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Contents of the section: Citation records and selection of useful citations CITATION RECORDS AND SOME FORGOTTEN ANNIVERSARIES IN THERMAL ANALYSIS Jaroslav Šesták J Thermal Anal Calor, 2012; 109: 1-5 TEN YEARS SINCE ROBERT C. MACKENZIE’S DEATH. A TRIBUTE TO THE ICTA FOUNDER Gianni Lombardi , Jaroslav Šesták Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, Vol. 105 (2011) 783-701 PREFACE FOR THE BOOK „THERMAL ANALYSIS OF MICRO-, NANO- AMD NONCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS“ Jaroslav Šesták Springer 2013, ISBN 978-90-481-3149-5. IMAPACT OF CZECH AND SLOVAK THERMOANALYSTS TOWARD THE EARLY PROMOTION OF THERMOMETRY, CALORIMETRY AND THERMAL PHYSICS Jaroslav Šesták, Pavel Holba International calorimetry seminary in Harrachov 2012, proceedings by Pardubice University 2012 DISTINCTIVE ANNIVERSARIES, PAPERS AND CITATION RECORDS IN THE TOPIC OF GLASS CRYSTALLIZATION Jaroslav Šesták, Sklář a keramik 11–12 / 2011 – 265 (published in Prague)

DATABASES IN MATERIALS SCIENCE: CONTEMPORARY STATE AND FUTURE

J. Fiala and J. Šesták Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry 60 (2000) 1101-1110.

Citation records and some forgotten anniversaries in thermalanalysis

Jaroslav Šesták

Received: 29 April 2011 / Accepted: 2 May 2011

� Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, Hungary 2011

Abstract Extent of citation is analysed and the best citied

papers mentioned accentuating Journal of Thermal analysis

and Thermochimica Acta. The relevant scope of papers is

uncovered and some viewpoints are shown. The sphere of

kinetics appears the most cited subject matter.

Keywords Impact factor � Quotation responses � Bestcited papers � Thermoanalytical journals � Kinetics

Preface

Ten years ago we published an assay describing the storage

and citation manners utilized in the sphere of scientific

literature [1] noting if the aim of science is pursuit of truth,

then the pursuit of information may even drive people from

science. In 1978, American E. Garfield became a founder

of the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) and insti-

gated an associated launching the citation and co-citation

(‘scientometric’) databasing. Since that the demand for a

more extensive data dissemination accelerated because

most scientific evaluations account on ‘publicability’,

which is rated according to the so-called journals’ impact

factors (IF) and the authors’ citation feedback (respon-

siveness).1 Specific databases have been established and

the available records are attentively followed to provide

basis for a more unprejudiced scientific appraisal though

the absolutely objective assessment is yet unreachable.

Most common is the ISI Web of Science (WOS) which is

standard in providing easy accessible data on a searched

journal, paper, and/or author yielding figures on the total

citation and annual citation record as well as partial data on

the yearly mean responsiveness (including IF and

H-index). However, for older data (\1972) WOS requestsapplication of a more specific search. In addition there is

another database SCOPUS which needs somehow more

concern in the process of searching and is mostly preferred

when exploring more recant data ([1990). SCOPUS wasfactually used for finding the theme citation responsiveness

in the sisters’ journal [2]. For the below ascertainment of

citation responses we used a caring service of the Docu-

mentation Department of the Prague Institute of Physics

and its well-established links to various databases giving,

nevertheless, the preference to the certificated WOS (tun-

ing disqualification of so-called self-citations).

Written on the occasion of the April 2011 death of Joseph H Flynn, a

great pioneer in the field of nonisothermal kinetics, to whom this

paper is dedicated.

J. Šesták (&)New Technology—Research Centre in the Westbohemian

Region, West Bohemian University, Universitnı́ 8, 30114 Pilsen,

Czech Republic

e-mail: [email protected]

1 Journal IF is from Journal Citation Report (JCR), being a product

of Thomson ISI providing thus quantitative tools for evaluating

journals. The IF is a measure of the frequency with which the so

called ‘average article’ in a given journal has been cited within an

agreed period of time (a three-year interval). Thus, IF can be

considered to be the average number of times published papers are

cited up to 2 years after publication (and in the below account we

show the contemporary last year IF). The newly introduced H-index

(by American physicists J. Hirsch at 2005) is used to measure the

productivity of an individual (or group or institution) and is calculated

by taking into account the balance between the number of publica-

tions and the number of citations per publication. For example, the

author’s H-index of 22 tells us that he has 22 publications which

received 22 citations on each paper or more. One can trace a certain

regularity that the larger number of a paper co-authors often generate

improved IF increasing subsequently H-index so that the single and

double authored papers are herewith more respected.

123

J Therm Anal Calorim

DOI 10.1007/s10973-011-1625-3

In the contribution we also took in account that in the

meantime some anniversaries have taken place occurring

roughly within similar years such as was the foundation of

two thermoanalytical periodicals, i.e., Journal of Thermal

Analysis and Calorimetry (JTA-1969, JTAC-1998) and

Thermochimica Acta (TCA-1970) as well as the institu-

tionalization of thermoanalytical confederation (ICTA-

1968 and ICTAC-1994) [3–5]. Similar anniversaries are

associated with the two most highly cited papers [6, 7]

published in the respective journal which are the basis of

following citation analysis and theme correlativeness. As a

matter of curiosity the most best cited papers were related

to the topic of reaction kinetics studied by means of ther-

mal analysis.

Some tangible data and comparisons

For the JTAC (IF = 1.59) the outmost quotation reveals

the paper by T. Ozawa [7] with as many as 1,053 citations,

which is comparable with his other papers in the Bulletin of

Chemical Society of Japan (IF = 1.63) [8] with 2096

citations or in Polymer (IF = 3.57) [9] with 1,097 cita-

tions. This is still far below the responses to the famous

kinetic paper by H. E. Kissinger [10] with as many as 4,461

citations or M. Avrami [11] with 5223 citations published,

respectively, in the renowned Analytical Chemistry

(IF = 5.63) and Journal of Chemical Physics (IF = 3.1).

The kinetic theme is followed in JTAC by the second best

cited paper [12] with 444 citations, which is one of hun-

dreds papers modifying the Kissinger method (e.g., [13]).

Only the third position keeps the paper from a different

area of novel techniques [14] with 301 citations (becoming

widely functional, e.g., [15]), but encompassing only third

time of its comparable quotation existence. Certainly we

should not forget another in that time inventive instru-

mental paper by the brothers F. Paulik (1922–2005) and J.

Paulik (1927–1988) [16] with 151 citations.

These citation figures are comparable with the output of

TCA (IF = 1.74), namely with the so-called SB equation

[6] exhibiting uppermost 562 responses followed by

methodically oriented papers on thermoporometry [17]

with 345 citations which is comparable with papers [18]

and [19] with 530 and 626 citations, respectively. The third

TCA place holds modulated DSC [20] with 336 citations

(see also [15] with 231 citations) authored by B. Wun-

derlich (1932-), who is one of the most influential authors

in wide spectrum of interests mostly within amorphous

polymers (e.g. [21] with 317 citations). His total record of

*16000 citations and H-index *67 is comparable withanother American glass-physicists C.A. Angel (1933-) with

*21000 citations and H-index *80.

The above two kinetic-like feedbacks [6, 7] correlate, for

example, with the quotation of the widespread Jander dif-

fusion equation [22] from Zeitschrift für anorg, Chemie

(IF = 1.23) revealing 550 citations. It follows that the best

cited kinetic-oriented articles [6–9, 12] have formed a rea-

sonable basis for creation of certain kinetic school within the

field of thermal analysis as showed in respective journals,

e.g., JTAC [23–28] and TCA [29–33] (cited *1009 andassociated with high H-factors). Moreover it reveals that

Takeo Ozawa (1932-) is likely the best cited personality

within the field of thermal analysis kinetics (when also

accounting his wide-ranging activity in material sciences,

providing his total citation record approaching ten thou-

sand). Certainly the above figures should be correlated to the

time lapse since the paper publication (i.e., early papers

published before 1985) as well as with the number of overall

publications, i.e., JTAC-5769 and TCA-21557 and partici-

pation of kinetic oriented articles (JTAC-1248 and TCA-

1838) as well as with the mutual impact factors. Nonetheless,

the entire IF values do not seemingly play a more significant

function in the inherent papers’ responsiveness.

