Adams, K

Counseling Interventions Using Expressive Arts

by Debbie W. Newsome

Editors Introduction: As an extension of responsive services such as individual and group counseling, expressive arts are relatively new additions to the professional school counselors arsenal. While these techniques and strategies work well under normal circumstances, expressive arts also allow counselors to reach resistant, creative, and sensitive students, allowing them to use the many gifts each possesses. In many ways, a chapter on counseling using expressive arts appropriately suits the transformed professional school counselor who challenges students to use their creativity and talents to overcome adversity.

Counseling young people effectively often requires a departure from traditional talk therapy (Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 1997). When working with children and adolescents, it is important for professional school counselors to be familiar with a wide range of interventions. Selecting which intervention to use is based on the counselors theoretical orientation, the students developmental level, and the particular issue that is being addressed. The use of expressive arts with students provides counselors with a repertoire of interventions that are compatible with many theoretical approaches and can be adapted to different developmental levels.

There are several advantages associated with using the arts in counseling. Expressive arts are enriching, stimulating, pragmatic, and therapeutic (Gladding, 1998). Creative interventions get people doing rather than thinking, and thus can be more activating than verbal counseling (France & Allen, 1997). By their very nature, expressive arts foster different ways of experiencing the world. They can benefit students who are stuck by helping them view things from different perspectives, with a variety of possible responses. Through the use of expressive approaches, counseling is enhanced as the emotional, perceptual, and creative world of the client is engaged.

The use of creative interventions in counseling provides a way to symbolize feelings in a unique, tangible, and powerful way (Nichols & Schwartz, 1998). Artistic expression acts as a metaphor for conflicts, emotions, and troubling situations (Ulik & Cummings, 1997). Providing students with creative outlets allows them to communicate emotions and concerns that cannot be assessed through rational, linear language.

Another benefit associated with the use of expressive arts is that they help young people picture themselves or their situations in a concrete, objectified manner. Art can serve as a bridge between the student and the counselor, especially when the subject matter is too embarrassing or difficult to talk about, such as family violence or abuse (Brooke, 1995; Liebmann, 1990; Trowbridge, 1995). Expressing thoughts creatively is one way to externalize a distressing event and to prepare for healing and recovery (Howe, Burgess, & McCormack, 1987, p.35).

Many different creative interventions can be used in individual and group counseling, including visual art, music, imagery, dance and movement, drama and puppetry, therapeutic writing, storytelling, and bibliotherapy. Counseling techniques using these expressive forms have been described elsewhere by several authors (see Gladding, 1998; Hobday & Ollier, 1999; Kaduson & Schaefer, 1997; Muro & Kottman, 1995; Vernon, 1999b). In this chapter, the focus is on examples of activities associated with three creative categories: visual arts, music, and creative writing and storytelling. The examples selected to represent each category describe only a few of the numerous ways creative interventions can be used by professional school counselors to enhance the counseling process. Some of the activities are familiar and have been documented in other texts. Other activities have evolved through ongoing work with young people in school and community settings. Most of the interventions can be adapted according to students developmental levels. Whereas some are more appropriate for individual counseling and others for group experiences, many can be used in both situations, depending on the issue being addressed.

Interventions Using Visual Arts

Drawing, sketching, painting, sculpting, and photography are all examples of visual art interventions. Using visual art in counseling helps students gain a better understanding of themselves and how they function in families and in society. As children draw, paint, and sculpt, they communicate thoughts and feelings in ways that the counselor can hear and understand (Orton, 1997).

A wide variety of art supplies helps provide students with choices in the manner in which they choose to express themselves. Children up to about 11 or 12 years of age typically enjoy using colored paper, colored pencils, and thin or thick colored markers, whereas older children may prefer using pens, pencils, and white paper (Hobday & Ollier, 1999). Students of all ages tend to enjoy drawing on dry-erase boards. Other supplies that facilitate artistic expression include watercolor paints and brushes, tempera paints, fingerpaints, glue, scissors, and modeling clay or Play- Doh (Furrer, 1982; Muro & Kottman, 1995).

Introductory Activities for Building Rapport

About MeThe purpose of this activity is to help build a therapeutic relationship and give students an opportunity to describe themselves using artistic media. It can be used effectively with students of all ages and is particularly useful in initial counseling sessions, either with individuals or groups.

