Questions

1. What are plates? (1) 2. Using examples that you have studied, describe the problems caused by a volcanic eruption

and an earthquake (4 marks each example) 3. Describe a destructive plate boundary in order to explain how volcanoes occur (4) 4. Briefly explain on which plate boundaries earthquakes occur (3) 5. Why do people live in areas that are prone to earthquakes and volcanic activity? (4)

You’ll be asked to draw and fully label (annotate) the plate boundaries. Can you???

(5 marks each)


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Weather and Climate

Weather – day-to-day changes in air conditions (temperature, wind, rainfall, clouds & humidity) Climate – the average weather over many years (rainfall and temperature) Factors affecting climate

a) Latitude – at higher latitudes (further from the Equator), the sun‟s rays are spread over a

larger area and are therefore not as hot (e.g. the Arctic or the Antarctic). b) Altitude – for every 100m in height the temperature drops by 1°C (e.g. the Himalayas). c) Distance from the sea – land warms & cools very quickly, whereas the sea remains nearly the

same temperature. Coastal climates are therefore mild in summer & winter (e.g. the UK) but continental climates are very hot in summer & very cold in winter (e.g. Germany).

d) Prevailing winds – where does the most common wind come from and what weather does it bring? (E.g. 80% of the UK‟s weather comes from the Atlantic Ocean to the west). Remember that for rainfall in the UK, the west is wet and the east has least.

Types of Rainfall

As warm moist air rises, it cools. Water vapour condenses into water droplets and clouds form. As clouds become saturated, rain falls. There are 3 ways in which air can rise: This is a warm front

Convection – in hot weather, the sun heats the ground, which warms the air above it. This warm air rises rapidly, cooling and forming large thunderclouds. (e.g. on the Equator or on a hot summer‟s day in the UK).

Relief – air is forced to rise over hills. As it does, it cools and condenses and rain occurs on the windward side. As it passes over the hill, the air descends and there is little rain, causing a rain shadow. (e.g. In the Lake District in the UK).

3. Frontal – where a cold air mass meets a warm air mass, the warm air rises over the cold, resulting in light rain on the warm front. As cold air comes in, it undercuts the warm air and heavy rain occurs and temperatures fall on the cold front. (e.g. Depressions over the UK)


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Weather and Climate

Depressions

The map on the right shows weather fronts over Europe. You can see that where there are fronts, there is rain.

Weather Patterns in the UK

The prevailing winds are from the SW, bringing mild, wet weather from the Atlantic Ocean. As it reaches the west coast, relief rainfall occurs over the hills. The East is drier due to the rain shadow.

The opposite of low-pressure systems (otherwise known as depressions or cyclones) are high-pressure systems (known as anticyclones). These are areas of hot and dry weather in summer and cold and dry weather in winter. Microclimates

Rainfall and temperature may be affected on a local scale by site conditions. A microclimate is therefore the climate of a small area, such as in a car park or in a wood.

Aspect - South-facing areas face the sun and are warmer than north-facing areas. Surface – Buildings and some surface materials store heat (Urban Heat Island Effect).

Buildings can also create wind tunnels, where wind speeds through gaps. Shade – Buildings and trees create shade. Shaded areas are cooler.

Shelter - Buildings and trees act as wind breaks (reducing the wind chill factor). Think about where the best place for a weather station would be within the Papplewick school grounds. What would you need to measure without any interfering factors?

YOU MAY BE ASKED TO DRAW DIAGRAMS OF TYPES OF RAINFALL.

TIP! IN A RECENT SURVEY, RELIEF RAINFALL WAS QUESTIONED IN 3 OUT OF 3 PAPERS

The UK does not have a cold climate, thanks to the North Atlantic Drift (the warm ocean current that crosses the Atlantic Ocean), which brings mild, wet weather throughout the year.


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Weather and Climate

Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle) Key processes are:

Evaporation – the process of water turning from a liquid to water vapour Transpiration – water returning to the atmosphere through plant leaves Condensation – water vapour turning into water droplets as it cools, forming clouds

Precipitation – rain, hail, sleet or snow (all count as rainfall) Overland Flow (Run-off) – water flowing over the surface, such as in rivers

Through Flow (Infiltration) – water flowing through soil or permeable rocks on its way to rivers or underground flow

You‟ll need to be able to draw and label this diagram perfectly!

CE Questions

1. What is the difference between weather and climate? (2) 2. Name 4 factors that influence world climates. (4) 3. Explain how buildings may influence either temperatures or wind speed. (3) 4. Describe how relief influences the climate of the UK. (4) 5. What is the North Atlantic Drift and how does it affect the UK climate? (3) 6. Why is the southwest the warmest part of Britain in January? (2) 7. Where is the best place to locate a weather station? (3)


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Settlements (for use in the O.S. map section) Reasons for the LOCATION of settlements (Site – where it is and Situation – what’s close by) a) On trade routes (roads, bridges, rivers, sea ports) b) near water supply for drinking c) near a wood for building materials/hunting d) on flat land for farming e) on high ground for defence f) near other resources (rocks, coal, sea)

Settlement Patterns (Layout)

Nucleated – centred around something e.g. crossroads, Village church

or a bridge. Linear – spread along a road or valley bottom.