For a comparison we can adopt data from another

journal with a matching impact factor (IF = 1.43) and

overall number of publications (17,043), which is the

Journal of Non-crystalline Solids. This JNCS has also been

subjecting lot of data related to reaction kinetics (equiva-

lent portion 1033), namely to the thermal processes on

nucleation and crystal growth. Here, however, the best

cited paper authored by famous N. F. Mott (1906–1995)

[34] was related to glass conductivity with 1,396 citations

followed by structural studies [35] with 602 citations and

only the third paper was related to the study of thermal

properties [36] with 593 citations. This again is comparable

with the early findings by the Czech-American author J.

Tauc (1922-2010) [37] related to the structural subject of

optical band in tetrahedral semiconductors being again one

of the best cited papers of Physica Status Solids

(IF = 1.15) with 1375 citations. Thermal conductivity

oriented papers [34] were also revealed in the thematically

related journal Physics and Chemistry of Glasses

(IF = 0.58) such as the best cited papers [38, 39] with 771

and 582 citations, respectively. This PCG provided, how-

ever, highly cited papers on crystallization kinetics, for

example [40–43] with 291, 243, 199, and 155 citations,

respectively as well as similarly related papers in JNCS

[13, 44–46] with 231, 288, 417, and 445 citations,

respectively. Temperature plaid a specific role in the best

cited articles in Journal of American Ceramic Society

(IF = 1.94) with the historical record by the paper on

viscosity [47] by Fulcher (1884–1959) exhibiting as many

as 1,798 citations. In JACS there are worth noting ther-

moanalytically influential papers [48, 49] with 609 and 109

citations, respectively.

J. Šesták

123

Thermal analysis became also the topic for utmost

quotations in some leading national journals such the

Czechoslovak Journal of Physics (IF = 0.57) exhibiting

another record of 372 citations for the paper by A. Hrubý

(1919-) [50] who applied characteristic temperatures

determined by DTA for the specification of glass-forming

capability of various materials. Curiously, this criterion

was subjected to various modification (e.g. [51]) showing,

however, their fewer correctness than the original form

[50]. J. Šesták (1938-) [52] analyzed various methods of

kinetic data evaluation in another local Czech journal Sil-

ikaty-Ceramics (IF = 0.66) which received another his-

torical citation record of 61 responses and befall the basis

of the consequent paper [6] becoming thus the target of

various evaluations [28–32]. Another paper by M.

C. Weinberg (1941–2002) [53] published in the Serbian

Journal of Mining and Metallurgy (IF = 0.55) was dealing

with transient nucleation and its overlapping with growth

curves and exhibited maximum of 27 citations.

There are some other journals that cared to publish

papers on thermoanalytical kinetics, such as in Talanta [54]

(IF = 3.29 with 119 citations), Solid State Ionics [55]

(IF = 2.16 with 141 citations), Journal of Computational

Chemistry [56] (IF = 3.77, with 263 citations], Annual

Review of Physical Chemistry [57] (IF = 17.4 with 158

citations), Nature [58] (IF = 34.48 with 161 citations),

Science [59] (IF = 29.7 with 479 citations), Acta Metal-

lurgica [60] with 471 citations) and historically famous

paper by J. H. Flynn (1922–2011) in Journal of Research of

the National Bureau of Standards [61] (with 769 citations).

In order to have a comparison with other level of citation

responses while completing this overview on the best cited

papers we include some selected journals of a related

scope, for example [62] (IF = 0.69), [63] (IF = 0.7), [64]

(IF = 1.97), [65] (IF = 1.77), [66] (IF = 1.23), [67] (IF =

1.62), [68] (IF = 0.8), [69] (IF = 1.63) [70] (IF = 2.34)

and [71] (IF = 4.39) with 319, 136, 397, 180, 274, 323, 785,

317, 571 and 243 citations, respectively.

Such citation records would be unthinkable without the

diligent exertion of the editors-in-chief of thermoanalytical

journals, being sorry that the society has somehow forgotten

their anniversaries. The originator and long-lasting editor of

Thermochimica Acta, W. W. Wendlandt (1927–2000) [72],

the founder of the European Symposia on Thermal Analysis

and Calorimetry and associated proceeding books ‘‘Thermal

Analysis’’, D. Dollimore (1927–2000) as well as the early

thermoanalytical ground-worker P. D. Garn (1920–1999)

[73] are worth of a particular noting. They and many others

[5] also contributed good reputation of the Journal of

Thermal Analysis orchestrated by its lifelong editor Judit

Simon (1937-). Alternatively, we did not care to seek the

extreme number of citations (e.g., [74] with as many as

30,606 citations) as well as we did not try to enumerate all

doyens of reaction kinetics (such as V. Šatava,1922-, C.

Várhelyi, 1925-, Z. Adonyi, 1926-, V. V. Boldyrev, 1927-,

H. Suga, 1930-, B. V. L’vov, L. Stoch, 1931-, E. Segal,

1932-, E. Koch, J. R. MacCallum, R. K. Agrawal, A.

K. Galway, or J. Pysiak, 1933-). However, special compli-

ments are due to the middle age generation of thermoana-

lysts who achieved the captivating level of 200 citation per a

single paper published not more than 20 years ago (e.g., A.

K. Burnham (USA), 1951- [71] (3,696 citations, Hindex =

31), M. Reading (UK), 1956- [15] (2,314 citations, H-index

= 24), J. Málek (Czechia), 1959- [32] (2,166 citations,

Hindex = 25), S. Vyazovkin (USA), 1960- [56] (4,350

citations, H-index = 35) or forthcoming N. Koga (Japan),

1963- [30] (*1000 citations, H-index *17).Curiously one of highly quoted paper [45] dealing with

the application of nonisothermal kinetics to crystallization

(priced by as many as 417 citations] is unfortunately

revealing a misinterpretation toward the dominant respon-

sibility of partial derivatives of rate equation and resultant

kinetic constitutiveness (already beforehand discussed

comprehensively in JTAC [75]). Article’s rightness would

also generate a question what would be a best approach in

achieving a highest citation response. Even assuming a

well-done manuscript matching passable for referees it, in

many cases, becomes sensitive to various unwritten factors

(such as interior rules, mutual reverence between the

authors and referees, instantaneous actuality and perspec-

tives of the subject, its impact and understandability, etc.).

In most journals there is a large excess of manuscripts

supply over their demand, which is far overcoming the

journals’ capability to absorb all what is offered so that

some genius ideas may be overlooked. Publication boom is

driven by the pressure on the authors to publish as much as

possible in order to survive the competition due to assorted

financing. A possibility is presumed as to create an alter-

native publication forum for (often refused) articles in, e.g.,

framework of internet, which might be likewise to a curi-

ous state of the so-called dissident physics. This unusual

forum for distributing physical theories often impassable

for publication in the regular journals (most common

‘Physica’) are consequently publishable on internet and

even printed in a somehow unofficial journal such as A-

peiron, Galilean Electrodynamics, Tired Light, Physics

Assays, etc.

It again calls attention in the direction of the most

attractive topics within the frame of thermal analysis,

which besides kinetics [76] may be novel, but already well-

developing special techniques [14, 15, 20]. Though diffi-

cult to predict, we can meet on the road toward new

interdisciplinary targets and thus across-boundary issues

somewhat inquisitive new endeavors such as thermal

quantum diffusion [77, 78] or alternative caloric-based

innovative thermodynamics [79, 80] which, however, not

Citation records and some forgotten anniversaries

123

yet digested are used not to bring any citation responses so

far. In this light we may be thankful to the journals editors

to challenge the publications of special journal issues to

exclusively devoted to the burning themes such boundless

topic of thermoanalytical studies of glass crystallization

[81, 82] or the book series made available by publication

house Springer, such as the hot topics in thermal analysis

(edited by J. Simon) [83, 84].

The above reviewed papers represent, however, a neg-

ligible portion of overall published papers in the field of

thermal analysis, which in its broader view covers other

thermophysical measurements (such as conductivity [34,

38, 39], viscosity [47, 49], and relaxation [36]) so that this

short communication should be merely accepted as brief

data revelation approached under a certain personal rec-

ollection and vision for better thermal science [85].

Acknowledgements The results were developed within the CEN-TEM project, reg. no. CZ.1.05/2.1.00/03.0088 that is co-funded from

the ERDF within the OP RDI program of the Ministry of Education,

Youth and Sports.

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processes and constitutive equations in kinetics. J Thermal Anal.

1973;5:193–201.