To begin the activity, students are invited to decoratively write their names in the center of a piece of poster board or construction paper. The counselor then asks the students to draw or select magazine pictures that describe different aspects of themselves, including strengths, interests, relationships, or other characteristics they want to reveal at that point. For students who seem stuck, or unsure about what to draw, it may be helpful to provide prompting questions. Examples include:

What do you like to do in your free time?

What are you good at?

Where do you like to go on weekends or holidays?

Who is your best friend?

What pets do you have?

What is your favorite food, subject, color, and so on?

After the collages are completed, the counselor encourages students to talk about their picture selections. Descriptions serve as a springboard for further discussion, helping the counselor develop an understanding of each students world.

Adolescents may enjoy using photography to complete a variation of this activity. Students take photographs that represent who they are, then arrange the pictures to form a life collage. When the counselor processes the experience with students afterward, it is helpful to look for patterns, themes, and omissions.

Decorating My BagThis activity can be used with students of all ages and, like the previously described activity, is particularly helpful in the beginning stage of group counseling. The exercise of decorating and displaying bags requires group members to cut out pictures representing themselves from magazines or newspapers. They then paste or tape these pictures, along with other representative symbols, on the outside of their bags. Also, as part of the exercise, they put loose pictures and symbols that they are not yet ready to share inside the bags.

After completing the activity, students introduce themselves to one another by describing themselves in relation to the pictures and symbols on the outside of the bags. During subsequent sessions, as trust is developed, students are given opportunities to share materials on the inside of the bags, providing a way to help group members make covert parts of their lives more overt as time and desire allow (Gladding, 1997).

As a variation, the exercise can be introduced during the termination phase of group counseling. On the outside of their bags, students paste pictures representing positive changes they have made as a result of group work. On the inside of the bags, they place pictures describing areas in which they are continuing to grow and develop. Rather than selecting pictures from magazines, the students may choose to draw symbols representing issues and changes. As with any group activity, the counselor is responsible for sensitively processing the experience with the group members. Through processing, students are provided opportunities to articulate personal changes they have made and affirm changes made by others.

Dealing with Feelings

Lines of FeelingThis exercise, which can be used in individual or group counseling with students of all ages, is based on the premise that everyone has emotional lines in their lives (Gladding, 1997). At times, students cannot find words to express their emotions, although they may have a strong sense of what those feelings are. To help with awareness and expression, the counselor asks students to draw lines representing their emotions using various art media (e.g., markers, colored pencils, paints, crayons). The counselor explains that both the shape and the color of the lines should match the emotions being depicted. For example, jagged, rough lines in red or orange might signify anger or discontent, whereas smooth, flowing, pastel-colored lines might represent peacefulness (Gladding, 1997, 1998).

Depending upon the stage of counseling and the particular issues presented, the approach counselors take with this activity can vary. One approach is to ask students to draw lines representing their feelings at the present moment. They then are asked to explain the lines and to draw what they hope the lines will become in the future. As an alternative, counselors ask students to reflect upon specific past, present, and future events that relate to the issues with which they are struggling. Using lines, students draw feelings associated with the events, thereby providing an avenue for exploring thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Feel WheelProfessional elementary school counselors frequently use games, books, and drawing activities to help children recognize, express, and talk about their feelings. A simple visual art activity that facilitates the discussion of feelings involves asking children to draw faces reflecting different emotions (e.g., glad, sad, worried, mad) and then to talk about times they experienced those feelings. Instead of drawing the faces, the students may prefer to mold them out of clay. Another option is to use a dry-erase board and play a guessing game with the students, leading to further discussion of feelings, thoughts, and behaviors.

An expanded version of drawing feelings, called the Feel Wheel, is described by Hobday and Ollier (1999). Children draw a circle on a paper plate or a piece of paper and divide it into eight pie sections. Each section is labeled with a different emotion, with pictures drawn to accompany each one. The counselor then describes different situations involving either the child or a fictional character and asks the child to determine how the character would feel. Alternatively, the counselor can ask children to describe or draw times they or other people have experienced those particular emotions.

The VolcanoMany young people who participate in counseling in schools struggle with anger issues. The Volcano (White, 1998), which is especially applicable at the elementary and middle school levels, is an activity designed to help students with anger management. It can be introduced in individual or group counseling.

