cr-

SOCIAL ADAPTATION TO TECHNICAL ASPECTS

OF FUSION DEVELOPMENT

by

FRANCES HA1>IBRICK, B.A.

A THESIS

IN

SOCIOLOGY

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree of

i'lrt-OXZLXV. Kjr ^ i \ i o

Approved

August , 1971

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express my appreciation to Dr. Charles Chandler

for his support and encouragement throughout the study; to mother

and father and Michael for assistance in many ways.

11

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 11

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS iv

I. INTRODUCTION 1

Purpose and Scope of Thesis 1

Technology as Viewed in the Sociological

Tradition 2

Discussion on the Concept of Values 9

II. TECHNOLOGICAL NATURE AND VALUES IN

MODERN SOCIETY 14 III. SOCIAL VALUES AND RESPONSE TO TECHNOLOGICAL

DEVELOPMENT 24

IV. EIvvIROiV iElNTAL VALUES AND RESPONSE TO TECH­NOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 33

V. ATOMIC ENERGY 43

A Technical Description of Reactors 43

Adaptation to the Possibilities and Consequences of Reactors 48

VI. INTERPRETATIONS .\.ND CONCLUSIONS 57

BIBLIOGRAPHY 64

APPENDIX 68

111

LIST OF ILLUSTIUTIONS

Figure

1. 300 year time scale of scientific and technological acceleration [from theory to major application]. 16

2. Schematic diagram of one type of fission reactor. ^^

3. Example of a fusion reactor. ^7

IV

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Purpose and Scope of Thesis

As societies and sciences have developed, social change or

evolution has been of Interest to all social sciences according to

each discipline's approach to understanding man. Nicholas Tlma-

sheff poses this question as an area of sociological concern, "What

are the factors determining the state of a society and a culture or

change in society or culture?" Technology is accepted as one of

the major change factors of our time and as a major Influence in

the state of our society and culture. It is the purpose of this

thesis to deal with the technical aspects of change in the nature

of fusion development as it confronts the value structure of this

last quarter-century in the United States.

Technological values, societal values, and environmental

values are the three value orientations that predominate in possible

acceptance and then social adaptation of society to the development

of fusion reactors. Society in this study is the Independent var­

iable and the fusion reactor is the dependent variable. Each of

these three factors will be explored and then fusion reactors will

Nicholas S. Timashcff, Sociological Theory: Its Nature and Growth (3rd ed.; New York: Random House, 1967), p. 11.

be placed in the context of the existinj', social situation. Social

adaptation to the technical aspects of fusion development is a

microcosmic system in the macrocosmlc system of Lcchnologlcal phe­

nomena. Due to the pervasive scope of th(> technology, the actual

dimensions of the technological character that has shaped our

society and the reactions to this character—bo Lb positive and

negative—have not been interpreted well enougli to establish a

comprehensive framework. To what degree technology has contributed

to increased crime rates, to minority problems, to student riots,

to physical and psychological illness, and to unemployment is dif­

ficult to say. However, it is far easier to hear the praises of

technological accomplishments in the world's highest gross national

product, in the highest standard of living, and in the world's most

powerful and technically advanced country.

Technology a_£ Vlev;ed iii the Sociological Tradition

Sociological theorists have been concerned with many aspects

of technology that now concern modern society. This Interest, as a

part of the sociological tradition which this study continues, is

confirmed when noting the contributions of certain sociologists.

Analysis of technology is part of the sociological tradition that

has its roots in Marxian thought on alienation and forces of pro­

duction. Marx wrote in the time of the first industrial revolution

and he aptly identified the economic/technical changes of his time.

Although Marx is criticized for his economic deterministic view of

social evolution, he was one of the first to express his sensitivity

to the overt and covert changes taking place during the industrial

revolution. It was Marx who described man's alienation from his

work in terms of its artificial nature which Involved him in activ­

ities structured by other men in a process that he could be only a

small part of. This dissatisfaction was compounded by the fact

that man no longer worked for himself but for others. Their power

2 over him continued to grow with increasing industrialization.

Marx was keenly aware of the pervasive scope of technology and its

effects on man's relation to man, to society, and to his environ­

ment. Thus it was his consciousness that would focus the direction

of others on the technological phenomena because his views were not

only controversial for his time but were also substantially accurate.

Thorstein Veblen modified Marx's economic determinism with

his own technological evolutionism. Veblen recognized that not only

had technology changed man's environment but the techniques asso­

ciated with the technological process that man constructed helped

to facilitate these activities. Veblen concurred with the prevail­

ing thought of his era that man had certain instincts but felt that

these "Instincts" could be satisfied in a variety of ways. Technol­

ogy Increased the possible number of ways for man to handle his

instincts and his environment. Man's social and cultural adjustment

2 Lewis A. Coser and Bernard Rosenberg, Sociological Tlieory:

A Book of Readings (3rd ed.; London: The Macmlllan Company, 1969), pp. 505-509.

(evolution) occurs when stress is no longer tolerable. Veblen felt

some groups readjusted quieker thari others bee.uise there were no

forces in the environment lo proteet them from the changes entering

their environment. Tlie leisure class v;as the last to adjust because

the social milieu that they lived in protected them from radical

3

changes. In stressing tee.hnological process as a major social

change agent, Veblen helpc d expand understanding of technological

ramifications beyond the economic concerns and into the context of

the total life-style of a society. Adjustments would be made at all

levels of individual and group experience and would be felt in all

of the major social institutions.

Max Weber's Involvement with the bureaucratic system and its

consequences are of a breadth and depth that are beyond the available

space for description. Weber dealt with the technique of technology

more than with technology per se. In recording the characteristics

of the bureaucracy that later became values and a way of approaching

many life situations, Weber elaborated on tliese concepts:

1. There is the principle of fixed and official jurisdictional areas, which are generally ordered by rules, that is, by laws or adminis­trative regulations.