76. Šimon P. The single-step approximation: attributes, strong and

weak sides of kinetics. JTherm Anal Calorim. 2007;88:709–15.

77. Mareš JJ, Stávek J, Šesták J. Quantum aspects of self-organized

periodical chemical reactions. J Chem Phys. 2004;121:1499.

78. Mareš JJ, Šesták J. An attempt at quantum thermal physics.

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79. Mareš JJ, Hubı́k P, Šesták J, Špička V, Krištofik J, Stávek J.

Phenomenological approach to the caloric theory of heat. Ther-

mochim Acta. 2008;474:16.

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Sadi Carnot to the caloric theory of heat and its inspiration role in

an alternative thermodynamics. J Thermal Anal Calorim. 2009;

97(2):679.

81. Šesták J editor. Vitrification, transformation and crystallization of

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Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1996.

82. Höhne CWH, Schick C, editors. Interplay between nucleation,

crystallization and the glass transition. Special issue of Thermo-

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Citation records and some forgotten anniversaries

123

Ten years since Robert C. Mackenzie’s death. A tributeto the ICTA founder

Gianni Lombardi • Jaroslav Šesták

ESTAC2010 Conference Special Issue

� Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, Hungary 2010

Abstract Dr. Robert Cameron Mackenzie was an emi-

nent scientist who gave a major contribution to the progress

of science in the fields of thermal analysis and clay min-

erals. He was a leading figure in the East–West cooperation

at times when these relations were politically very difficult.

The authors give an outline of his achievements and some

personal recollections of his activity.

Keywords Thermal analysis � Clay minerals � ICTA �DTA

‘‘whoever desires to build a future may not neglect the past’’ [1].

Fig. 1

Introduction

Robert Cameron Mackenzie was a pioneer in establishing

thermal analysis as a novel and accepted technique applied

to a wide array of materials in many different areas [1–4].

He was a leader in the establishment of the ICTA organi-

zation and always upfront in its development. He was also

internationally recognized as an outstanding figure in the

clay minerals world.

Shortly after his passing away in 2000, obituaries

describing his activity were published [5, 6]. The authors of

this tribute are two old friends of him, who are thankful for

all what they learnt from his example and scientific per-

sonality and who wish to remind the young generations of

thermoanalysts of his achievements, of his former co-

workers and of some less-known aspects of his life (Fig. 2).

Robert and the world of clay minerals

His impact on thermal analysis is well known, but it should

be stressed that he also gave a substantial contribution to

the international clay minerals community. Robert’s

investigations in the 1950s dealt with the pre-treatments

and thermal behaviour of clays and their products [7–14].

He applied what was then an uncommon technique, Dif-

ferential thermal analysis (DTA), and X-ray diffraction

(XRD) in the study of dehydration and rehydration of

thermally treated raw materials, sesquioxides and amor-

phous components. He was a groundbreaker in the inves-

tigation of the effect of temperature on water adsorption by

organo-clays (e.g. ethylene glycol complexes with mont-

morillonite or saponite). He also worked on thermo-

chemical reactions of clay minerals with other components

(e.g. clays with carbonates), while cooperating with B.

D. Mitchell, R. Glentworth (a first-class agricultural sur-

veyor in NE Scotland) and A. A. Milne.

Robert was very good at instrumentation and, for his

laboratory, he built a DTA apparatus working under con-

trolled atmosphere [15]. He applied this technique to the

G. Lombardi (&)Former Sapienza Università di Roma, Via D. Chelini 5,

00197 Rome, Italy


J. Šesták

New Technology—Research Centre in the West Bohemian

Region, West Bohemian University, Universitnı́ 8,

30114 Pilsen, Czech Republic


J. Šesták

Institute of Physics, Cukrovarnicka 10, 16200 Praha,

Czech Republic

123

J Therm Anal Calorim (2011) 105:783–791

DOI 10.1007/s10973-010-1215-9

study of soils, where the organic matter is so closely bound

to the clay fraction that it is hard to separate them com-

pletely and with simple methods. He also used an oxygen

flow to study oxidation and combustion reactions and this

method became applicable to a much broader range of

materials. In 1959, he described his apparatus in a paper,

which inspired further instrumental developments in sev-

eral countries [16–18]. Later, it was commercially pro-

duced and used in many British laboratories.

The results of Robert’s leading-edge mineralogical

investigations were the source for significant papers and

stimulated the publication (in 1957, when he was only in

his 30s) of ‘The differential thermal investigation of clays’

[19]. Robert wrote three of the 17 chapters of the book:

‘Thermal methods’, ‘Apparatus and technique for differ-

ential thermal analysis’ (jointly with B. D. Mitchell) and

‘The oxides of iron, aluminium and manganese’. Despite

its age, the book is still used all over the world by clay

mineralogists.

Robert not only opened new ground in thermal evalua-

tion of clays, but also stands as a maestro in cooperating

with and providing guidance to many foreign scientists,

who attended his Macaulay Institute for Soil Research to

learn and make progress in the field of clays and thermal

analysis, among them, G. Berggrenn from Sweden, S.

Yariv from Israel, S. Warne from Australia, N. Yoshinaga

from Japan, G. Lombardi, N. Morandi and A. Negro from

Italy.

In the 1950s, supported by his knowledge of Russian

and German, Robert became aware of the progress made in

the eastern countries in the field of clay mineralogy and

thermal analysis. He knew the work of Prague O. Kallauner

and J. Matějka [20, 21], who conducted an extensive

investigation on kaolinite transformations under heating.

Their study was influenced by the results of the French H.

Le Chatelier and their interactions with K. Friedrich and B.

Wohlin (Polish Royal Technical University of Wroclaw),

who were investigating the thermal behaviour of bauxitic

soils and also built their own apparatus for thermal

analysis.

In the early 1960s, contacts between western and eastern

scientists were impaired by restrictions not only on travel,

but also on correspondence and telephones. Nevertheless,

Robert managed to keep in touch with Prague R. Bárta and

Polish clay scientists such as A. Kuźniarowa. In 1961,

Robert was invited to give a lecture at the Prague Geology

Conference and awarded with the distinguished Centenary

Medal of the historical Charles University. Then, in 1983,

he received the Emanuel Boricky Medal from the Faculty

of Science of the Charles University during one of the

meetings of the European Clay Groups.

Robert’s work on clays was well known at international

scale. He was instrumental in the organisation of AIPEA

(Association Internationale pour l’Étude des Argiles), its

President in 1980–1984 and founder of the Clay Mineral

Bulletin (today named Clay minerals, the Journal of the

European Clay Society). In 1972, he was elected Chairman

of the British Clay Minerals Group and, in 1983, he was

appointed Distinguished Member. In 1978, he was the

convenor of the scientific committee for the 1978 Sixth

International Clay Conference and in 1987 Honorary

Member of the Sociedad Española de Arcillas.

Fig. 2 Personalities with whom Robert (first from the left) collaborated in various areas: Canadian H. G. Mc Adie, Scottish B. D. Mitchell,Swedish G. Berggrenn, English J. P. Redfern, Hungarians L. Erdey and G. Liptay and Czechoslovak I. Proks

Fig. 1 *Geologist Gianni Lombardi and thermodynamist JaroslavŠesták were Robert’s friends until his last days. They have similar

stories in ICTA. Lombardi (*1939), early member of ICTA (1965), of its

Standardization Committee (1968–1976), of the editorial board of J.

Thermal Analysis (1969) and of Thermal Analysis Abstracts (1970);

ICTA Council (1968–1971), Secretary (1971–1977), Vice and President

(1977–1982); Editor ‘For Better TA’ (1977–1980); ICTA Award (1980);

discontinued ICTA 1985. Šesták (*1938), groundwork for ICTA (1965),

co-founder of Thermochimica Acta (1970), ICTA Councillor-at-large

(1977–1982), member of ICTA Nomenclature and Kinetic Committees

and the chair of Advanced Inorganic Materials (1984–1996), ICTA

Program Chairman (Bratislava 1985), ICTA Award (1992), Affiliated

Councillor (1992–2000), discontinued ICTAC 2006

784 G. Lombardi, J. Šesták

123

Impact on thermal analysis

In the early 1960s, many western and eastern laboratories

used thermal methods for the analysis of both inorganic

and organic materials. Based on his international contacts

and on the experience gained with the 1957 book on DTA

of clays, Robert thought that it would be a great scientific

advance if investigators in many fields of thermal analysis

could share their experiences within the framework of a

multidisciplinary society. His foresight gave birth to ICTA.