To begin the activity, the counselor asks students to share what they know about why volcanoes erupt. (Eruptions are the sudden escape of high-pressure volcanic gas from magma inside the volcano.) Students are invited to draw a volcano, and the counselor explains how explosive volcanic eruptions are similar to the way people sometimes erupt when they are angry. Students draw steam and lava coming out of their volcanoes and write in words describing harmful ways people sometimes blow their tops in anger (e.g., hurting self or others, cursing, yelling). Next, they are asked to think about stressful or troublesome things in their lives that might contribute to a buildup of pressure inside their volcanoes. To avoid explosions, students are instructed to draw several vents leading from the pressure sources to the outside of the volcanoes. The drawing of the vents generates a discussion of healthy ways people can vent or get rid of angry feelings. Examples might include deep breathing, self-talk, counting to 10, physical exercise, and listening to music. To conclude the activity, the counselor asks students to choose one or two vents they will use during the upcoming week to help them avoid angry explosions (see Figure 101).

Past, Present, and Future

Road MapThe road map and its numerous variations, such as life maps or life lines, can be used to help young people review significant periods in their lives and anticipate the future. One goal of the activity is to help young people explore patterns, expand self-expression, and plan their lives more effectively (Gladding, 1998; Kahn, 1999; Miller, 1993). Road or life maps also can serve as forms of qualitative assessment that stimulate counseling interaction (Goldman, 1990).

The road map provides an opportunity for counselors to help students plan for the future as they reflect on where they have been and think about where they are going. The manner in which the activity is presented depends upon students ages, counseling goals, and interests. One way to introduce the activity to middle or high school-aged students is to say, I want you to represent your life as a road map. Some roads are straight and wide; others are narrow and winding. Some are bumpy, and others are smooth. There may be some road blocks or detours. It is possible that the road of your life has been many of these. These directions give the student free reign to evaluate life events that have been most influential and to visualize the past, present, and future simultaneously. After the drawing is finished, the counselor encourages the student to talk about the map and the events depicted on it. What events were expected? Which were unexpected? What people were associated with these events? What feelings are remembered? These and other questions encourage self-exploration while at the same time providing the counselor with a picture of the students contextual development.

For high school students facing decisions about the future, the following variation of the road map can be helpful. The counselor asks students to draw the current road they are on. Next, they are asked to draw three paths branching off the main road: the high road, the expected road, and the low road. Along each path, they draw or paint symbols to represent an ideal future, an anticipated future, and the worst possible scenario. After the paths have been drawn, adolescents are encouraged to explore possible action steps that need to be accomplished to stay on the preferred path (see Figure 102).

Problem Solving and Goal Setting

The BridgeFor students dealing with problem situations, visual representations of the situation and possible solutions can be empowering (Gladding, 1997; Mills & Crowley, 1986). The Bridge is an activity that promotes such representations and can be adapted for students of varying ages. It is appropriate for individual counseling as well as the working stage of group counseling.

To begin the activity, students divide a piece of paper into three panels or sections. On the first panel, they are invited to draw a picture of a specific problem or concern. Next, they are asked to think about what it would look like if the problem were solved and to draw that on the third panel. Between these two scenes, students draw symbols of obstacles blocking their movement toward the solution. Afterward the students are asked to draw a bridge over the obstacles, providing a connection between the problem and the problem solved. The counselor encourages the inclusion of symbols or word phrases on the bridge that represent varied solutions for circumventing the obstacles and living life more effectively.

A variation of The Bridge can be especially helpful for students experiencing particular crises, such as parental divorce, illness, or death of a loved one. Students are invited to draw a picture of themselves in the present and a picture of how they would like things to look in the future. The sequential drawings can serve as a springboard for discussing coping skills, new patterns of behavior, and emotional responses to the changes being experienced.

Three WishesThis activity, described by Denny (1977) and Orton (1997), is especially appropriate for elementary school children and can be used for assessment or goal setting. It can be employed effectively in both individual and group counseling. To begin the activity, the counselor asks children to draw or paint pictures of three wishes. Depending on the situation, the counselor may choose to ask the child to think of wishes related to a particular setting, such as school or home. After the drawings are complete, the counselor talks with the child about the strength of the wishes, whether they are attainable, and what needs to be accomplished to make what is desired a reality.

The techniques just described represent just a few of the multiple ways professional school counselors can employ visual art interventions in their work with children and adolescents. It is important to consider each intervention within the context of the counselors skill and the students needs (Orton, 1997).

