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COPD en anesthesie Dr. Tyler Heijnen en Dr. Maarten Brusseleers Dr. Geertrui Dewinter 23/09/2016

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Page 1: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

COPD en anesthesieDr. Tyler Heijnen en Dr. Maarten Brusseleers

Dr. Geertrui Dewinter

23/09/2016

Page 2: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Overzicht

• Pathofysiologie

• Casuïstiek

Page 3: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Pathofysiologie COPD

COPD

Longemfyseem Chronische Bronchtis

Astmatische Bronchitis

(reversibiliteit)

Page 4: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Longemfyseem

“Emphysema is characterized by enlargement of the air spaces distal to the terminal bronchiole (the acinus), with destruction of their walls.

Note that this is an anatomic definition; in other words, the diagnosis is presumptive in the living patient”

Page 5: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Longemfyseem: pathogenese

• Nog niet volledig duidelijk: onderzoek

• Enzym: lysosomaal elastase uit de neutrofielen

• Destructie elastine: structureel proteïne

• Splitsen type IV collageen: wand pulmonale capillairen

Page 6: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Longemfyseem: pathogenese

• Roken!

• Macrofagen: ‘chemoattractants’ � aantrekken neutrofielen

• Verminderen activiteit elastase inhibitors

Hypothese

• ∝1-antitrypsine deficiëntie

Page 7: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Longemfyseem: pathologie

• Verlies van alveolaire wanden (distaal van de terminale bronchiolen)

• Destructie capilairen

• Kleine luchtwegen versmald, tortueus en kleiner in aantal met dunneatrofe wanden

Verlies radiale tractie

Page 8: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Longemfyseem: subtypes

Page 9: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Pathofysiologie COPD

COPD

Longemfyseem Chronische Bronchtis

Page 10: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Chronische bronchitis

“This disease is characterized by excessive mucus production in the bronchial tree, sufficient to cause excessive expectofation of sputum. Note that this is a clinical definition.

In practice, criteria for excessive expectoration are often laid down, for example, expectoration on most days for at least 3 months in the year for at least 2 successive years.”

Page 11: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Chronische bronchitis: pathogenese

• Roken!

• Inflammatie door irritatie

• T-lymphocyten, neutrophils en macrofagen

Page 12: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Chronische bronchitis: pathologie

• Hypertrofie van mucusklieren in de grote bronchi

• Reid index

• Chronische inflammatoire veranderingen in de kleine luchtwegen

• Celinfiltratie

• Wandoedeem

• Granulatieweefsel en peribronchiale fibrose

Page 13: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

COPD: kliniek

• Klinische diagnose chronische bronchitis

• Anatomische diagnose emfyseem

� COPD als ‘makkelijkere’ diagnose

Page 14: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

COPD: kliniek

• Type A: ‘pink puffer’

• Type B: ‘blue bloater’

� associatie met pathofysiologie ter discussie

• Nuttig voor beschrijven van ziektepatroon

Page 15: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

COPD: kliniek

Page 16: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

COPD: kliniek

Page 17: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

COPD: kliniek

Page 18: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

COPD: longfunctie

• FEV1, FVC, tiffenaux (FEV1/FVC): afgenomen

• Gevolg van luchtwegobstructie

• TLC toegenomen (emfyseem)

• FVC afname door ‘air trapping’ (toename RV en FRC)

Page 19: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

COPD: longfunctie

• TLC toegenomen (emfyseem)

• FVC afname door ‘air trapping’ (toename RV en FRC)

Page 20: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

COPD: gasuitwisseling

Type A: fysiologische dode ruimte Type B: fysiologische shunt

� Beperkte hypoxie en hypercapnie � Hypoxie en hypercapnie

Page 21: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

COPD: diagnose en classificatie

• Dyspnee, hoest, sputumproductie en blootstelling risicofactoren

• Geen andere verklaring voor klachten

• Spirometrie vereist voor klinische diagnose:

• Tiffenaux index van <70% post bronchodilatatie

• GOLD classificatie

Page 22: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

COPD: oude GOLD richtlijnen

• GOLD 1: mild—FEV1≥80% voorspeld

• GOLD 2: matig—50%≤FEV1< 80% voorspeld

• GOLD 3: ernstig—30%≤FEV1<50% voorspeld

• GOLD 4: zeer ernstig—FEV1<30% voorspeld

Page 23: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

COPD: nieuwe GOLD richtlijnen

• A = Laag risico, lage symptoombelasting• Lage symptombelasting (mMRC 0-1 of CAT score < 10) EN• FEV1 ≥50% (GOLD 1-2) EN lage exacerbatie ratio (0-1/jaar)

• B = laag risico, hogere symptoombelasting• Hogere symptombelasting(mMRC ≥ 2 of CAT ≥ 10) EN• FEV1 ≥ 50% (GOLD 1-2) EN lage exacerbatie ratio (0-1/jaar)

• C = hoog risico, lage symptoombelasting• Lage symptombelasting(mMRC 0-1 of CAT score < 10) EN• FEV1 < 50% (GOLD 3-4) EN/of hoge exacerbatie ratio (≥ 2/jaar)

• D = hoog risico, hogere symptoombelasting• Hogere symptombelasting (mMRC ≥ 2 of CAT ≥ 10) EN• FEV1 < 50% (GOLD 3-4) EN/of hoge exacerbatie ratio (≥ 2/jaar)

CAT: COPD Assessment Tool, mMRC: modified medical research council

Page 24: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

COPD: oude GOLD richtlijnen

• GOLD 1: mild—FEV1≥80% voorspeld

• GOLD 2: matig—50%≤FEV1< 80% voorspeld

• GOLD 3: ernstig—30%≤FEV1<50% voorspeld

• GOLD 4: zeer ernstig—FEV1<30% voorspeld

Page 25: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Overzicht

• Pathofysiologie

• Casuïstiek

Page 26: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Casus 1

• Man 75j., gekend met COPD GOLD 3. PSOS enkel.

Page 27: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Casus 1

• Man 75j., gekend met COPD GOLD 3. PSOS enkel.

• Type anesthesie?

�LRA

�CAVE: plat liggen, frequent hoesten tijdens chirurgie

Minder morbiditeit

Zelfde mortaliteit

Page 28: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Casus 1

• Man 75j., gekend met COPD GOLD 3. PSOS enkel.

• Type anesthesie?

• Verschil in longcomplicaties spinale en perifeer zenuwblock?

� Spinale: risico op block intercostale spieren (T6): respiratoire complicaties

� CAVE ernstige COPD: dypsnee in rust

� CAVE morbiede obesitasRegli A, von Ungern-Sternberg BS, Reber A, Schneider MC. Impact of spinal anaesthesia on peri-operative lung volumes in obese and morbidly obese female patients. Anaesthesia. 2006;61:215–21.

Page 29: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Casus 1

• Man 75j., gekend met COPD GOLD 3. PSOS enkel.

• Type anesthesie?

• Verschil in longcomplicaties spinale en perifeer zenuwblock?

• Sedatie?

� Getitreerde sedatie > continue sedatieXu et al., Stepwise sedation for elderly patients with mild/moderate COPD during upper gastrointestinal endoscopy, World J Gastroenterol. 2013 Aug 7; 19(29): 4791–4798.

Page 30: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Casus 1

• Man 75j., gekend met COPD GOLD 3. PSOS enkel.

• Type anesthesie?

• Verschil in longcomplicaties spinale en perifeer zenuwblock?

• Sedatie?

� Getitreerde sedatie > continue sedatie

� Voorzichtig met O2

� Opiaten nuttig bij pijn, sedativa nuttig bij angst (hyperventilatie)

� Niet invasieve ondersteuning ventilatie

Page 31: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Casus 1

• Man 75j., gekend met COPD GOLD 3. PSOS enkel.