Robert was in contact with thermoanalysts L. Erdey and

the Paulik brothers in Budapest, the Russian L. G. Berg, the

Polish W. Świętosławski and Czech R. Bárta of the Prague

Institute of Chemical Technology. Already in the early

1950s, Bárta had organised conferences on thermal anal-

ysis, namely Thermography discussions (Prague 1955), the

first Thermography day (Prague 1956) and the second

conference on Thermography (Prague 1958). After that,

Robert was an invited speaker at the 1961 third conference

on thermal analysis. He was impressed by the quantity and

quality of the results presented at the meetings and got to

know the work of Bárta’s co-workers, e.g. V. Šatava, S.

Procházka, I. Proks and postgraduate student J. Šesták. He

also co-authored Bárta’s obituary [22].

In the early 1960s, Robert visited the United States and

his friend C. B. Murphy (an internationally renowned

personality in the field of thermal analysis [23]) encour-

aged him to organise a large-scale international conference

on thermal analysis. Robert began to work on the project,

assisted by the Russian L. G. Berg, author of two books on

thermal analysis [24, 25], the Hungarian L. Erdey, the

Czech R. Bárta, the Japanese T. Sudo, the Canadian H.

McAdie and the Swedish G. Berggrenn of Studsvik Ac-

tiobolaget Atomenergi (who suggested Sweden as the

venue of the first ICTA).

A first Symposium on thermal analysis with scientists

from various countries was held at the Northern Poly-

technic in London in April 1965. It was organized by B.

R. Currell and participants included R. C. Mackenzie, the

British D. A. Smith, J. P. Redfern, W. Gerrard, P. D. Garn

[26] and W. W. Wendlandt [27] from the US, as well as the

Swedish G. Berggrenn. F. Paulik from Hungary and J.

Šesták from Czechoslovakia were invited to give plenary

lectures, a way to introduce eastern scientists to the inter-

national scientific community. The program is a witness of

the state of the art of the instrumentation and applications

of thermal analysis (Fig. 3).

Soon after there followed a great success. Robert, J.

P. Redfern and B. D. Mitchell undertook the organisation

of the first International Conference on Thermal Analysis,

which was held in Scotland, at Aberdeen, in September

1965 [28] (the registration fees was as low as 15 US $!).

Almost 3,000 copies of the First Announcement were

distributed, with a final attendance of 300 scientists from

29 countries, including Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland

and USSR.

Robert’s merits for the subsequent creation and further

development of ICTA are invaluable. The Aberdeen

meeting opened the way to the formal establishment of

ICTA in 1968 (Fig. 4), during the Business meeting held at

the second ICTA in Worcester, Massachussets (USA).

Several ICTAs followed at regular four-year intervals with

a large number of attendees and, beginning 1980, inter-

mediate European meetings (ESTAC), promoted by D.

D. Dollimore, were also held.

The authors would like to recall two anecdotes which

occurred 17 years apart, both with Robert’s involvement.

At the 1968 Worcester second ICTA, in the evening of 20

August, several delegates were watching the TV news.

Suddenly, images of Soviet armoured trucks invading

Prague appeared. The three Czech delegates R. Bárta, P.

Kralik and J. Šesták were shocked and furious. Šesták

attacked the Russian delegate E. I. Yarembash, who was

saying that the images were old ones, taken during the

1945 liberation. Robert had to use all his weight and

diplomacy to solve a very difficult situation, though tension

pervaded the last days of the conference.

In 1985, the eight ICTA was held in Bratislava. The

participants were over 400 from 33 countries (and the

registration fee had already reached 200 US $). Robert was

invited to give a plenary lecture, together with the Slovak I.

Proks, regarding the life of the Czech thinker Comenius

and the Scottish scientist Black, two precursors of thermal

analysis who lived between the sixteenth and seventeenth

century. He not only gave an important scientific contri-

bution, but also helped the conference acting chairman V.

Balek and scientific chairman J. Šesták to solve a sensitive

political problem. The Czech police had refused the visa to

the ICTA Secretary, the Israeli S. Yariv, and to the South

African M. E. Brown, because of their ‘unfriendly’

nationality. US participants were ready to boycott the

Conference if the visa was not granted. The result of

Robert’s diplomatic efforts was that, for the first time in

many years, two citizens from the ‘hostile capitalist

countries’, Israel and South Africa, were allowed to visit

communist-ruled Czechoslovakia.

A rare case among the British, Robert had not only a

splendid command of English, but also reading and

speaking skills in Gaelic, French, Italian, Spanish, German

and Russian. In 1965, he made the introductory welcome to

the International Conference in Aberdeen in English and

Russian and, in the same way, he surprised the audience in

1985 with his acceptance speech for a USSR award

(Fig. 5).

He never became ICTA president, but until retirement

he remained a very active and influential member of ICTA

A tribute to the ICTA founder 785

123

and a basic point of reference for all Council and ordinary

members. Treasurer more than 15 years, he created a sound

financial basis for ICTA and gave a great scientific con-

tribution as chairman of the Nomenclature and member of

the Publication and Standardization Committees. From

1986 to 1997, he was editor of ICTA News.

Though not many were aware of it, the Scottish and Irish

‘mafia’ occupied the dominant ICTA positions for a long

period. In addition to the obvious Mackenzie and McAdie,

there were others (Fig. 6). Gallagher and Murphy were

members of well known Irish Clans and Lombardi has

solid roots in the Clan McGillivray (Fig. 9).

Robert’s major contribution to thermal analysis was

scientific, with over 100 papers and review articles [2], as

well as the editorship of three books, which stand as

milestones in their field. He was particularly concerned

with the improvement of thermoanalytical techniques and

theory and their wider applications. In later years, the

nomenclature and history of thermal analysis became his

main interests. In a fundamental paper of 1974 [1], he

summarised his ideas about the future development and the

classification of thermal analysis methods, a subject cov-

ered in other papers.

The first book that he edited, ‘The differential thermal

investigation of clays’, leads back to 1957 [19]. The second

was ‘A handbook on DTA’ in 1966 [29]. The two volumes

of his third book, ‘Differential Thermal Analysis’, were

published by Academic Press in 1970 and 1972 [30]. There

are 25 chapters and he is the author of four of them:

‘Simple phyllosilicates based on gibbsite- and brucite-like

sheets’, ‘Oxides and hydroxides of higher-valence ele-

ments’ (with G. Berggrren), ‘Basic principles and historical

development’ and ‘Instrumentation’ (with B. D. Mitchell).

The book still represents a bible on DTA applications,

dealing with different problems such as theory, experi-

ments, geosciences, nomenclature and history.

Fig. 3 The program of theLondon International

symposium on thermal analysis,

held in April 1965, the first

meeting on the subject with

scientists from western and

eastern Countries. On the left,

B. R. Currell, on the right P.

D. Garn


123

He helped to improve the DTA theory [30–34] and his

fine usage of English, together with extreme care for details

and forward-looking considerations, made him a prominent

figure in the nomenclature field. For many years, he was

the soul of the nomenclature activity of both AIPEA and

ICTA and strongly influenced the preparation of widely

accepted complex documents on the subject [e.g. 35–41].

He had the great merit of creating derived nomenclatures,

even in different languages [42, 43].

The vast knowledge of the field led him to devote the

last part of his scientific life to the many aspects of the

history of thermal analysis [44–50]. He is credited with

new findings on the impact of G. Martine as a very early

thermoanalyst, on the responsibility of J. Comenius in the

earliest use of the term ‘caloric’ and on the role of G.

A. Charpy in the development of electric furnaces. These

studies produced an excellent compendium of thermoana-

lytical history [45], a source for many subsequent studies.

He kept close contacts with the Slovak I. Proks from

Bratislava and inspired his work, which resulted into var-

ious papers on the history of thermodynamics [51–55].

With J. Šesták, he prepared an article on a thermoanalytical

Fig. 4 The composition ofICTA Council in the first

12 years of its life. In the

photos, from the left: R.

C. Mackenzie, L. G. Berg, C.

B. Murphy, R. Bárta and H.

Kambe

Fig. 5 Bratislava 1985. Dr. Mackenzie receives the USSR KurnakovMedal from the hands of Prof. V. B. Lazarev


123

journey from prehistory to the third millennium; its com-

pletion was interrupted by his death, but anyhow it was

published in JTAC [56].