Music Interventions

Throughout history, music has played an important role in nurturing and healing (Gladding, 1998; Price, Rexroad, & Stephens, 1985). Noted for its therapeutic capabilities, music can be used to capture attention, elicit memories, soothe, communicate feelings, and create or intensify moods (Bowman, 1987). For some individuals, the act of listening to music can enhance self-awareness, reduce anxiety, and provide a springboard for discussing feelings and experiences. For others, performing or creating music can energize, provide emotional release, and promote self-awareness and well-being (Gladding, 1998; McClellan, 1994).

As a counseling approach, the use of music can be especially effective with children and adolescents (Newcomb, 1994). Younger children seem to love music and spontaneously sing, listen, or play music-like instruments. Their natural affinity for music can be used to promote fun, learning, good feelings, and bonding among children from diverse backgrounds (Crabbs, Crabbs, & Wayman, 1986). Adolescents, too, typically have an affinity for music, although their interests may be expressed in ways that differ from those of younger children. For many teenagers, listening to CDs, playing in a band, and composing songs are activities that promote self-expression as well as enjoyment (Gladding, 1998).

Listening to Music

LyricsWhereas sometimes the rhythm and melody attract children and adolescents to particular songs, other times it is the lyrics, or a combination of lyrics, rhythm, and melody. Professional school counselors can use the lyrics in music to promote individual and group counseling in several different ways. For example, counselors might ask older children or adolescents to bring in CDs or tapes containing lyrics that reflect some of the issues with which they are dealing. (Due to the explicit nature of some lyrics, it might be necessary to set limits in advance about types of music that may be brought to the counseling session.) After listening to the portion of the song selected by the student, the counselor facilitates discussion about how the music was meaningful. What thoughts, feelings, or memories did it evoke? The counselor can help the student process his or her responses to the music, providing an impetus for self-exploration and growth.

An alternative to asking students to select one representative song is to have them create a music collage by recording short music segments that reflect their lives in some way. The segments may be chosen because the student likes the music or because of the meaningful lyrics. The final result is a collage of musical pieces with an identity and feeling of its own. Listening to the students tapes can reveal unique perspectives and promote further exploration (Bowman, 1987).

During the adjourning stage of group counseling, music can be particularly effective. When a group is nearing closure, goals include helping students reflect on past experiences in the group, evaluate what was learned, acknowledge feelings, and articulate decisions for new ways of behaving. Ideally, as a result of the group experience, members know themselves and each other on a deeper level. Song lyrics can help them express either what they have experienced in the group or specific ways they have changed. Students play the portions of the songs they have selected and talk about their reasons for selecting them. Afterward, the counselor helps process the activity by pointing out common themes and encouraging members to share their responses to songs brought in by other students.

At times it is helpful for the counselor to select music for the session. The selection should be based on counseling goals, taking into account the students preferences and needs. For example, the song Change Your Mind, by Sister Hazel (2000), describes the importance of changing ones thought processes when youre tired of doing battle with yourself. Playing the song and talking about the lyrics is one way to enhance a cognitive-based approach to counseling, which focuses on changing maladaptive thinking patterns to improve emotional well-being.

Stress ReductionStudents of all ages can benefit from learning ways to relax when they feel anxious or uptight. One way to teach relaxation is to ask young people to select soothing music to bring to the counseling session. Using guided imagery or progressive relaxation in conjunction with the music can enhance the process of helping students reduce stressful feelings (Bowman, 1987; Russell, 1992).

Another approach to teaching relaxation is for the counselor, rather than the student, to make the music selection. There are advantages and disadvantages to using counselor-selected music. Although certain compositions and types of music (e.g., instrumental music with violin, flute, or piano) have been associated with anxiety reduction (Spintge & Droh, 1985), there is evidence that the most important factor related to relaxation is the persons liking for the music (Stratton & Zalanowski, 1989). Well-chosen music in collaboration with the student helps personalize the process, making positive results more likely (Gladding, 1998).

Performing and Composing

Performing or creating music can energize, evoke emotional release, and promote self-awareness and well-being. To provide opportunities for creating music, counselors might choose to include a variety of portable musical instruments in their offices, such as drums, rain sticks, recorders, and keyboards. Students can be invited to play out their feelings, after which they talk about those feelings and the events that precipitated them.

As a homework assignment, counselors can encourage musically inclined students to compose music through which they can represent themselves. At the next session, the student either plays the composition or brings in a recording of it. Afterward, the student and counselor talk about the actual experience of composing as well as the personal significance of the music (Gladding, 1998).