2. The principles of office hierarchy and of levels of graded authority mean a firmly ordered system of super- and subordination in which there Is a supervision of the loxver offices by the higher ones.

3 Timasheff, Sociological Theory: Its Nature and Growth,

pp. 91-92.

5

3. Tlie management of the modern office is based upon written documents ("the files"), which are pre­served in their original or draught form.

4. Office management, at least all specialized office management—and such management is distinctly modem—usually presupposes thorough and expert training.

5. When the office is fully developed, official activity demands the full working capacity of the official, irrespective of the fact that his obliga­tory time in the bureau may be firmly delimited.

6. The management of the office follows general rules, which are more or less stable, more or less exhaus­tive, and which can be learned.

The above represents human technique which guides the technology of

our era. This technique demands elaborate rules and roles that are

highly specialized in the hierarchy system.

Although organizations or bureaucratic structures have

existed without technology, the relationship here is different due

to the amount of written documents of all types and due to the

length of training required for many positions. It is interesting

to note that in relating some of the possible consequences of the

bureaucracy Weber despaired at the idea of man becoming a mere cog

in a large machine. Weber also deplored the idea of the entire

social system becoming one big, rational, functional, mechanized

system with everyone always striving for the next rung of the

ladder. Even Weber stated that he did not know hox7 to stop this

evolutionary process.

Coser and Rosenberg, Sociological Theory, pp. 447-449.

^Ibid., p. 455.

Although previous writers seemed more concerned with the

description and interpretation of the technological phenomena which

sometimes included mor.il i/: i ng, Geoi ',e A. Lundberg advocated positive

uses of technological advances. Lundbeig, a leading spokesman of

neo-posltlvltis.ra, in his look Can Science Save Us?, stated that

science could s-ave us \ vo\n botli social and physical ills. By using

the skills of science to investigate social ills, the social sciences

could provide more realistic solutions to social problems Instead of

the trial and error method now being used. According to Lundberg,

need should not always be the motivation for invention and is a poor

excuse for seeking Information evolving from scientific investigation

that could have prevented the occurrence of critical social problems.

Lundberg viewed science as the only sensible way to provide adequate

information on an issue in order to solve it in the best manner pos­

sible before situations reached a critical state. Lundberg's think­

ing demonstrates the technique of problem solving creeping into the

social sciences. Lundberg was also one of the first to support a

more active role for social scientists in public affairs.

William F. Ogbum followed the neo-posltlve and mathematical

sociology but in a somewhat innovated form. Much of his work empha­

sized economic and technological aspects of social development

including how to predict the future of social developments. Ogburn

stressed social change and cultural lag which are still significant

George A. Lundberg, Can Science Save Us? (2nd ed.; New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1961), pp. 140-143.

concepts today, and he believed a cultural change had to occur before

social adaptation could take place. When some old habits tended to

persist then cultural lag occurs. Cultural change is one of change

in material goods and customs that results from technological inven­

tions. This theory is closely related to what Veblen had already

stated concerning the nature of technological change.

Sociological Interest in technology can be traced to many

different theorists in a number of sociological eras. The sociology

of the seventies may continue a little different version of Lund-

berg's neo-posltivlsm in the form of political activism. It was the

founder of sociology, Comte, who had a humanitarian motivation for

starting the study of society in the hope of solving some of the

g

social ills of mankind. When neo-posltivlsm and humanitarian moti­

vations are combined, a sociological trend develops that advocates

an emphasis on humanitarian values and on social/political activa-

tion. To what degree and in what manner the radical sociologists—

a newer group—proclaiming themselves in the late sixties and early

seventies, will continue to carry on the sociological tradition in

subject matter and in methods of research is a moot issue. They are

certainly Interested in technology but their means for attaining

research goals are different. Pvadical sociologists are character­

ized by two attributes:

Timasheff. Sociological Theory: Its Nature and Grox/th, pp. 206-208.

g Coser and Rosenberg, Sociological Theory, p. 3.

8

1. It is assumed that certain of the questions with which sociologists concern themselves are more important than others.

2. Even when important phenomena are studied, the manner in which questions are put may preclude radical analysis."

Radical sociologists are not only Interested in helping form public

policy but are keenly aware that their work, like the work of the

atomic scientists, can be used in v>7ays that they would not approve.

Consequently, they assert that social scientists should start taking

greater care and concern for the type of work they produce. This

trend in sociology also calls for a more Involved type of research

that allows the researcher to participate more. If one is a part

of the situation first and a scientist second, then he will be able

to give a real life autobiographical account of his activities.

To what degree this group attempts to restructure society remains

to be seen because the degree of social activism varies from indi­

vidual to individual. Ultimately, their position is not so different

from that of the physical scientists who are calling for social

responsibility in what they create. Many physical scientists work

for business or for government in one way or another and are becoming

more politically concerned in areas that concern their work. Sociol­

ogists of the future may follow this example.

9 Steven E. Deutsch and John Hox 7ard, Where It's At: Radical

Perspectives in Sociology (Nev; York: Harper and Row, 1970), p. 4.

Ibid., pp. 5-9.

Discussion on the_ Concept of Values

The concept of values is s ignl^ I c.i"t to thiv: research

because it is part of the central tlienie of this research. The

propriety or order of values for the next tli i rty yenrs V'/ill prob­

ably determine the social acceptance and adaptatio,i or rejection

of fusion reactors. Three major areas of value orientation will

be explored: technological values, human relation values, and

environmental values. Value has been defined as "a conception,

explicit or implicit, distinctive of an Individual or characteris­

tic of a group, of the desirable which Influences the selection

from available modes, means, and ends of action."