Robert was very much aware of the need to have an easy

access to the thermoanalytical data dispersed in the litera-

ture. As early as 1965, he collected and ordered the results of

DTA of minerals and other substances and prepared a pun-

ched-card data index named SCIFAX, published by Cleaver-

Hume Press. The index was based on the temperatures of the

DTA peaks and with its help it was much easier to identify

the products obtained during the decomposition processes.

Jointly with J. P. Redfern, in 1972 he then started

Thermal Analysis Abstracts (TAA), a periodical with

abstracts of papers dealing with thermal analysis and cal-

orimetry prepared by a team of reviewers covering eastern

and western countries. There was a 25% contribution from

abstractors of periodicals from the eastern countries (Bul-

garia, Czechoslovakia, German Democratic Republic,

Hungary, Poland, Romania, USSR and Yugoslavia) and

their payment in foreign currency was a great help to them.

They could travel abroad to participate in conferences

organized by western countries, in times when scientists of

the countries behind the iron curtain could get only a very

limited amount of money in foreign currency. For all the

TAA life (1972–1991), the regional editor for eastern

European territories was G. Liptay, the author of the five-

volume Atlas of Thermal Analysis Curves [57]. After

20 years, TAA was stopped in 1991, due to the spread of

computers.

Robert contributed to the launching of the Journal of

Thermal Analysis (JTA), the first journal devoted to the

subject. It was started in 1969 with Judit Simon as editor

(still nowadays its editor-in-chief), under the supervision of

the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (Académia Kiadó)

and the support of the F. and J. Paulik brothers, G. Liptay,

L. Erdey and E. Buzagh. Since the beginning, it had a truly

international editorial board and was published jointly with

the British Heyden and Son. It was a good example of

western–eastern countries cooperation in a difficult politi-

cal period. Soon after, in 1970, Elsevier put on the market

Thermochimica Acta (TCA), for a long time edited by W.

W. Wendlandt [58] assisted by a wide-ranging interna-

tional board including J. Šesták (Fig. 7).

Fig. 6 July 1977. ICTA executives at the fifth ICTA of Kyoto(Japan). Upper row H. R. Oswald, P. K. Gallagher, H. G. McAdie, S.St. J. Warne, J. P. Redfern, R. C. Mackenzie and F. Paulik. Middlerow C. B. Murphy, S. Seki, W. D. Emmerich, G. Lombardi and H.Kambe. Lower row P. D. Garn, Mrs. Kambe, Mrs. Lombardi, Mrs.Murphy, Mrs. Warne and Mrs. Gallagher. In the long period when

Robert was ICTA treasurer, Murphy and Gallagher (US with Irish

roots), Canadian McAdie and Italian Lombardi (Scot roots) were

elected ICTA Presidents

Fig. 7 The internationaleditorial board in the first years

of Journal of Thermal Analysis

and Thermochimica Acta.

Photos of W. W. Wendlandt and

J. Simon


123

Many people are indebted to Robert for all what he

contributed to the many fields of thermal analysis. He also

received official recognitions for his activity, e.g.: Fellow

of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1961), Fellow of the

Royal Society of Chemistry (1961), Mettler NATAS

Award (1968), SAC Gold Medal Royal Society (1980),

Netzsch GEFTA Award (1982), ICTA/TA Award (1985),

NATAS Fellow (USA 1985), Kurnakov medal (USSR

1985) and First Honorary Member of ICTA (1988).

Some personal notes

Robert was born on 7 May 1920 from a family of farmers

living in the Portmahomack area, a lovely small village on

the eastern coast of Northern Scotland, beautifully pre-

served. He attended first the Tain Royal Academy and then

the Edinburgh University. In 1942, he obtained a B.Sc.

with First Class Honours in Chemistry and, in 1944, he

completed his Ph.D. thesis dealing with gas-phase reaction

kinetics. In the same year, he joined the Aberdeen

Macaulay Institute for Soil Research, where he remained

throughout his scientific life, becoming the head of the

Physical Chemistry Section and then of the Department of

Pedology, until his retirement in 1983.

In 1950, he married Hilda Bruce, a fellow member of

the Macaulay, and it was a very happy marriage. They were

always very close to each other, though she seldom trav-

elled with him to professional commitments. They had a

son, Bruce, now a retired reservoir engineer and consultant

in the oil industry, living in Edinburgh, and a daughter,

Morag, married with a farmer and living on a large estate

close to the Aberdeen airport with a son and a daughter

(Fig. 8).

He liked to travel and had many experiences abroad as

visiting professor, or for lectures and meetings. He was a

keen and fast driver and for many years, in the 1960s and

1970s, he used to drive his Bentley to Positano (southern

Italy) for a family holiday.

No better words can be used to describe his personality

than those in the obituary written by J. Wilson, a colleague

of him at the Macaulay [6]: ‘To many, he embodied the

very essence of the ‘‘English’’ gentleman (despite being a

true Highland Scot), unfailingly courteous and fair-minded,

but with a patrician demeanour which invested his lectures

and pronouncements with an aura of authority’.

The Macaulay was attended by visitors from all over the

world and Robert was always very, very polite, though

often shuddering at the quality of the English language

spoken by some foreigners. Many Italians worked at the

Macaulay with him and one of them (F. Palmieri) was sent

to the ceremony for his retirement. He handed him a set of

tiles (Fig. 9) with a dedication which well expresses the

feeling of the many Macaulay visitors:

On the occasion of the retirement of Dr. Robert C.

Mackenzie, the Italian visitors to the Macaulay

Institute for Soil Research present this plaque to

‘‘Mac’’, with heartfelt thanks for all what he con-

tributed to their professional background. We join all

those who admire his stature in the field of thermal

analysis, clay mineralogy and soil science, but we are

also very grateful for his interest in our scientific and

personal problems, that he shared with us throughout

the years and for his stoic patience in bearing with

Fig. 8 Dr. Mackenzie in a picture of August 1999 with his daughter,grandchildren, G. Lombardi and his wife

Fig. 9 Handmade tiles given to Dr. Mackenzie on his retirement bythe Italian visitors of the Macaulay and G. McGillivray Lombardi (onthe right) at a 2009 party in Inverness


123

our continuous murdering of the English language,

for which we publicly apologise. We went to the

Macaulay as young researchers, we have grown to

become Professors, but we will never forget the

stimulating periods of research and study we had in

lovely Aberdeen. Thanks Mac and arrivederci a pre-

sto. Gianni Lombardi, Noris Morandi, Alfredo Negro,

Francesco Palmieri, Pietro Violante, November 1983.

After leaving the Macaulay, Robert continued to work

and keep a keen interest in the history of thermal analysis,

maintaining pen contact with his many friends. Then, his

wife’s health declined and he patiently assisted her for

many difficult years, always in the same home in Aber-

deen, up to when she died in 1998.

Robert’s funeral was held in Aberdeen on a Monday, a

few days after his death in July 2000. There were his old

Macaulay colleagues and many friends of the family. One

of the authors (G. L.) was the only ICTA representative.

Together with the family, he went north to Portmahomack

and had the moving privilege to help him lie down in his

grave (Fig. 10). Still visiting Scotland every one or two

years, Gianni feels a duty to bring a flower to the grave, on

behalf of his many friends and in memory of a gentleman

who gave so much to the world of science.

Acknowledgements The authors thank Brian Currell, Georgy Lip-tay, Morag Mackenzie, Judit Simon and Shmuel Yariv for their col-

laboration in preparing this article. The grant support in the field of

geopolymers No FR-TI 1/335 is appreciated.

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Sprechsaal. 1914;47:423.

21. Matějka J. Chemical changes of kaolinite on firing. Chemické

listy 1919;13:164–166 and 182–185.

22. Šesták J, Mackenzie RC. Rudolf Bàrta (1897–1985). J Therm

Anal. 1986;31:3–4.

23. Murphy CB. Thermal analysis progress. Anal Chem.

1958;30:867, 1960;32:168R, 1962;34:298R.

24. Berg LA. Introduction to thermography. Moscow: Nauka; 1964.

(in Russian).

25. Berg LA. Introduction to thermal analysis. Moscow: Akad Nauk

USSR; 1961. (in Russian).

26. Garn PD. Thermoanalytical methods of investigation. New York:

Academic Press; 1962.

27. Wendlandt WW. Thermal methods of analysis. New York:

Wiley; 1964.

28. Mackenzie RC. Origin and development of the international

conference for thermal analysis (ICTA). J Therm Anal.

1993;40:5–28.

29. Mackenzie RC, editor. Handbook of DTA. New York: Chemical

Publishing; 1966.