Composing does not have to involve recognizable instruments. Instead, students can be asked to tap, snap, click, bang, or hum to represent different emotions (Gladding, 1998). Also, counselors can encourage younger children to improvise and compose during group counseling and guidance sessions. For example, students can be divided into small groups of three or four. Each group is secretly given a feeling word. Children then use sound makers of various types to make up songs representing the assigned feelings. Each group performs its composition while the rest of the children try to guess what emotion is being expressed (Bowman, 1987).

As with the use of visual art interventions, there are many ways music can be used therapeutically by professional school counselors, depending on the needs of the students. The various ways music can be used to enhance the counseling process are limited only by the creativity and skill of the counselor.

Therapeutic Writing and Storytelling

Therapeutic, or creative, writing and storytelling help people express their identities, re-create events and experiences, and communicate powerful emotion. Both forms of imaginative expression can facilitate individual and group counseling processes with children and adolescents.

Scriptotherapy

Scriptotherapy is a term coined by Riordan (1996) to denote the many different forms of writing that are used in counseling. Writing for preventive and therapeutic purposes has a notable history. Since the 1940s, workers in the helping professions have incorporated activities such as journaling, autobiographical expression, and the writing of stories and poems into their work with clients (LAbate, 1999). Although much of the research on the effectiveness of expressive writing interventions is anecdotal rather than empirical, evidence of the therapeutic benefits of expressive writing is substantial (Riordan, 1996; Wenz & McWhirter, 1990).

Scriptotherapy can facilitate counseling processes that emphasize catharsis, the acceptance of emotions, and the objectification of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Writing is an expressive act that offers a medium through which emotions can be analyzed and integrated in a personal way (Brand, 1987). Free forms of writing, such as poetry, elicit the writers unique subjective perceptions and encourage emotional self-searching. Conceivably, writing brings about healing sooner and with equal or greater intensity than counseling without writing (Riordan, 1996). Written expression also provides concrete evidence of an individuals involvement in the counseling process. Professional school counselors can incorporate therapeutic writing interventions directly into their counseling sessions or give students assignments to be completed between sessions. As with the use of other expressive arts, the types of activities implemented are limited only by the counselors imagination and skill and the students preferences.

Writing interventions can be structured or unstructured. Journaling is an example of an unstructured therapeutic writing activity that is frequently prescribed as homework (Gladding, 1998). Examples of more structured creative writing activities include life-review exercises, letter writing, therapeutic fairy tales, and specific group exercises.

JournalingFor some students, the process of writing on a regular basis about life experiences and processes can be therapeutic. Journal writing can take several forms, including poetic reflections, daily logs, stream-of-consciousness responses, and semistructured writing sprints (Bradley & Gould, 1999). People often express a desire to keep journals, but frequently end up not doing so (Gladding, 1998). To help students who are interested in journal writing, Adams (1994) offered several suggestions. One suggestion is for students to prepare themselves in advance for the writing process. Preparation may include selecting an aesthetically appealing space or creating an atmosphere for reflection by playing music or progressively relaxing.

Another way counselors can encourage students to engage in journal writing is by prescribing the five-minute writing sprint (Adams, 1994; Gladding, 1998).To participate in the five-minute writing sprint, the student sets a timer for five minutes and then begins writing about anything he or she wishes. During the five minutes, the writing instrument must be continually in motion, even if that means doodling. When the time is up, the student stops writing and then reads and reflects upon what was written. At times, it may be helpful to provide students with a list of possible writing starters, such as I wish, When I was angry, A big decision, or The best/worst thing about today. On other occasions, a less structured approach may be preferred. Gladding (1998) suggested that students write one day and then reflect upon what was written the next day to increase their motivation and mindfulness.

Life-review ExercisesWhereas journal writing is often used to help students reflect upon what is going on in their lives in the present, life-review exercises help them reflect upon past experiences and future possibilities. Many forms of life-review can be used therapeutically by professional school counselors. For example, Hobday and Ollier (1999) described an activity called My Life So Far. The activity may take several sessions and can include illustrations as well as written descriptions of significant events in students lives. Students are asked to think about noteworthy events they have experienced and remember the feelings associated with them. The review, which is a type of autobiography, should include as much information from as many different times in the students life as possible, including early memories as well as the more recent past (Gladding, 1998). Events are described on separate pages and need not be recorded chronologically. Hobday and Ollier stated, It is less of an emotional load for the child if you move from difficult times to good times (p.149). At the end of the activity, counselors help students assemble the pages chronologically into a book or folder. When they review the book together, counselors encourage students to look for themes, patterns, and strengths.