A value is a conception In the sense that it is something

that is reasoned out although it cannot be seen. This conception

comes from the experiences of everyday activity and from the frame­

work for social activity. Values are both explicit and implicit

because they are conceptions but not all conceptions can always be

adequately verbalized by the individuals or groups. The terms

explicit and implicit, however, relate to the definite and absolute

quality of values by those who hold the value. Values help estab­

lish the range of desirability for normative behavior in goal seeking

activity. Deslrabllty Includes wliat Is legally, aesthetically, and

morally desirable—which may or may not alv ays exist. Values pre­

dispose the choice of behavior to be based upon the consequences or

Talcott Parsons and Edward A. Shlls, eds., Toward a General Theory of Action (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Uni­versity Press, 1967), p. 395.

10

conflicts that might be faced and upon the possible alternatives

that could be taken to avoid such situations. "The combination of

conception with desirable establishes the union of reason and feel-

12

ing inherent in the word value." This union makes the breaking

of values difficult because discrediting the feeling side or the

reasoning side does not Insure the total breaking down of the

value or value structure. Finally, selection of values is impor­

tant because man does have some options in the opportunity to

construct his social reality if he is aware of all of the options 13

open to him. Values Influence both the means and the ends of

human activity which is of central concern to the issue of social

adaptation to technical aspects of fusion development.

Values Interact with human activity at various levels of

abstraction thus creating a hierarchy in the value structure like

the hierarchy that exists in the field of human activity. Since

values are arranged in a hierarchy pattern, different values

require different treatment Instead of being typed into one group.

The problem today in choosing values occurs not because one (set)

is real or one (set) is false but how to choose values in a situa­

tion that puts values in conflict with each other. Ultimately,

values at the top will affect the organization of values at the

bottom of the hierarchy. Here the issue is choice in the value

12 Pa r sons and S h i l s , Toward a. Genera l Tlieory of A c t i o n ,

p . 400. •^-^Ibid. , p . 402.

Allen Wheelis, The Quest for Identity (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., 1958), pp. 175-176.

11

hierarchy and choice can either eliminate the alternative or allow

it to exist in some subordinate manner to the chosen value struc­

ture.

As mentioned previously three value orientations will be

explored in this research. A value orientation is "a g,(>nerallzed

and organized conception, influencing behavior, of nature, or man's

place in it, of man's relation to man, and of the desirable and

nondeslrable as they may relate to man-environment and Interhuman

relations." This definition takes in all types of human activ­

ity that could give rise to the formation of values and v/hlch can

be verbalized or those which cannot be verbalized. There are eight

major value dimensions which will be listed and explained:

1. The dimension of modality refers to both positive and negative values.

2. The dimension of content is the aesthetic, cognitive, and moral values that are the Issues of either selec­tion or Influence.

3. The dimension of Intent is easily established but involves the ultimate ends of a value and the prag­matic ends of a value. (This concept will be dis­cussed later.)

4. The dimension of generality refers to the use of values which have use in specific situations and those which cover broader themes.

5. The dimension of intensity is the strength a value may have depending on how it fits Into the cultural pattern of goals, sanctions, and whatever other measures of preference a society uses.

Parsons and Shlls, Toward a General Theory of Action, p. 411.

12

6. The dimension of explicltness is part of the verbal­ization that makes possible the understanding of the value continuum in the hierarchy pattern although implicit values are still equally Important here.

7. The dlmiMision extent covers the range of influence a value may have by determining how large a group adheres to a given value or set of values.

8. The dimension of organization speaks to the hler-arch) system or pattern of values which concerns the propriety of values for the individual or group.

All of tlie above is but a brief discussion of value orientations

which will be examined in specific examples below.

In dimension three the Intent of values was explained in

terms of the ends they were related to. Allen Wheelis discusses

two major forms of Intent which are what he calls institutional

values and Instrumental values. Institutional values are "asso­

ciated v;ith myth, mores, and status," while Instrumental values

"derive from tool-using, observation, and experimentation, and

hence are temporal, matter-of-fact, and secular." In this re­

search, institutional values are related to matters concerning

human needs, rights, and welfare, whereas, instrumental values are

related to matters of technological priorities. Each of these

sets of values is an orientation by which Individuals or groups

can live. Not all of the values In each orientation are in con­

flict, how^ever, some of these are in conflict In our technologi­

cally advanced society. Institutional values are usually

Parsons and Shlls, Toward a General Theory of Action, pp. 413-420.

17 Wheelis, The Quest for Identity, p. 179

13

acknowledged as the top of the value structure with instrumental

values second because they are a different level of abstraction.

In institutional value conflicts result in wars that arise over

contention concerning God, country, or things that might involve

values of a moral-ethical nature. Instrumental conflicts are

18 very rarely resolved in violence, but are reasoned out.

Values are the base for behavior at all levels of social

activity. In values one establishes identity at the group or at

the individual level, consequently, changes that involve decisions

which bring values into conflict create even more problems in try-

19 ing to resolve the issue. Social adaptation to changes that fit

old value patterns require a minimum of effort for society or the

individual. Social adaptation, however, to changes that bring

values into conflict produce Intense sLress because the identity

of both the group and the individual are challenged. To resolve

the conflict means the possible casting off of older values or

reordering of values which means a change in human value orienta­

tion. If an agreement is reached x 7lthout the consensus of all the

parties involved then the complexity of the situation could con­

tinue to increase and exist indefinitely. This research is con­

cerned with the existing value orientations and reactions to these

value orientations at the present time. The role value orientations

will assume in the social adaptation to technical aspects of fusion

development will be explored throughout this paper.