30. Mackenzie RC, editor. Differential thermal analysis. London:

Academic Press, 1970 vol. 1, 1972 vol. 2.

31. Mackenzie RC. Differential Thermoanalyse und ihre Anwendung

auf technische Stäube. Tonindustr Ztg. 1951;75:334–40.

32. Mackenzie RC, Farmer VC. Some notes on Arens’ theory of

differential thermal analysis. Clay Miner Bull. 1952;1:262–5.

33. Šesták J. Thermophysical properties of solids: theoretical thermal

analysis. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1984.

34. Šesták J. Těoretičeskij těrmičeskij analyz. Moscow: Mir; 1988.

(in Russian).

Fig. 10 On the right Dr. Mackenzie’s family grave in the cemeteryof the Portmahomack church and his tombstone


123

35. Mackenzie RC. Nomenclature in thermal analysis. In: Kolthoff IM,

Elving PJ, Murphy CB, editors. Treatise on analytical chemistry.

2nd ed. New York: Wiley 1983. Part I, vol. 12. p. 1–16.

36. Mackenzie RC, Keattch CJ, Hodgson AA, Redfern JE. Abbre-

viations in thermal analysis. Chem Ind. 1970;272–275.

37. Mackenzie RC. Recommendations for nomenclature in thermal

analysis. In: Schwenker RE, Garn ED, editors. Thermal analysis.

New York: Academic Press; 1969. p. 685–91.

38. Mackenzie RC. Nomenclature in thermal analysis. Talanta. 1969;

16:1227–30.

39. Mackenzie RC. How is an acceptable nomenclature system

achieved? J Thermal Anal. 1972;4:215–21.

40. Mackenzie RC. Nomenclature in thermal analysis. Part IV.

Thermochim Acta. 1979;28:1–6.

41. Mackenzie RC, et al. Nomenclature in thermal analysis. Part V.

Symbols. Thermochim Acta. 1981;46:333–5.

42. Šesták J, Holba P, Fajnor V. Proposal of the Czech-Slovak

nomenclature in thermal analysis. Chemické listy. 1983;77:

1292–308. (published under the supervision of RC Mackenzie).

43. Šesták J, Holba P, Fajnor V, Kuzniarová A, Logviněnko VA,

Metlin JuG, Pelovský Y, Živkovič Z., Mackenzie RC. Proposition

for English based thermoanalytical terminology in Bulgarian,

Czech, Polish, Russian, Serbian and Slovak languages. ICTA

report completed under the Slavic international cooperation.

44. Mackenzie RC. The story of the platimun-wounded electric

resistance furnace. Platinum Met Rev. 1982;26:175–83.

45. Mackenzie RC. De Calore: prelude to thermal analysis. Ther-

mochim Acta. 1984;73:251–306.

46. Mackenzie RC. Origin and development of thermal analysis.


47. Mackenzie RC, Proks I. Comenius and Black: progenitors of

thermal analysis. Thermochim Acta. 1985;92:3–14.

48. Mackenzie RC. George Martine, M.D., F.R.S. (1700–1741): an

early thermal analyst? J Thermal Anal. 1989;95:1823–36.

49. Mackenzie RC. Early thermometry and differential thermometry.


50. Mackenzie RC. The first quarter century. J Thermal Anal. 1994;

42:295–9.

51. Šesták J. Some historical aspects of thermal analysis: origins of

Termanal, CalCon and ICTA. In: Klein E, Smrčková E, Šimon P,

editors. Proceedings of the International Conference on Thermal

Analysis ‘‘Termanal’’. Bratislava: Publishing House of the Slovak

Technical University; 2005. p. 3–11.

52. Proks I. Evaluation of the knowledge of phase equilibria. In:

Chvoj Z, Šesták J, Třı́ska A, editors. Kinetic phase diagrams.

Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1991. p. 1–53.

53. Proks I. Celok je jednoduššı́ než jeho části. (Whole is simpler

than its parts). Bratislava: Publishing House of Slovak Academy

of Sciences; 2010 (in Slovak).

54. Šesták J, Proks I, Šatava V, Habersberger K, Brandštetr J, Koráb

O, Pekárek V, Rosický J, Vaniš M, Velı́šek J. The history of

thermoanalytical and related methods in the territory of present-

day Czechoslovakia. Thermochim Acta. 1986;100:255–70.

55. Šesták J, Hubı́k P, Mareš JJ. Historical roots and development of

thermal analysis and calorimetry. In: Šesták J, Mareš JJ, Hubı́k P,

editors. Glassy, amorphous and nano-crystalline materials. Ber-

lin: Springer; 2011. p. 347–70.

56. Šesták J, Mackenzie RC. The heat/fire concept and its journey

from prehistoric time into the third millennium. J Therm Anal

Calorim. 2001;64:129–47.

57. Liptay G, editor. Atlas of thermoanalytical curves: (TG, DTG,

DTA curves measured simultaneously). London, New York:

Heyden and Son; 1971.

58. Wendlandt WW. How Thermochmica Acta began: some recol-

lections. Thermochim Acta. 1981;50:1–5.


123

Jaroslav Šesták - Peter Šimon

Thermal analysis

of micro-, nano- and non-crystalline materials

Transformation, crystallization, kinetics and thermodynamics

Springer

Preface Nucleation, glass crystallization and nonisothermal kinetics There are thousands of worth mentioning researches, scientists and engineers who contributed to better understanding of the glass science; we are able to present only some. Already in 1830 M. Faraday noted that “glass is a solution of different substances one in another rather than a strong chemical compound”. S. Arrhenius (1889) and then H. Eyring (1935) gave the requisite meaning to the reaction rate constant. Among significant scientific achievements worth mentioning are Griffith's theory of the strength of brittle materials (1921) and X-ray diffraction analysis showing the way for W.H. Zachariesen (1932) to consider his principles how the nearest neighbor coordination was maintained without imposing an exact long range order so far common for crystalline materials. Not less important were studies pertaining to vitrification and crystallization studies the inspiration of which can be found in the early books by G. Tammann (States of Aggregation, 1925) or G.O. Jones (Glass, 1956) and assorted fundamental research impacts by e.g. D.H. Vogel, S. Fulcher, W. Kauzman, A.Q. Tool, E.A. DiMarzio, D. Turnbull, W.E.S. Turner, J. Frenkel, R.O. Davis, H.A. Davies, J.H. Gibbs , M. Cohen, R.W. Douglas, M. Cable, P. F. McMillan, C.A. Angel, J.C. Fisher, J. Tauc, B.T. Kolomiets, N.F. Mott, A. Hruby, L.L. Hench, N.J. Kreidl, H. Schaeffer, G. Frischat, J.C. Maxwell, H. Rawson, R.S. Elliot, R. Roy, P.K. Gupta, J. E. Shelby, O.V. Mazurin, E.A. Porai-Koshitz, S.V. Nemilov, G.P. Johari, W. Götze, C.T. Moynihan, E. Donth, A.R. Cooper, G.N. Greaves, A.L. Greer, K.F. Kelton, A. Feltz, D.R. Uhlmann, J.D. Mackenzie, R.E. Moore, R.K. Brow, P.C. Schultz, E.N. Boulos, C.R. Kurkjan, C. Rüssel, R.H. Doremus, F.I. Gutzow, I. Avramov, W. Vogel, J.C. Philips, C.G. Pantano, C.A. Wright, M. Tatsumisago, F. Speapan, R. Conrat, A. Inoue, P.K. Gupta, K. Hirao, D.E. Day, W. Höland, M. Poulain, P.F. James, W.P.J. Schmelzer, B.P. Macedo, M.C. Weinberg, H. Suga, S.L. Simon, B. Wunderlich, L.D. Pye, M.D. Ingraham, A.V. Tobolsky, K.J. Rao, M.H. Fernandes, A.K. Varshneya, K.A. Jackson, W.A. Philips, M.E. Glicksman, F.E. Luborski, J.H. Simmons and many others . It is c1ear that a considerable amount of rapidly expanding data on glass-formation as a result of enhanced understanding of (often controlled) melt enhanced cooling and consequent re-crystallization of glasses has required certain taxonomy leading to the early foundation of specific journals and symposia. Associated theoretical studies on nucleation, crystallization and crystal growth have also escalated being viewed from both limiting sides: on the one hand it was the solidification upon a slow (self-cooling) of melts and on the other hand the purposefully suppressed crystallization of quenched (freeze-in) melts. Thermal analysis, particularly differential thermal analysis (DTA), became effectively involved from the very beginning, simply discriminating, e.g., bulk and surface nucleation by mere comparing thermal behavior of the as-cast and subsequently powdered samples (already R.L. Thakur in the 1960s). Some other fundamental and complementary methods of thermal physics arrived at sophisticated levels of research as was exposed in the previous volume entitled “Glassy, amorphous and nanocrystalline materials: thermal physics, analysis, structure and properties” published by Springer, 2011 (ISBN 978-90-481-2881-5 and DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-2882-2) containing 21 chapters with 380 pp. The best theoretical endeavor, however, was made in the field of oxide glasses where the traditional symposia on advances in nucleation and crystal growth were originally held every ten years resulting in the valuable proceedings, beginning the early seventies by compendium "Advances in nuc1eation and crystallization of glasses" edited by L.L. Hench and S.W. Freiman and published by the American Ceramic Society (Columbus, Ohio 1972) and followed by "Nuc1eation and crystallization of glasses" edited by J.H. Simmons, D.R. Uhlmann and G.H. Beall and published in "Advances of Ceramics" (Amer. Cer. Soc.,