• Type anesthesie?

• Verschil in longcomplicaties spinale en perifeer zenuwblock?

• Sedatie?

� Sedativa:

• Ketamine 0.2-0.6 mg/kg

• Dexdor 0.5-1 mcg/kg, 0.2-0.7 mcg/kg/h

• Midazolam, fentanyl, propofol

Page 32: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Casus 1

• Man 75j., gekend met COPD GOLD 3. PSOS enkel.

• Type anesthesie?

• Verschil in longcomplicaties spinale en perifeer zenuwblock?

• Sedatie?

• Wat bij PSOS proximale humerus?

� Ernstige COPD contra-indicatie voor supraclaviculaire blocks (N. phrenicus)Urmey WF, McDonald M. Hemidiaphragmatic paresis during interscalene brachial plexus block: effects on pulmonary function and chest wall mechanics. Anesth Analg. 1992;74:352–7

� Case reports: ernstig COPD en ISBSanchez. et al., End-stage pulmonary disease and brachial plexus regional anesthesia: their implications on perioperative pulmonary function., Semoin Cardiothor Vasc Anesth. 2012 Mar;16(1):59-64

Page 33: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Casus 2Casus 2Casus 2Casus 2

• Vrouw 53j, AHT, roken, CCE

• Raadpleging: wat wil je weten?

-> Pakjaren + respiratoire klachten

-> Inspanningstolerantie

-> Thuismedicatie

-> Stabiele ziekte

-> Cardiale symptomen

-> Advies rookstop zinvol? Edrich T1, Sadovnikoff N. Anesthesia for patients with

severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Curr

Opin Anaesthesiol. 2010 Feb;23(1):18-24.

Lee H1, Kim J1, Tagmazyan K1. Treatment of stable chronic obstructive

pulmonary disease: the GOLD guidelines. Am Fam Physician. 2013 Nov

15;88(10):655-63, 663B-F.

Page 34: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,
Page 35: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Casus 2

• Vrouw 53j, AHT, roken, CCE

• Raadpleging: wat wil je weten?

• Technische onderzoeken?

-> ECG

-> Rx thorax?

-> Bloedgas?

-> Longfunctie?

-> Inspanningstest?

www.radiopaedia.org

Page 36: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Casus 2

• Vrouw 53j, AHT, roken, CCE

• Raadpleging: wat wil je weten?

• Technische onderzoeken?

• Type anesthesie?

-> Laparoscopie = AA

-> Laparotomie = AA + epidurale catheter

Page 37: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Casus 2

• Vrouw 53j, AHT, roken, CCE

• Raadpleging: wat wil je weten?

• Technische onderzoeken?

• Type anesthesie?

• Medicatie inductie + onderhoud?

• Ventilatie-tactiek

Page 38: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Edrich T1, Sadovnikoff N. Anesthesia for patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2010 Feb;23(1):18-24.

Page 39: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,
Page 40: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Casus 2

• Vrouw 53j, AHT, roken, CCE

• Raadpleging: wat wil je weten?

• Technische onderzoeken?

• Type anesthesie?

• Medicatie inductie + onderhoud?

• Ventilatie-tactiek?

• Ontwaken + postoperatieve pijnstilling?

Page 41: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Casus 2b

• Vrouw 53j, AHT, roken, open hemicolectomie

Page 42: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Casus 3

• Man 31j, cannabisgebruik, CCE

• Vlotte inductie en intubatie

• Incisie + pneumoperitoneum

• Bijna onmiddellijk ontstaan van wheezing

-> Geef DD van Wheezing

Page 43: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Casus 3

• Man 31j, cannabisgebruik, CCE

• Vlotte inductie en intubatie

• Incisie + pneumoperitoneum

• Bijna onmiddellijk ontstaan van wheezing

• 1min later desaturatie (85%) + acute hypotensie

-> Wat te doen?