Dispersed – a few houses randomly spread out e.g. countryside

Settlement Function

a) market town e.g. Reading grew where the Thames and Kennet rivers joined b) tourist town e.g. Brighton has an famous beach and pier c) industrial centre e.g. Sheffield specialised in steel production d) port e.g. London was once the world‟s largest port

The functions of a settlement will change over time (e.g. London was a port, yet now it is a financial centre as well as many other functions).


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Geomorphology - Weathering

Weathering is the gradual breakdown of rock by rainwater and changes in temperature (weather). Weathering and Erosion are not the same! Erosion by water, wind and ice transport the broken material away. Weathered material is not transported away by the weather.

So, the difference between weathering and erosion is that there is not transportation involved in

weathering. Physical weathering

Chemical weathering

This occurs where water and air produce chemical reactions in rock. Caves form in limestone due to chemical weathering. Chalk cliffs are easily damaged. water + carbon dioxide = carbonic acid

Biological weathering

Rock may be broken up by tree roots or by animals burrowing This is very common in Rainforest areas where the soils are extremely deep. Remember – not all rocks weather at the same rate. Just as in erosion, some rock types are

more resistant than others.

CE Questions

1. Briefly describe what weathering processes are typical in high mountainous areas. (2) 2. For one rock type, explain how it is more influenced by weathering than others. (4) 3. Explain the term „biological weathering‟ and where it is likely to happen. (2)

a) Frost shattering or freeze-thaw – cracks in rock fill with water. If the temperature falls below freezing, the water turns to ice and expands. This puts pressure on the crack, which widens, and fragments break off. These form scree at the foot of the slope or cliff. Freeze-thaw occurs in cold, wet environments such as mountainous areas or coastal cliffs.

b) Onion-skin weathering or exfoliation – during the day, the outer layers of rock heat and expand. At night, they cool and contract. These constant changes loosen the outer rock layer and fragments break off. Onion-skin weathering occurs in environments with

temperature extremes such as deserts.


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Geomorphology – River Processes

1. Erosion Rivers erode their banks (lateral) and their beds (vertically) by the following processes:

Attrition – stones collide and erode each other

Hydraulic Action – water sweeps into cracks in the bank or the bed and the pressure erodes the rock or soil

Solution – some rocks (e.g. chalk) are dissolved in water Corrasion – stones erode the bed or bank as they move along 2. Transportation Traction (tumbling) – large stones roll along the river bed

Suspension – of small particles in flow Solution – of dissolved particles (e.g. chalk)

Floatation – of very small particles on surface of water The movement of stones and soil from the Upper stages to the Lower stages of a river system is called its load.

3. Deposition Caused by a change in the river‟s ability to transport load (i.e. the speed of flow is not fast enough to carry stones and soil any more). This occurs:

on the inside of a meander (river beaches formed) on the flat land of a floodplain (levees and silt deposits form on floodplain) or as a river grows in size and reaches the sea (deltas form) Features in the Upper Stages of a River (Erosion Landforms)

a) V-shaped valleys b) Waterfalls, where water flows over a cap of hard rock with a layer of soft rock underneath leaving behind gorges (e.g. Niagara Falls, Canada).

Channel sides are weathered (rain, ice and wind) and stones and soil fall into channel (gravity) to be transported away downstream by the water.

Fast flowing water (on steep mountain slopes)

erodes downwards forming a channel.

Erosion, weathering and transportation continue until a v-shaped valley forms.


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Features of Lowland Rivers (Erosion & Deposition landforms) - Can you identify each of these on an O.S. map?

Meanders

Ox-bow lakes

LLLEEEAAARRRNNN YYYOOOUUURRR CCCAAASSSEEE SSSTTTUUUDDDYYY!!!!!! Mississippi Floods 1993

CE Questions

1. With the aid of a diagram, show how erosion results in the formation of a waterfall (5) 2. Explain, with the aid of a diagram, how a floodplain or ox-bow lake is formed (5) 3. Name 2 processes of river erosion (2) 4. With reference to examples, describe the ways in which humans can control the effects of

river flooding in low-lying areas (4) 5. How does human activity help to cause greater river flooding? (4)

Erosion on outside where flow is fastest and deepest (cliffs & pools)

Deposition on inside where flow is slowest and shallow (beaches)

Floodplains When a river floods, it deposits its load. The larger particles end up close by creating a levee. The smaller particles are left on the floodplain and create rich farmland.