Past, Present, Future is another activity school counselors can use to help students review ways they have changed and will continue to change (Hobday & Ollier, 1999). In this exercise, the student is asked to divide a large piece of paper into four columns. The first column is used to record relevant aspects of the childs life, including friends, habits, getting angry, having fun, living arrangements, and other pertinent categories. The next three columns are given the respective headings of Past, Present, and Future. In the second column, the student writes a brief description summarizing the way a particular aspect was manifested in the past. Next, he or she writes about the way the aspect is evidenced now. The final column is used to describe the childs realistic hopes and wishes. During the process, the counselor helps the child notice ways he or she has changed.

One aim of Past, Present, Future is to help students notice how their lives are improving, so it is important to select several areas in which they have been successful. If students are not experiencing success in particular areas, help them envision positive possibilities for the future. Hobday and Ollier (1999) cautioned that some aspects of students lives, such as parental relationships, might deteriorate during certain developmental stages. For example, parental relationships may become somewhat strained during adolescence. The counselor can help normalize what the adolescent is experiencing, pointing toward the possibility of working toward closer relationships with parents as adulthood approaches.

Instead of focusing on a broad time span, the counselor may choose to focus on specific difficult situations the student has faced. For example, counselors can encourage students to create illustrated texts about traumatic or painful experiences. The Pain Getting Better Book is an example of an intervention of this nature (Mills & Crowley, 1986). Students objectify painful experiences by drawing or sketching representations of what happened. Next, they write about what they experienced and how they currently view the situation. To help students recognize their personal strengths and resources, counselors encourage them to write or talk about what helped them overcome or cope with what was experienced.

Letter WritingAn activity that has been referenced many times in the literature and has a wide range of applications is letter writing (Riordan, 1996). Letter writing can take a variety of forms, including counselor-client correspondence, letters written to specific individuals, and letters written to abstract concepts such as anger, grief, or fear.

Counselors working with individuals or groups of students who have experienced the loss of a loved one can use letter writing to help children accept the loss, remember the one who died, and articulate feelings surrounding the loss. The child is invited to write a letter to the person who died, describing what he or she misses most about the person and what life is like without them. To illustrate this process, Bradley & Gould (1999) provided a case study about a young girl, Sarah, whose grandfather had died. She felt sad because she missed him and had not been able to tell him goodbye. To help with the grief process, the counselor suggested that Sarah write her grandfather a letter, expressing all the things she hadnt gotten to say. After Sarah wrote the letter, she read it to the counselor and said, Its not as good as telling him in person, but I think he could hear me (p.93). Over the course of the next few weeks, Sarah wrote several more letters to her grandfather and, through that process and other interventions, began to come to terms with her grandfathers death.

Letter writing can be especially helpful for students who are angry about particular issues. For example, an adolescent might be encouraged to write a letter to a parent with whom he is having trouble communicating. Or a child might write a letter to an absent parent, expressing her wish to see the parent more frequently. In cases of abuse, the child can write a letter to the offender, sharing feelings about the abuse. In most cases, letters are not mailed to the recipients but instead are used to provide a way for the student to recognize and express feelings and explore ways to cope more effectively.

Therapeutic Fairy TalesWriting a therapeutic fairy tale allows students to project themselves into another time dimension, where they are able to positively resolve particular issues or conflicts (Gladding, 1997). The activity is especially effective with groups, but also can be used in individual counseling. Participants are asked to complete the written exercise in 6 to 10 minutes, during which time they do the following:

a.set the scene in a place and time far away from the here and now;

b.within this setting, describe a problem or predicament; and

c.solve the difficulty in a positive and gratifying manner, even if the solution seems unrealistic or bizarre. (Hoskins, 1985)

After students write their stories, they are asked to read them aloud to the group and/or the counselor. To process what occurred during the experience, the counselor asks facilitative questions such as:

a.In what ways are you like the main character in the story? In what ways are you different?

b.In what way does the predicament affect the characters? Is the predicament, or the resulting emotion, familiar in any way?

c.How is the solution pleasing? How is it implemented? How does it compare with the way you typically solve problems? (Gladding, 1998)

As the student reads the fairy tale, the counselor should pay attention to the use of symbolic or metaphoric language. Metaphors provide insight into how students view the world and understand experiences. Counselors can continue using these metaphors with the child or adolescent to express empathic understanding (Bowman, 1995).