18 Wheelis, The Quest for Identity, pp. 182-183.

^^Ibld., p. 200.

CHAPTER II

TECHNOLOGICAL NATURE AND VALUES IN

MODERN SOCIETY

In our present post-industrial society, America and other

western countries are facing a series of value conflicts due to

the interaction between society, technology, and the environment.

There is apparent conflict over how to maintain a certain quality

of human experiences, of technological achievements, and of

environmental adequacy. How these conflicts are resolved will

depend partly on x-zhich set of values take propriety in specific

conflict situations. Also, the manner in which these conflicts

are resolved will be the basis for new goals and for new values.

Since this chapter deals with the technological perspective of this

triumvirate, it does not Include the more negative aspects of tech­

nological development v:hich will be discussed in Chapters III and

IV.

When one compares various decades to ascertain the under­

lying sequence of events that have contributed to the Issues of

today, the rate of change as well as the content of change is an

important factor in the development of the social milieu. The

impact of rate of change on an individual or society is relative

to the previous rate of change in life situations that they have

experienced. Rate of change is also Important when studying and

14

15

comparing the activities of one society to another or of one indi­

vidual to another. The reason is that rale of clianjv' 'Wll alter

the nature of time as a measure of activity. Time is the signifi­

cant measure for the number of events enteriu,", the cultural milieu

and for the amount of time necessary for tho individual or society

to adapt to a given change. The reality that some individuals and

societies adapt quickly while others lag exliibits the uneven qual­

ity of change that makes it measurable. Alvln Toffier states that

change is the future that "invades the present at differing speeds."

As the rate of change increases, societies have less time to adjust

to specific changes in the social or physical environment. Inven­

tion and innovation account for the major force in the content of

change but accounting for the thrust behind the rate of change is

more than the science of Invention or innovation.

Technology is the main force behind the rate of change and

is also increasing the complexity of change. Figure 1 on page 16

compares the Increase in rate of change in terms of major inventions

and their applications. Each invention or discovery required less

time from theory to application than the invention or discovery pre­

ceding it. Figure 1 provides a measure for the Increase in the rate

of change in the field of technology from invention or discovery to

application or to innovation and to application. These changes

have added an enormous number of new experiences to the individual

Alvln Toffier, Future Shock (New York: Random House, 1970), pp. 21-22.

16

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17

and society but this also represents permanent changes in the human

environment. Not only have the means for attaining certain goals

been altered but the goals themselves have been affected. The tempo

of life has been changed in two ways: 1) new changes are made in

man's social and physical environment every day that require varying

degrees of adaptation, and 2) the rate at which man can carry out

his activities has been Increased, consequently, he is often expected

to perform old activities in less time. The increase in rate of

change due to technology is putting man and institutions under pres-

2 sure that affects the total human environment. The relationship

here is important because problems in social adaptation could hamper

or stop technological development. There is also the possibility of

reaching a maximum rate of change and a maximum rate of adaptation

which has not previously been encountered at the national level, at

least.

"Technology and especially electronics . . . are increasingly

becoming the principal determinants of social change, altering the

mores, the social structure, the values, and the global outlook of

3

society." This pervasive scope and Influence of technology is pos­

sible when the nature of technology is expanded beyond the machine.

The driving force behind technology is technique, "a totality of

methods rationally arrived at and having absolute efficiency (for a

2 John Dlebold, Man and the Computer: Technology as an Agent

of Social Change (New York: Avon, 1969), pp. 6-21.

Zbigniew Brezezlnski, Between Two Ages_: America's Role the Technetronic Era (New York: The Viking Press, 1970), p. xlv

18

given stage of development) in every field of human activity."

Tlie technique in human thought developed before technology could

grow. Although some have wondered if technology did not precede

man's understanding, a look at history reveals that many scien­

tific inventions were in existence but not developed until the

eighteenth century. The social milieu of this time favored tech­

nology with the conception of technique in all human activity, a

long history of scientific experience, a growing population that

could support technological innovations, a breakdown in many major

institutions like religion and the family which were later restruc­

tured along more technically advantageous lines, and obvious tech­

nical intent of various capitalists of the times. Technology was

never just a product of society in the form of a machine for private

or corporate profit or for personal or corporate use but a part of

human technique—not human technique as a part of technology. Tech­

nique developed into a way of approaching life problems and pleasures

for the individual and for the group which meant using both the cul­

ture and society in any way necessary to solve problems or to satisfy

pleasures. The fact that tools, being a part of the culture, developed

into the field of technology represented not the stimulus for human

technique but the outgrowth of human technique. Human technique is

concerned v;ith methods or means to achieving certain goals which is

^Jacques Ellul, The Technological Society (New York: Random

House, 1964), p. xxv.

Ibid., pp. 44-47.

19

facilitated by the development of nev; technological devices.

Although human technique occurs in the family, religion, politics,

and education, the primary concern of this chapter is the economic-

business aspect of human technique and the value structure that has

evolved from this relationship.

Many technological leaders express a positlvlstic faith in

technology that surpasses Lundberg. The content of their thought

reflects the technique approach to human or technical problems.

I\o major advantages that have fostered this faith in technology

are: 1) mass production can lower the cost of producing an item

which in turn can lower the cost in selling the item. This system

applies to any product from cars to new means for stopping pollu­

tion, and 2) "It can Increase the value of products by better design,

greater reliability, greater service, greater aesthetic appeal, or

use of substitute materials."

Another advantage of technique is the high gross national

product that has come about as a result of our speedy application of

inventions, thus allowing us to outdistance most countries in the

field of technological development. The possible advantage for

America is more than the gross national product, but the taxes that

can be used to support any number of social programs that could

ease some of the social problems of our era. The bounty of technol­

ogy has made living in western countries pleasurable and secure for

Myron Tribus, "Applying Science to Industry—Why America Falls Behind," U. S. News and World Reports, LXX (January 18, 1971), 35.