Columbus, Ohio 1982) as well as by "Nuc1eation and crystallization in liquids and glasses" edited by M.C. Weinberg and published in "Ceramic Transactions" (Amer. Cer. Soc., Westerville, Ohio 1993) and finally by “Crystallization in glasses and liquids” (the symposium in Vaduz, Liechtenstein 2000), edited by W. Höland, M. Schweiger and V. Rheinberger and published in Glastech. Ber. Glass. Sci. Tech. 73 C, 2000 (with 425 pp.). In this respect, the presented book is supposed to portray a certain continuation of such a traditional publication activity particularly mentioning our previous monograph, which received abundant citation feedback responses. Namely, it was a 1996 special issue of the journal Thermochimica Acta (Vol. 280/281) entitled ”Vitrification, transformation and crystallization of glasses” (Elsevier, Amsterdam), edited by J. Šesták (and dedicated to the life anniversaries of H. Suga, V. Šatava and D.R. Uhlmann). Compendium arrangement was initiated upon the cooperation with N.J. Kreidl, D.R. Uhlmann and M.C. Weinberg during the Šesták´s 1993 visiting professorship at the University of Arizona in Tucson (see the end photo). The final book compilation was made possible by help of the most renowned US glass scientist such as C.A. Angel, D.E. Day, L.L. Hench, P.M. Mehl, C.T. Moynihan, C.S. Ray, J.H. Flynn and S.H. Risbud who considered contributing the inherent text. The resulted softbound book contained as many as 40 chapters on 533 pp. coauthored by other recognized scientists, such as Argentinean C.J.R. Gonzales-Oliver, O.F. Martinez; Brazilian E.D. Zanotto; Czech Z. Kožíšek, Z. Chvoj, B. Hlaváček, J. Málek, P. Demo; British P.F. James, M.J. Richardson; Bulgarian I. Avramov, A. Dobreva, I.B. Gugov, I. Gutzov; Canadiend H.D. Gollf; French M. Poulain; German K. Heide, R. Müller; Hungarian L. Granasy; Indian K.S. Dubey, P. Ramachandrarao; Italian A. Buri, F. Branda; Liechtenstein W. Höland, V. Rheinberger; Japanese T. Kokubo, T. Komatsu, M. Matusita, M. Tatsumisago, M. Koide, Y.Masaki; Liechtenstein W. Hölland; Russian V. Filipovich, V. Fokin, G. Moiseev, A. Kalinina, I. Tomilin or Spanish J.M. Barandiarán and I. Tellería. Recently this tradition has been followed by a similarly anticipated compendium entitled "Interplay between nucleation, crystallization and the glass transition" with almost 30 contributed papers published as a special issue of Thermochimica Acta (Vol. 503, 2011) under the editorial care of C. Schick and C.W. Höhne. The idea of collecting broader viewpoints toward the formation and devitrification of glasses, particular1y aimed at the confrontation of various aspects of descriptive theories, evaluative treatments and applied technologies were repetitively the entire subject during the series of renowned Kreidl’s memorial conferences. The one on “Advances of glasses” was held in Liechtenstein 1994 (proceedings edited D.R. Uhlmann and W. Hölland). The subsequent (last) meeting “Building the bridges between glass science and glass technology” was held in Slovak Trenčín 2004 (proceedings published in Glass. Ber. Glass. Sci. Tech. 77C, 2004, and edited by J. Šesták and M. Liška). Worth noting is the compendium “Reaction kinetics by thermal analysis” published as a special issue of Thermochimica Acta (Volume 203, 1992, with 530 pp., edited by J. Šesták and dedicated to the chairman of Kinetic Committee of ICTAC, late J.H. Flynn at the occasion of his seventies). Another collection, entitled “Thermal studies beyond 2000”, is also noteworthy as published as a special issue of the Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry (Volume 60, 2000 by Kiado, Budapest and Kluwer, Dordrecht with 402 pp) and edited by M.E. Brown, J. Málek, N. Koga and J. Mimkes (and dedicated to the J. Šesták’s sixties). There are also two recent monographs: “Glass: the challenge for the 21st century” (published by Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland 2008, 692 pp. and edited by M. Liška, D. Galusek, R. Klement as the proceedings of the international IX. ESG/ICG conference held in Trenčín, Slovakia 2008) and “Some thermodynamic, structural and behavioral aspects of materials accentuating non-crystalline states” (published as a university internal booklet by

the Public Weal Society. OPS, at the West Bohemian University - ZČU Pilsen 2009 and 2011, with 620 pp. and edited by J. Šesták, J. Málek and M. Holeček). The are quite a few recent books on the topic among others quoting those responsive to nucleation, such as by S. Kaschiev “Nucleation: basic theory with application” (Butterworth 2000), D. Jürn, J.W.P. Schmelzer: “Nucleation: theory and application” (Wiley 2005), H. Vehkamäki „Classical Nucleation Theory in Multicomponent Systems“ (Springer 2006), K.F. Kelton, A.L. Greer „Nucleation in Condensed Matter: applications in materials and biology” (Elsevier 2010) or V.I. Kalikhmanov “Nucleation Theory” (Springer 2011). Other influential are books on glass formation such as Donth E.J: Glass Transition, Relaxation Dynamics and Disordered States, Springer, Berlin (2001); Egami T, Greer A. L, Inoue A, Ranganathan S, (eds): Supercooled Liquids, Glass Transition and Bulk Metallic Glasses, Cambridge (2003); Wunderlich B: Thermal Analysis of Polymeric Materials, Springer, Berlin (2005); Henkel M,; Pleimling M, Sanctuary R, (eds): Ageing and the Glass Transition, Springer, Berlin (2007); Schmelzer J. W. P, Gutzow I.S, Mazurin O. V, Priven A. I, Todorova S. V, Petroff B. P, (eds): Glasses and the glass transition, Wiley, New York (2011). Concerning the field continuous upgrading a particular attention should be paid to the Committee on Glass Nucleation and Crystallization (abbreviated ‘CT 7’) as a part of the ICG (International Commission on Glass) cf. Fig 1.

Fig. 1. The 2001 composition of TC7 committee (of ICG) working in the historical configuration (from right) G. Völksch (Germany), V.M. Fokin (Russia), M. Davis (USA), R. Müller (Germany), late P. James (UK), kneeing E. Zanotto (present chairman,, Brazil), late M.C. Weinberg (USA), W. Hölland (past chairman, Liechtenstein), T. Kokubo (Japon), late I. Szabo (Hungary), I. Donald (UK), L. Pinckney (USA), W. Panhorst (former chairman, Germany) and J. Šesták (Czech Republic). Notable element of randomness is the variation of bond angles sometime assumed to be crucial in auxiliary distinguishing of constrained states of glassy and amorphous materials. The flexibility of covalent bond is largest for the two-fold coordination groups of VI-elements and is lowest for the tetrahedrally coordinated groups of IV-elements. For instance, in the SiO2 glasses the oxygen atoms are bridging the Si-tetrahedral providing the essential flexibility, which is considered necessary to form a random covalent network (without exhibiting excess of strain). However, if such a covalent random network is formed without the flexing bridges of the group VI-elements, the structure becomes amorphous (as the deposited strain-confined films of, e.g., As2S3), which can exist in many various forms of non-crystalline configurations (often experimentally irreproducible). The glass-forming tendency