Slow flowing water in old meander causes deposition to occur. Ox-bow lake is now cut off permanently.

These include: 1. Storm warning systems of when the river might flood 2. Dams 3. Levees (embankments) to contain the water 4. Planting trees to absorb water 5. Enlarging or straightening the river 6. Planning to restrict where new houses can be built

Flood Management As people choose to live and farm on floodplains, it is increasingly necessary to manage rivers in times of flood, to prevent the sort of damage caused by the floods e.g. Mississippi Floods 1993.


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Geomorphology – Coastal Processes

1. Erosion Waves erode the coastline by the following processes:

Attrition – stones and sand in the waves or on the beaches collide and erode each other

Hydraulic Action – water sweeps into cracks in a cliff and the pressure erodes the rock Solution – some rocks (e.g. chalk) are dissolved in salt water quite easily Corrasion – stones and sand in the waves erode cliffs and headlands 2. Transportation The carrying of material (load)

swash – pebbles and sand washing up onto a beach by waves backwash – pebbles and sand being pulled back down a beach by waves Longshore Drift – the direction of the transportation (depending on the wind and waves)

The movement of pebbles and sand along a coastline. 3. Deposition The dropping of material (load). Caused by a change in the waves‟ ability to transport load (i.e. not enough energy to carry pebbles and sand any more). This occurs:

in bays where the water is shallow (beaches formed) in river estuaries where river flow and waves meet (spits formed) Factors that affect the speed of erosion 1. Rock type – soft rocks like clay or chalk erode more easily than hard ones like granite 2. Structure – rocks with many joints and cracks are eroded more easily 3. Shelter from wind – sheltered coasts erode more slowly as there are fewer waves 4. Depth of water – deep water has more power to erode as the waves are bigger

Coastal Features (Erosion Landforms)

As the waves erode the base of a cliff, undercutting occurs. Soon the weight of rock above is too great and the cliff collapses. A platform of rocks protects the cliff from further erosion. This is called a Wave-cut Platform.

Caves, Arches, Stacks & Stumps – the waves erode a headland from the side, forming caves, arches, stacks and stumps. E.g. Durdle Door & Old Harry, Dorset

Headlands and Bays – the sea erodes soft rock more easily (bays) leaving the harder rock behind (headlands)

Wind and wave direction


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Deposition Landforms Eroded material is transported along the coast by means of Longshore Drift (swash & backwash). This material is deposited to forms beaches and spits.

Coastal Management

TIP! CAN YOU DRAW A FEATURE OF COASTAL EROSION (e.g. ARCHES & STACKS) & A FEATURE OF

DEPOSITION (e.g. A SPIT)?

C.E. Questions

1. Name two types of erosion (2) 2. Name a feature formed through deposition by the sea (1) 3. Name one man-made structure along a coastline and describe how it reduces erosion (2) 4. Name a spit (1) 5. Explain, with the help of a diagram, how a spit/stack/headland is formed (5) 6. With the aid of a diagram, show how erosion results in the formation of stacks (4) 7. Why do pebbles move along a beach? (5)

There are several ways of slowing erosion:

Boulders and walls at the base of the cliff to stop undercutting

Groynes to stop Longshore Drift and to trap sand on beach

Using drainage to s top cliffs becoming saturated and unstable

Spurn Head Spit on the Humber River

Spits are formed where the coastline changes direction eg. at the mouth of a river. ERODED material is TRANSPORTED along the coast and DEPOSITED, forming a bar of beach material pebbles and sand (e.g. Spurn Head or Harlech Spit in Wales)

In some areas, we need to protect the coast from erosion. At Holderness, for example, 2 metres of the clay coastline are being lost to the sea each year. This is called cliff collapse. The photo shows Holbeck Hall Hotel falling into the sea.


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Economic Activity

In LEDCs (e.g. Kenya), most people are employed in primary activities. Farming is very labour intensive, education is limited and there is little investment in manufacturing. In Newly Industrialising Countries (e.g. India & China), most people are employed in secondary activities. This is the stage of development that we in the UK called the Industrial Revolution. In MEDCs, most people are employed in tertiary or quaternary activities as we all have more money to spend. Primary Economic Activity

The Solomon Islands are Less Economically Developed and are a poor country but they have a valuable resource of wood and if they sell this they can develop… BUT: Unsustainable forestry has damaged the land.

Companies (e.g. from Malaysia) have exploited the forests (taken as much as they can). Wood is sold to people like us in Asian & European countries!

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT - There will be a future!