20

many through an unprecedented number of (uMiveniences available to a

large portion of the population, from color television to better med­

ical care. For those who have not r( ali/,ed the bounty of technology,

the issue at hand is whether the faulL is in technology or in the

vested interest groups that control technological development. Since

technology is the outgrowth of human leclmique, it appears that it is

man who is responsible for the social disparities that are typed as

social problems, and iiot the machine.

Technique in technology has done more than just change our

relationship to the environment that v.e live in. It has produced

new values and has changed the order of value priority. Efficiency

is one of the most Important values of technology because it is the

o

cornerstone that measures time and work. Efficiency results when

using time in the best manner possible by cutting out all wasted

motions and getting as much out of the man and machine as possible.

If everything is running efficiently then the operation will be

smooth and production will reach its maximum rate. Efficiency is

adapting machine to man and man to machine in such a way that man

becomes a part of the process of mechanization. Efficiency is the

result of using the best method or means to accomplish v/hatever

task necessary, but how this process is accomplished Involves

another technological value—planning.

Tribus, loc. clt. , 35-36.

^Erlch Fromm, Escape from Freedom (New York: Avon, 1941),

p. 76.

21

Planning is a prime value of technocrat ii societies. Plan­

ning made detailed systemizatlon of activities jiossible, thus workers

and machines were integrated in the nu':;t cfricicpt means possible.

Planning is a way to control the social (Mivirinmnt by meeting and

correcting problems and by attemptin -, to com rol future changes.

Through planning of large mass production opeiMticms, the bureau­

cratic organization began to develop which has contributed to the

9 rise of big business and big government. PlannUig is the process

that outlines the means and/or methods of human technique and tech­

nology which is exhibiting a preoccupation with methods. In the

planning of bureaucracy, roles and rules continue to proliferate

themselves at both official and unofficial levels vrhile limiting

the duties and the range of Involvement for the individual workers.

Planning as an important value can be noted in the way almost

every activity has a plan or is being planned. Planning can be

interpreted as a way to help society adapt to technology or as a

contribution to the creation of social Institutions that are incap­

able of change due to rigid roles and rules.

The planning of roles is deeply Intermeshed with another

technological value called specialization. Specialization has had

a profound effect on our educational structure because more educa­

tion is required for longer periods of time. Many people consider

^Toffier, Future Shock, pp. 397-398.

22

specialization as the key to success in any technological society.''^

Specialization for the individual or group (business) is the develop­

ing of highly technical knowledge either in inventions. Innovations,

or applications of products or Information. The value of specializa­

tion works somewhat on the principle of artificial scarcity that

Philip Slater discusses as part of the technological happening.''"• A

specialist is usually important because there are few like him or

because of the complexity of his work.

Technology has become a supreme value as well as establish­

ing new values. Technology, because it represents the rational

approach to problem solving, is valued as the one best way to do

almost everything. Technology is also credited with getting us

12 where we are today as an advanced western country. No matter

what problems thieaten society, the public assumes that there will

be a technological golden egg that will save us.

These are the values of technology as seen from a technolog­

ical viewpoint: 1) efficiency, 2) planning, 3) organization, 4)

specialization, 5) technology (as creator and problem solver). The

response, however, to these values is different when viewed from the

humanistic point of view due to a different value orientation.

Philip E. Slater, The Pursuit of Loneliness: American Culture at the Breaking Point (Boston: Beacon Press, 1970), p. 83.

12 Floyd W. Matson, The Broken Image: Man, Science and

Society (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1964), pp. 234-235.

23

Also, technology did contribute to the reordering of value orienta­

tions which have been reordered again in the negative response to

technological development. Tliese values and responses will be

examined in Chapter III.

CHAPTER III

SOCIAL VALUES AND RESPONSE TO

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

In attempting to unravel the conflicting configurations of

beliefs, attitudes, and values that are a part of the reaction to

the technological process, understanding is difficult to attain.

The confusion is compounded due to three major orientations that

exist in modern society which are a part of the technological

process. These three major orientations are the pre-lndustrlal

orientation, the industrial orientation, and the post-industrial

orientation. In Chapter II it was noted that a change in thought

was necessary for the development of technology. This change in -I

thought developed human technique. During the Industrial revolu- j

f tion, mass production centers developed in all of the major Indus- v

trial countries and large bureaucracies grew with increasing Indus- •] I

trialization. Then the modern technological-technique revolution t

opened new ways for problem-solving but also represented the final

compounding of the present ways for Individuals and societies to

deal with their total social environment. Some people approach

personal problems, local problems, national problems, and inter­

national problems from a pre-lndustrlal point of view while others

take the industrial perspective and still others are well into the

24

25

technique (post-industrial) style of problem solving. Wlien indi­

viduals and groups are brought together to plan new projects or to

solve old problems, all three forms of orientation are usually

present in varying degrees. Consequently, compromise is usually

necessary to resolve both major and minor conflicts. These orien­

tations make the number of responses to tho technological age

infinite in variety; however, there are an emerging, salient set

of responses that are shaping a new, or possibly, reordered value

structure.

Among these salient responses to technology, the awareness

of powerlessness has been noted by both Philip Slater and Erich

Fromm, among other writers, as a condition occurring in the tech­

nological age affecting both the individual and the group. Power­

lessness translates Itself into many examples, like the realization

that war could occur with individuals having no way of stopping it.