Group ExercisesWritten exercises can be particularly valuable in group counseling (Jacobs, 1992). Carefully selected exercises can help group members become more involved and prevent them from feeling put on the spot. Written activities provide material for discussion and give students opportunities for rehearsal and insight (Wenz & McWhirter, 1990).

Sentence completion exercises can facilitate movement through the different stages of the group process. For example, during the forming stage, members might be asked to complete the following sentences:

In a new group, I feel __________.

When people first meet me, they __________.

In this group, I am most afraid that __________. (Jacobs, 1992)

During conflictual or storming stages, students can respond to sentence stems such as:

I feel annoyed when the leader _____________.

When people remain silent, I feel _____________.

An effective way to help members put closure on group processes is to create a collaborative poem by reflecting on changes they have experienced in the group. The sentence stem may be as simple as

I __________.

Gladding (1997, p.93) shared the following example to illustrate collaborative group poetry writing:

The Growth Group

As part of the group that was:

I gained insight into myself and others

I realized anew the power of people together

I was aware of new thoughts and differences

I grew in unexpected ways

I gained feelings of confidence and care

I realized I was a person of worth and substance

Now I am moving on!

A writing exercise that can be used to stimulate group development and heighten intimacy and cohesion is the Personal Logo (Wenz & McWhirter, 1990). In this exercise, students draw a personal logo, describe it in a story, and then share the picture and story with the group. Students are asked to play with doodles they have always enjoyed drawing until they develop a symbol that feels right for them. After creating a logo, each group member is encouraged to write a story about it. The story may take the form of a fairy tale, a poem, or some other literary creation of the students own choosing. Students then share their logos and stories with the group. The counselor helps members notice common themes while facilitating the discussion of thoughts, feelings, and insights generated by the exercise.

Another written activity for groups is the Epigram. Epigrams are short, witty sayings or quotations that can be used to highlight important issues for individual group members (Wenz & McWhirter, 1990). Group leaders invite students to select an epigram and then write about the personal meaning it has for them. Wenz and McWhirter suggested, Do not search too hard for the perfect onelet it find you. Copy it on a fresh piece of paper, then begin to explore and write and wonder about it ... (p.40). In the group, students share their epigrams and selections of their personal writings that they choose to read aloud. Counselors help them process what was shared so that members can transfer their insights and learnings to their lives outside of the group (Kees & Jacobs, 1990).

Using written exercises in groups can facilitate trust building and affiliation, generate energy and excitement, and clarify issues and concerns. Sentence completion activities, the Personal Logo, and Epigrams are just a few of the many written exercises that can be implemented to enhance the group process.

Storytelling

For young children and students who have an aversion to writing, counseling interventions such as those just described may not be appropriate. Instead, a more effective creative intervention for these students is storytelling. Storytelling can take many forms, including the presentation of therapeutic metaphors by the counselor (Kottman, 1995), narrative construction (White & Epston, 1990), and mutual storytelling (Gardner, 1971, 1975; Kottman, 1995). In this section, attention will be directed toward the art of mutual storytelling.

Mutual storytelling is a metaphoric counseling technique developed by Dr. Richard A. Gardner (1971, 1975). In this exercise, the counselor asks the child to tell a story that has a beginning, middle, and end, as well as a moral or lesson. Some children choose to talk into a tape recorder, pretending to produce a make-believe television program. As the story is told, the counselor notes its content and possible meaning. The counselor comments positively on the childs story and then tells another story, using the same characters, setting, and dilemma that were presented in the original story. In retelling the story, the counselor includes a better resolution of the conflict and identifies more alternatives to problem solving. This process helps the child become aware of the multiplicity of options and recognize that behavior patterns can change.

Kottman (1995) recommended incorporating the use of puppets or stuffed animals rather than simply asking young children to tell a story. She invited children to choose a set of puppets or animals and to pretend that they could talk. Next, she asked them to tell a story using the characters. To encourage the use of imagination, Kottman told the children that the story could be something they had seen on television or witnessed in real life. Some children may have difficulty constructing a plot. If so, the counselor can ask specific questions about what happens next or what the characters said in a particular situation.