occurs greatest when the short-range order imposed by bond stretching and bending forces is just sufficient to exhaust the local degrees of freedom. The internal strain increases with the average coordination number, m, while the entropy follows the opposite trend because the non-crystalline state becomes insufficiently interconnected (i.e., ‘cross-linked’). Therefore, the conventionally “stable” state of chalcogenide glasses is typically restricted to lie in the region ~3.3 > m > 2; while with m > 3.3 glass becomes over-constrained amorphous (shown by J.C. Phillips already in 1970s); yet higher, with m > 4.3, associates with unusual state of non-crystalline metals obtained by ultrafast quenching. On the other hand, those having the lower connectivity (m < 2) are assumed to be under-cross-linked amorphous materials, such as typically thin films. The highly constrained nature of variously obtained amorphous films suggests that defects might not be randomly distributed but could be predominantly located as internal blocks, voids and strain-relief interfaces between low-strain regions. In contrast to glasses, the amorphous films can thus exist in many non-crystalline configurational states the thermal annealing of which can lower their tense energy, however, cannot transform the over-constrained amorphous configuration from one ranking to another. A drastic atomic rearrangement would be enforced as to accomplish such an ‘unstructured’ reconstruction, which would, instead, materialize overlapping by more pertinent as well as unprompted crystallization. However, a possible interference of so the called ‘medium-range order’ (or ‘modulated structures’) becomes particularly common in resolving various non-crystalline materials, pertinent typically semiconductors, where the concept of homogeneously random network and its heterogeneity was most extensively studied. It is closely connected with the fashionable use of adjective ‘nano’ (nano-technology or nano-materials) touching the limits where the ordered and disordered states transpire factually a guaranteed threshold (‘delimitability’). The standard observations, based on measuring crystallographic characteristics and the amount of crystalline phases (such as typical XRD) are capable to detect the crystalline phase down to about 2 % within the glassy matrix, certainly under certain crystal-size discrimination (‘detectability’). If not assuming here the capability to distinguish a minimum of neither ‘yet-crystal-magnitude’ nor we account for a specialized diffraction measurement at low diffraction angles (radial distribution function); we can concentrate toward the critical amount of crystalline phase in the glassy sample. This issue is yet befitting the crucial question of how to relevantly define the limit of yet ‘true glassiness’ and already ‘nano-crystallinity’. A few proposals became known but the generally accepted figure is, for long, the value of 10-6 vol. % (less common 10-3 %), of crystallites to exist within glass matrix not yet disturbing its non-crystalline portrayal and consequent characterization of glassines. The appropriateness of this value, however, is difficult to authorize persisting in its maintenance on the basis of acute convenience and reiteration. Regarding the process of crystallization the early theories of solid-state reactions (D.A. Young, K. Haufe, H. Schmelzried, J.P. Tretyakov, C.S. Smith, F.C. Tompkins, R.F. Mehl, V.V. Boldyrev, E.A. Prodan, B.V. L’vov, S.F. Hulbert , A.K. Galwey, D. Dollimore, M.E. Brown) should be mentioned performing an important grounding for generalized kinetic studies. It was preceded by diffusion controlled kinetics (E. Kirkendall, W. Jander. C. Kroger, V.F. Zhuravlev, A.M. Ginstling, B.I.Brounshtein,R.E. Carter, W. Komatsu, M.E. Fine). A specific role played the methods of kinetic evaluation by means of thermal analysis, specifically DTA, which was inaugurated to the study of reaction kinetics by H.J. Borchard and F. Daniels (1950) and H.E. Kissiner (1957) and introduced in the practice of solid-state reactions in1960s (L. Reich, C.D. Doyle, E.S. Freeman, H.L. Friedman, J. Zsako, P.D. Garn, J.H. Flynn, T. Ozawa, E. Segal, V. Šatava or J. Šesták). It was preceded by the traditionally calculated mode of so called “isothermal” crystallization kinetics using the comprehensive form of Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Yerofeeyev-Kolmogorov equation (abbreviated as JMAYK

and pioneered in the turn of the forties). Its validity extension came by means of its derivation mode under a more general (“non-isothermal”) conditions respecting thus the standardized thermal regime of the temperature linear increase (common, e.g., during DTA measurements). It was necessary to introduce the temperature-dependent integration (D.W. Henderson, T.J.W. DeBroijn, W.A. DeJong, T. Kemeny, J. Šesták) yielding the concealed but anticipated fact that that the non-isothermal equivalent of the isothermally derived JMAYK relation is almost indistinguishable. It enabled one to simplify the kinetic rate equation to all types of interface-controlled and/or diffusion-controlled crystallization in a comprehensive form of ln (1-α) = - kT tr where the general exponent, r, can be seen as a multipart number of a robust analysis of the basic JMAYK equation effortlessly analyzable in terms of DTA measurements. It reveals that the apparent (overall) values of activation energies, Eapp is frequently correlated to the partial activation energies of nucleation, EN, growth, EG and/or diffusion, ED (J. Šesták, M.C. Weinberg, C.T. Moynihan, J.W. Christian). In a brief wrapping up it should be stressed out that numerous variously adapted methods of kinetic analysis and evaluation cannot be easily covered in a single communication. These manners have been treated repeatedly yielding thus plentiful publications, which were dealt with by a range of well known kineticists, cf. Fig. 2. The editors and authors are optimistic that this compendium of distinctive chapters would facilitate kinetic proficiency of readers enhancing associated citation feedback, which became important in the appraisal of scientific work. Let us point out that the topic of nucleation-crystallization kinetics has been extensively quoted in the literature, for example (according to WOS 2011); Avrami fundamental paper on general kinetics of phase changes (1939) received 5368, Kissinger’s reaction kinetics by DTA (1957) 4461 and Ozawa’s kinetic method of analyzing thermogravimetry data (1965) 2096 respective responses. Correspondingly the renowned kinetic equations by Jander (1927) on diffusion received 551, that by Šesták-Berggrenn (1971) on fractal (autocatalytic) kinetics 566 responses, mentioning also the Uhlmann kinetic treatment (1972) with 473 responses. These figures are comparable with 1913 and 1396 citations for the basic papers on glass behavior by Fulcher (viscosity 1925) and Mott (conduction 1968), respectively. The citation data illustrates that the theme of reaction kinetics is one of the best denoted focuses within the literature on solid-state reactions, which is the reason why this subject was chosen to prevail in the text of following chapters. Fig. 2. Numerous researches have been involved in studying reaction kinetics and particularly in the development of nucleation theory and associated nonisothermal evaluations, some of them are listed below which is, certainly, restricted by the availability of individual portraits. First raw: Svante A. Arrhenius, Henry Eyring, Andrey N. Kolmogorov, Robert F. Mehl, Raoul Kopelman, Andrew K. Galwey, Paul D. Garn; below Erwad M.D. Karhanavala, Joseph H. Flynn, David Dollimore, Vladimir V. Boldyrev, Janus Zsako, Boris L. L'vov, Vladimír Šatava; below Eugene Segal, Ari Varschavski, Viktor Jesenák, Delbert D. Day, Cornelius T. Moynihan, Takeo Ozawa, Donald R. Uhlmann; below Julia Sempere, Rosa Nomen, Judith Simon, Barbara Malecka, Andrzej L. Malecki, Alan K. Burnham, Michael E. Brown; below Marek Maciejewski, Zdeněk Kožíšek, Jerzy Czarnecki, Nobuyoshi Koga, Petru Budrugeac, Nae-Lih Wu, Emília Illeková; below Peter Šimon, Jaroslav Šesták, Jiří Málek, Vladimir M. Fokin, José M. Criado, Sergey Vyazovkin, Bertrand Roduit; below John M. Hutchinson, Klaus Heide, Isaac Avramov, Lindsay A. Greer, Kenneth F. Kelton, Edgar D. Zanotto, Takayuki Komatsu; bottom raw Živan Živkovič, Jurn W.P. Schmelzer, Pavel Hrma, Pavel Holba, Paul S. Thomas, Pavel Demo, Vladimir A. Logvinenko.

Jaroslav Šesták Emeritus scientist of the Academy of Science of the Czech Republic; Program auspice of the West Bohemian University in Pilsen and ‘Doctor Honoris Causa’ of Pardubice University. He is a co-founding professor of both the School of Energy Science of the Kyoto University in Japan, the Faculty of Humanities of the Charles University in Prague and the New York University, branch in Prague authoring numerous books (the most cited “Thermophysical Properties of Solids”); shown (upper left) with th

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