Furthermore, the individual has no way to protect himself. Also,

the fact that the war will probably be over some matter that the indi­

vidual is not involved in and that he does not want to be Involved in,

is often true. Even most of the countries in the world are in the

same plight because they are not one of the super-technological coun­

tries. These countries, like the individuals, must watch and hope a

major war will not occur. They can only hope that they will not be

forced to choose side in the cold war.

Erich Fromm, Escape from Freedom (New York: Avon, 1941), p. 138.

26

Powerlessness is manifested in more than an impending nuclear

war. For the individual producing none of his food, the realization

that he has no way of knowing the quality of the food that he is eat­

ing is another manifestation of powerlessness. The newspapers reveal

that mercury and DDT are in the food that the public eats but the

public has no place to complain and no real way to protect themselves.

Powerlessness is being a manipulated consumer that learns advertising

is being used to mold his wants and desires. The consumer feels

powerless when he buys a product that does not work or receives bad

service from a clerk, then learns upon complaining to the manager that

the company does not stand behind its products or that they are uncon­

cerned about his complaints because they have more customers than they

2 need. A number of mankind or human-oriented values are developing

from these types of experiences that produce feelings of powerlessness,

One is the value of human rights over means and property rights. And

finally, there is the value of the consumer over the value of the pro-

3 ducer. Powerlessness is a symptom that many people have experienced

when they realized that property was more Important than their rights.

Consequently, civil rights have been slow in their realization. Tech­

nological requirements have been more Important than human needs as

seen in the endless number of boring jobs that many people have been

2 Fromm, Escape from Freedom, pp. 138-139. 3 Slater, The Pursuit of Loneliness: American Culture at the

Breaking Point, pp. 100, 138-139.

27

forced to hold. Finally, as already cited above, the problems of

the producer are more important than the consumer or his human needs

and rights.

The increasing size of mass technological society is absorb­

ing m,ia through a process of unification and fragmentation that

underlines our sense of powerlessness and intensifies our human

needs. Through the advances of technology man and nations communi­

cate inforraation on news as soon as it happens; conferences can be

held over long distances telephone with more than one person; and

scientific and literary publications are shared by all countries.

Travel time has also decreased and many people have traveled out

of their country at least once, thus having the opportunity to

experience more than one culture. For those who are not mobile,

television has brought the world into their homes. At no other

time has it been possible to watch men being killed in the Viet

Nam while eating dinner with your family. It is this unification

of really close interaction that takes from nations and individuals

the privacy of their actions. The unification process gives us a

sense of a one-world, or interdependent existence because it is

almost Impossible to escape what is happening in the way of change

the world over. It is also this unification that Increases ten­

sions and conflicts that lead to fragmentation of societies and of

4 individuals because confrontation is becoming a daily affair.

Brezezlnski, Between T\-7o Ages: America's Role in the Technetronic Era, pp. 3-4.

28

Confrontation centers on the variety of group orientations and the

types of technological developments which make up the cultures of

the different groups in the world community. Fragmentation occurs

because these differences are not resolved in specific real life

situations. \ ien fragmentation occurs for various groups then they

usually put their vested interests before world welfare.

Powerlessness, unification, and fragmentation have con­

tributed to extended awareness which is both cause and effect of

the real social Illness—loss of identity. Loss of identity is a

key indication of the lack of social adaptation to technology and

other forms of human technique.

Identity is a coherent sense of self. It depends upon the awareness that one's endeavors and one's life make sense, that they are meaningful in the context in which life is lived. It depends also upon stable values, and upon conviction that one's actions and values are harmon­iously related. It Is a sense of wholeness, of integra­tion, of knowing what is right and what is wrong and of being able to choose.

Due to the rapid rate of change long term goals seem more difficult

to attain. Values that we once identified with are being used on

the basis of their relativity to the situation. Extended awareness

keeps us on guard trying to discover who we are while v;e realize

that Instead of being the individuals that we would like to be, we

6 are increasingly showing signs of the organization-man complex.

Wheelis, The Quest for Identity, p. 19.

Ibid., pp. 20-21.

29

Tlie organization man complex places Importance on performing the

company way from the way one dresses to the way one votes. Minor­

ity groups and youth of today are caught up in a real struggle to

maintain their identities. The pressure is on minority groups and

youth to trade their identities for the one "best" culture theme

that is the most efficient way to achieve cultural harmony according

to technological values. This one "best" cultural theme appears to

be pushing the limits of social adaptability for both groups.

The youth and minority groups, however, are not the only

ones who are resisting the latent effects of technological values

and processes but they are more conscious of what they are opposing.

Loss of identity is connected with loss of tradition which is dis­

turbing many middle aged and elderly Americans who tend to blame

everything from the Communists to the youth for today's problems.

Technology is accelerating at a geometric progression which leaves

no time for the absorption or integration of older traditions.

Tradition is one way of establishing identity; being part of a tra­

ditional history ties one to the present and the past in an under­

standable way. Tradition may be a family name with an uncountable

number of relatives or a family business that has been handed do\im

from father to son for generations. Tradition in the city is the

old buildings and homes that are sign posts of past generations.

Now families are separated by numerous corporate moves, and few

families have their own business that can still compete with large

Ellul, The Technological Society, p. 14.

30

corporations and still make a profit. Cities, in the meantime,

watch old buildings and homes torn down with little or no concern

for what they once represented. Again, the value of property for

profit and progress takes precedence over the needs and rights of

the total community. The value of means also becomes more impor­

tant than the value of ends when freeways are built through parks

and residential areas.