As children tell their stories, it is important to consider how the tales metaphorically represent what is happening in their lives. Kottman (1995) suggested using the following questions to guide this process:

a.Which character represents the child?

b.Which characters represent significant people in the childs life?

c.What is the overall affective tone of the story?

d.How does the child view self, others, and the world?

e.What patterns and themes are presented?

f.What strategies are used for resolving conflict?

g.What might be a more constructive, courageous way to handle the conflict?

h.What might be more helpful patterns of interacting or problem solving?

After reflecting upon these questions, the counselor retells the story, without moralizing, interpreting, or indicating the superiority of any specific problem-solving method. Instead, through the retelling of the story, the counselor helps the child gain insight into his or her lifestyle and develop awareness of new perspectives and possibilities. A CD-ROM version for the personal computer called The Mutual Storytelling Game (Erford, 2000) helps students construct backgrounds and offers diverse character sets to facilitate storytelling.

Telling stories using puppets, stuffed animals, dolls, and other toys also can enhance the counseling process. Sometimes the stories are invented or fantasy based; other times they focus on real-life situations. Through the process of telling stories about actual concerns or experiences, students can discover new problem-solving methods. For example, a counselor was working with a third-grade student, Matt, who had been disciplined by the school principal for hitting another student. The counselor used several different stuffed animals to represent Matt, Matts teacher, the principal, and the other student. Matt first used the animals to tell the story as it actually happened. Then he told the story again, but this time gave the story a more positive outcome. By reenacting the event, Matt was able to explore the feelings hed experienced when the other student angered him and then come up with alternative, more positive solutions.

The counselor also used storytelling as an intervention with a very young student, Andrea, who was extremely fearful of the schools fire alarm. Whenever the fire alarm sounded, Andrea reacted by crying loudly and inconsolably. Although her teachers had shown her the alarm mechanism and explained its purpose, Andreas consternation was not assuaged, and her teachers referred her for counseling. When Andrea entered the counselors office, she immediately began playing with the small animals that were stacked on the toy shelf. After she had played awhile, the counselor asked her to help tell a story with the animals. They made up a tale about a little hippo who was afraid of loud noises, especially alarms. The hippos friend, Mr. Jaguar, showed the little hippo how alarms worked and even let her press the button to activate an alarm. This made the little hippo laugh, and from that time on, she was never frightened by fire alarms again. Andrea seemed to enjoy playing with the animals and telling the story with me. Within a week, her teachers reported that Andreas fear of the schools fire alarm had subsided and her reactions to fire drills were no longer extreme.

Storytelling, whether based on imagination, fantasy, metaphor, or real life, provides a way for counselors to help student clients see themselves more clearly. It also provides a nonthreatening medium through which students can examine their thoughts, feelings, actions, and choices.

Considerations for Therapeutic Writing and Storytelling

Although therapeutic writing and storytelling interventions have a wide range of applications, there are some precautions that need to be heeded, particularly in regard to writing activities. Riordan (1996) pointed out the importance of keeping the process interactive so that writing is not used to avoid other appropriate actions. He also recommended that counselors refrain from assigning writing until they are sure that no issues will arise that students are not prepared to handle. Furthermore, counselors should take into account (a)the students educational level, ability, and preferences, and (b)whether the writing or storytelling is increasing obsessive thinking about the problem in ways that are not helpful. Guidelines such as these can help direct counselors in using writing and storytelling as tools in counseling.

Conclusions

Counseling interventions using expressive arts provide engaging and effective ways for professional school counselors to facilitate change in children and adolescents. The visual arts, music, and therapeutic writing and storytelling represent three of the many categories of expressive arts that can be used to help students prevent and resolve problems. Other creative art forms that reach students in ways that go beyond simply talking include imagery, dance, drama, puppetry, games, and play.

In this chapter, specific ways to implement visual arts, music, scriptotherapy, and storytelling into the counseling process have been explored. These creative interventions enable students to communicate emotions and concerns in unique ways. They foster different ways of viewing the world and consequently facilitate the development of new perspectives and alternatives for behaving. By selecting interventions carefully, based on students developmental levels, counseling goals, and personal preferences, professional school counselors can expand their repertoire of procedures that can be employed effectively to promote choice and change.

Figure 101

The Volcanocounseling interventions using expressive arts

Figure 102Variation of the road map.

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