Location of Industry

Originally, factors such as being near to raw materials were very important for industries. Nowadays, access and the cost of land are more important. Many industries now choose to locate on edge-of-city locations, where:

There is lots of space to build on and land is cheaper There is good access to motorways and airports The site is purpose built for large warehouses and lorries

The industry is still close to the city to find skilled workers

There are four main types of economic activity:

(a) Primary – THE TAKING OF NATURAL RESOURCES e.g. farming, mining, FORESTRY, fishing (SOLOMONS)

(b) Secondary – THE MAKING OF GOODS e.g. CARS in factories (Manufacturing industries) (HONDA)

(c) Tertiary – PROVIDING SERVICES such as retail, businesses (SONY), TOURISM, teachers & doctors.

(d) Quaternary – IT programming and software such as SONY, MICROSOFT or APPLE

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TTTHHHEEE SSSOOOLLLOOOMMMOOONNN IIISSSLLLAAANNNDDDSSS

There is hope… Local people have set up a Sustainable method of forestry. Instead of gaining only 2% of the money for the wood they sell (the rest going to the foreign logging companies), they now see 50% of the money for it. They take only the trees they need, leaving a healthy forest behind where trees will continue to grow for the future.


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Secondary Economic Activity

Tertiary and Quaternary Economic Activity

Computer companies have also located their businesses along the M4 corridor (e.g. Sony in Reading) for the same reasons as Honda above.

Your other Case Study of Tertiary Economic Activities should be Tourism in National Parks in the UK or Nepal.

Trans-National Corporations (TNC’s) or Global Industries TNC‟S are large companies that operate in more than one country, such as Coca-Cola, Nike, Sony, or Honda. These companies may have factories all over the world, making different parts of their products. E.g. Labour is cheaper in LEDC‟s (India) whereas the markets for their products will be in MEDC‟s (USA or Europe). This is known as GLOBALISATION. CE Questions

1. Choose a type of primary activity, and explain why it occurs in that location (3) 2. Explain what is meant by the term „sustainable development‟ (3) 3. Describe what is meant by „tertiary activities‟ (2) 4. State four factors that influenced the location of an industry of your choice (4) 5. Why do global industries operate in many different countries? (3)

Case Study: Car Manufacturing &

The M4 Corridor – HONDA, Swindon

This developed as companies needed more space to expand. Many moved from run-down inner city

areas in London. The M4 links London to South Wales. Towns along it like Bracknell, Reading and

Swindon provide edge-of-city locations especially suitable for manufacturing companies. Many

foreign companies ( eg. Honda ) choose to locate here because of:

Good access to the rest of the UK & to Europe (motorways, railways, ports and airports) to

bring resources in and take products away to sell

Government grants that make it cheap to locate there

Good telecommunications (email/phone networks)

Skilled workforce nearby (high population to choose from)

This has provided much investment and employment to the Thames Valley and South Wales. This

was great for Wales as it suffered when coalmines and steelworks closed and jobs were lost.


16

Environmental Issues

UK National Parks

The role of a National Parks is to: (a) preserve the environment (b) provide services to tourists (c) protect economic activities

(Learn these off-by-heart!)

LLLEEEAAARRRNNN YYYOOOUUURRR CCCAAASSSEEE SSSTTTUUUDDDIIIEEESSS!!!!!! National Parks in the UK

Tourism in Nepal

Forestry in the Solomon Islands

Are your examples sustainable? What solutions are being put in place? CE Questions

1. Suggest one way in which farming may conflict with the demands of tourists in a National Park (2)

2. Suggest two problems caused by the presence of large numbers of tourists in this area (2) 3. Explain how National Parks try to cope with so many visitors (3) 4. Describe what is meant by sustainable development (2) 5. For an environmental area under threat, explain how conservation is being managed (6)

Case Study: Land-Use Conflicts in the

Lake District National Park

Farmers v Tourists: tourists damage fences, frighten

animals, drop litter, cause footpath erosion and congestion,

but they want access to visit beautiful scenery

Solutions include footpath management and restricting tourist access to certain areas

Locals v Tourists: tourists provide income to local shops,

but they cause over-crowding and road congestion

Solutions include better road systems and car parking and restricting tourist access to certain areas

Industry v National Parks: industry provides jobs and

income, but it can damage the landscape and cause pollution

e.g. quarrying & reservoirs

Solutions include being strict on how the industries

operate and forcing them to repair any damage caused

‘Honey-Pots’ – areas of most interest to visitors (e.g.

Beatrix Potter’s World next to Lake Windermere). Leads

to CONGESTION, OVERCROWDING, but great for local

businesses and jobs.

What is?… Conservation: protecting something so

that it is not damaged

e.g. rare wildlife or vegetation in areas of

outstanding natural beauty.

Stewardship: Taking responsibility and

caring for the Earth or any part of it.

Includes responsibility in using resources

and creating as little waste and pollution as

possible.

Sustainable Development: using

resources in a responsible way (not

exploiting or over-using) so that there will

be enough for future generations (reduce,

recycle, re-use).

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