With the loss or blurring of identity and tradition a new

problem is developing for adults, young people, and children. To

what set of beliefs, attitudes, values, and standards of behavior

do we socialize anyone for the present and the future if change

continues to bring in altered value orientations for each new gen-

o

eratlon. Paths are not as clear and directions not as distinct

for parents trying to socialize their young children because we

are not sure to what and for what they are growing up. A varia­

tion of subcultures could be time-cultures or mix-cultures. A

time-culture might be a more accurate description for the genera­

tion gap. Since technological turnover is occurring at such

increased rates, each decade would produce a generation with a

different orientation to their social and to their physical

environment. Although their families would socialize them, it

would be impossible to isolate each generation from the new exper­

iences coming into the social environment via technology. Also,

the order of the experiences would be different from the experiences

Paul Goodman, Growing Up Absurd: Problems of Youth in the Organized Society (New York: Random House, 1956), pp. 10-12.

31

of past generations which might bring about changes in behavior,

attitudes, and beliefs as well as values. A mix-culture would be

a term for a group that was both a subculture and a time-culture,

which may or may not hamper this group's adaptation to the social-

technological environment. Whether it is called a generation gap

or a cultural lag at this time, the problem of community and indi­

vidual Identity will have to be resolved or accepted in the form

of cultural plurality.

One of the strongest values emphasized for most children

has been competition. Competition is necessary because there is

not enough of anything for everybody to have something (the scar­

city principle). Almost any means justifies any ends as in the

Q

popular saying, "All is fair in love and war."

Now it is doubtful that business or educational systems

really accomplish more in a competitive world that produces

extreme stress, tension, anxiety, and escape tendencies. Compe­

tition puts human needs second to organizational requirements and

technical demands. By honoring these values Instead of human needs,

various groups are responding by not joining the organization because

they would have to adapt themselves to philosophies that they do not

support and to standards of behavior that they do not condone.

Although competition has been more prevalent than cooperation, the

impending world crisis of over-population and food shortage should

make cooperation the future value in all levels of relationships.

9 Slater, The Pursuit of Loneliness: American Culture at the

Breaking Point, pp. 103-104.

32

Slater summed up the major humanist values from the humanist

orientation in the following list:

Human rights over property rights. Human needs over technological requirements. Coojv^ration over competition. Dlsl 1-ibution over concentration. Consumer over producer. Ends over means. Openness over secrecy.

Gratification over striving.

The fact that the list above gives the human values over the techno­

logical values as defined by humanists still leaves no way to resolve

these differences. Furthermore, many technological leaders might not

even recognize the above values as valid for technology or the human­

ist orientation. Finally, the disparities between the two value

orientations appear to be ones of institutional values versus instru­

mental values. Instrumental values appear to be taking on the same

degree of Importance once relegated to institutional values. The

role these value orientations v/ill play concerning social adaptation

to technical aspects of fusion development will be discussed in Chap­

ter VI after studying the final value orientation (environment) and

after studying the nature of fusion development.

Slater, ££. clt., p. 100.

CHAl TER IV

ENVIRONMENTAL VALUES AND RESPONSE TO

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

The interaction between the process of technological achieve­

ment and of environmental conservation has a well-documented history

that leads back into the 1800's, according to Stewart L. Udall.

Tliis history relates the success and misuse of our natural resources

by various groups during the course of our national development.

Although concern over the quality of our environment was slow in

developing, the 1960's have witnessed the mobilization of various

non-profit groups whose sole concern is to save our environment. By

advertising in almost all the news media, by speaking to any college | e I

or club that would listen, and by putting pressure on all levels of » !l

government for reform, these conservation organizations have Increased *i •I

.•I

the public awareness and public concern. Both conservation groups and "I

.1

individuals have opposed fission and breeder development because of f

what they consider harmful technical aspects of both. Social adapta­

tion to the technical aspects of fusion development will depend in

part upon the state of the environment at the time that fusion is

introduced for commercial use and on the priority of environmental Udall's. The Quiet Crisis (New York: Holt, Rlnehart and

Winston, 1963), contains an excellent documentation on the history of conservation efforts in the United States.

33

34

values and needs of the fusion reactors as a s.ource of inexpensive

power, as a low polluter compared to any othci- major source of

power, and as a possible wciy to re-cycle various materials may

allow it to meet the needs of both Uclinoio;, J s ts , nd the environ­

mentalists without compromising the values of cither.

The main conservation Issues that concern fusion development

are the quality of the air, the quality of the water, the sources of

fuel, and the biological effects on human life. Although each will

be examined in a separate manner, it is vital to understand that all

of these factors are Interrelated. Water, due to the role it plays

in plant, animal, and human life, is easier to understand as being

interrelated to the previously mentioned factors. Although the

earth's surface is covered more by water than by land, all of this

water is not available for human use because 97 per cent of it is

salt water. A large portion of the remaining fresh water is tied

up in the ice caps of the North and South Poles which leaves very

little fresh water for human consumption and Industrial uses in

2 addition to maintaining animal and plant life support systems.

Sources that contribute to both fresh and salt vzater pollution

appear to be endless. Many cities dump their waste into lakes and

rivers because it is cheap disposal and the rivers and lakes will

dilute the waste. Industry dumps its waste into rivers and lakes

2 Paul R. Ehrlich and Anne H. Ehrlich, Population, Resources,

Environment: Issues in Human Ecology (San Francisco: W. H. Free­man and Company, 1970), p. 65.

35

for the same reasons and in addition take water from rivers and

lakes to aid in various processes of Industrial production.

Another source of pollution is herbicides and pesticides that are

used on crops each year. With careless spraying—even \7aterways

are sprayed—which, when combined with the pesticides that run off

the land during heavy rainfalls, results in further contamination

of fresh and salt water. Finally, "radioactive V7astes from reactors,

laboratories, and hospitals" have been a more recent form of pollu-

3 tion. Any one of these forms of pollution taken by itself might

not alter the nature of the water to the point that we are restricted

from drinking it or swimming in it. However, all of these factors

taken together have contributed to the contamination of the water.