-> DD?

-> R/ ?

Page 44: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Lee MH1, et al. Effects of smoking cannabis on lung function. Expert Rev Respir Med. 2011 Aug;5(4):537-46;

Golwala H1, Lung India. 2012 Jan;29(1):56-8 Marijuana abuse and bullous emphysema. Lung India. 2012 Jan;29(1):56-8

Page 45: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Casus 4

• Man 52j, AHT, Obesitas, Roken, spoelen knie

• Verwacht langdurige procedure

• Vlotte inductie & intubatie

• Vlotte ventilatie

• Tijdens afdekken acute desaturatie

-> Wat te doen?

-> DD?

-> R/?

Page 46: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Casus 5

• Man 64j, Roken, Coloscopie

• Geen preop -> anamnese, KO en snel ECG

• Sedatie Propofol-Ultiva

• Plots zweten +++, grauwe kleur en VAS 10 scrotale pijn

-> DD?

-> TO?

-> R/?

Page 47: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Morris-Stiff G, Coxon M, Ball E, Lewis MH. Post coital aortic dissection: a case report. J Med Case Rep. 2008 Jan 16;2:6.

Page 48: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Casus 6

• Vrouw 32j, astma, 38weken zwangerschap, spontane arbeid

• Sectio wegens niet vorderende arbeid

• Vlotte punctie CSE

• Na 10min acuut ontstane dyspneu -> desaturatie 82% -> Hypotensie

-> Wat te doen?

-> DD?

-> R/ ?

Page 49: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Take Home Messages

• LRA beter dan AA (CAVE ernstig COPD)

• Voorzichtig met neuraxiale anesthesie

• Sedatie: soms slechter, soms beter

• Anamnese en klinisch onderzoek zijn van cruciaal belang

• Denk na over elke stap tijdens de anesthesie

• Beoordeel elke casus apart

• Niet alle wheezing heeft pulmonale oorsprong

• Denk aan comorbiditeiten

Page 50: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Extra informatie

• Classificatie + behandeling stabiele COPD (en kostprijs):

Lee H1, Kim J1, Tagmazyan K1. Treatment of stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: the GOLD guidelines. Am Fam Physician. 2013 Nov 15;88(10):655-63, 663B-F.

Page 51: COPD en anesthesie 1 [Alleen-lezen] - uzleuven.be · surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan • West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012 • Duke,

Referenties

• Edrich T1, Sadovnikoff N. Anesthesia for patients with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2010 Feb;23(1):18-24.

• Ranjana K. et al. Anesthetic considerations in the patients of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease undergoing laparoscopic surgeries. Indian journal of anesthesia. 2016. jan

• West J. Pulmonary pathophysiology, the essentials 8th ed. 2012

• Duke, J. Anesthesia Secrets 4th ed. 2011

• Lange, Case Files Anesthesiology 1st ed. 2011.

• Lange, Case Files Critical Care medicine, 1st ed. 2014

• Khan BA. Et al. Spontaneous pneumothorax in the immediate post-operative hour in a primigravida following emergency caesarean section under spinal anaesthesia. Indian J Anaesth. 2015 Feb;59(2):126-9.

• Lee MH1, et al. Effects of smoking cannabis on lung function. Expert Rev Respir Med. 2011 Aug;5(4):537-46;

• Golwala H1, Lung India. 2012 Jan;29(1):56-8 Marijuana abuse and bullous emphysema. Lung India. 2012 Jan;29(1):56-8

• Morris-Stiff G, Coxon M, Ball E, Lewis MH. Post coital aortic dissection: a case report. J Med Case Rep. 2008 Jan 16;2:6.

• Pai RB. Et al. Severe unilateral bronchospasm due to inadequate anesthetic depth: A case report and review of literature. Saudi J Anaesth. 2012 Apr;6(2):186-8.

• www.uptodate.com: meerdere hoofdstukken