Consequently, the water should not be used in some parts of the

I country. i

I

Although our main sources of fresh water are dangerously pol- ' ill

luted in some areas of the country, another problem that is developing i|

is the pollution of groundwater. Groundwater is the water that exists I

underground at varying depths and amounts. Groundwater has its source

in rain water that settles do\<m through the soil and cracks in the

earth. Groundwater travels each day at speeds varying from a fev7 feet

to several hundred feet. Groundwater contributes to rivers and

4 streams and is sometimes tapped for underground wells. The pollution

3 Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (Greenwich, Conn.: Fawcett

Publications, 1962), p. 44.

Ibid., p. 47.

36

and contamination of groundwater is a serious problem because its

movement interrelates to most major waterways and lakes. Further­

more, trying to control pollution of a lake or stream, or trying

to clean up a lake or stream would be far easier than controlling

groundwater pollution.

Polluting groundwater, rivers, lakes, and oceans creates

serious problems for man, plants, and animals. Many lakes, rivers,

and oceans are experiencing changes in the types of plant and ani­

mal life that have long existed in the waters and the surrounding

lands. Man is dependent on the food in these waters as v;ell as the

animals on the land that drink from these waters. These relation­

ships are being complicated by another factor in the pollution

process called chemical mixing. Many chemicals released in low

amounts may not be dangerous by tiiemselves, but when mixed with

other chemicals in the water from other sources, these chemical

compounds could become very dangerous even in their diluted form.

"Under the impact of ionizing radiation some rearrangements of

atoms could easily occur, changing the nature of the chemicals in

a way that is not only unpredictable but beyond control." The

spontaneous formation of new chemical compounds that most chemists

would not even mix, will end up in our bathing water, food, and

beverages. The reason pollution occurs in food and water is that

many chemicals cannot be identified in the water and cannot be

removed from the water through purification processes. Pollution

^Ibld., p. 49.

^Ibld., pp. 45-49.

37

of our waterways is visible in many parts of the country which adds

strength to the environmentalists' battU> against pollution because

it is something the public can see vv hether they understand the pol­

lution or not. Any change in the technological on\dronment will

come under close watch to see how it will afftu.t our water supply.

Many changes will probably be slowed down if noL halted should the

environmentalists think that there is sufficient environmental

risk Involved to justify their engagement in a massive protest.

Air pollution like water pollution is increasing in visi­

bility day by day particularly in large metropolitan areas where

the largest concentrations of population exist. Air pollution is

ruining the aesthetic qualities of the cities in the same way that

water pollution destroys the beauty of the lakes. On some days in

Chicago the sunlight is cut by 40 per cent, turning the day a dark ;; ii

brown color and producing bad odors. However, it is not just the ;

i cities that are facing serious air pollution problems but the *

III

entire planet. Smog is appearing as a thin veil that will Increase '!',

in density until it covers the entire earth. Tlie main source of "{

air pollution is the car which each year in the United States

releases :

. . . 66 million tons of carbon monoxide, one million tons of sulfur oxides, six million tons of nitrogen oxides, 12 million tons of hydrocarbons, one million tons of particulate, and assorted other dangerous substances, such as tetraethyl lead.

Ehrlich and Ehrlich, Population, Resources, Environment: Issues in Human Ecology, p. 118.

38

Wlien other sources like industry, houses, and trash-burning are

added to the list, it is estimated that a possible 140 million

tons of pollutants arc added to the air and in turn to the general

environment. Smog in scimo cities is so bad that smog alerts may

become a daily occurrence and is causing doctors to advise their

patients as wdl as other local residents to move out of affected

8 areas.

Another aspect of air pollution is the pesticide and herbi­

cide sprays both in the cities and in the surrounding areas. Con­

centrations of these sprays can be harmful when absorbed through

food and water supplies but what are the additional dangers of

breathing them directly into our lungs. Another problem is radio­

active isotopes from nuclear testing that will be falling to earth

through rainfall for years to come. There are already signs of I I

o

Ehrlich and Ehrlich, Population, Resources, Environment: Issues in Human Ecology, p. 119.

Garrett De Bell, ed. The Environmental Handbook (New York: Ballantine Books, 1970), pp. 121-122.

possible damage to thyroid glands of young children in the Nevada J

9 ! area due to radioactive fallout. With all of the pollutants J;

going up into the air and with the rainfall helping to bring them « •t

down, the chances of polluting the groundwater, lakes, rivers, and *

oceans are greatly Increased. Plants and animals will receive

heavy doses of various chemicals in their bodies from the "life-

giving" rainfall.

39

The toll air pollution is taking from man's life is hard to

say. We are slowly poisoning ourselves to death, which is reflected

in the increase of diseases like emphysema, pheumonla, asthma, and

bronchitis. In 1952 smog lasting for a number of days is credited

with 4,000 deaths in London, England which is just one of a number

of similar incidents. The ultimate toll to human life is diffi­

cult to estimate but as our bodies continue to be saturated with

pollutants from the v>7ater that we drink, from the air that we

breathe, and from the food that we eat, the toll increases dally.

It must be obvious that we are compounding the possibilities for

numerous malfunctions. The variety and concentration of pollutants

will generally vary in its maximum tolerance for a given individual

but some of these maximums are showing themselves in the previously

mentioned diseases.

In addition to polluting our environment to intolerable

limits, the earth is being exploited in the way fuels are excavated i;

and in the never-ending hunt for new supplies of fuel to maintain

our energy-oriented society. It is difficult to ascertain what our

actual reserves are because of the conflicting reports by various

"authorities" on the amounts of coal, oil, and gas that we have and

that we can get if needed. One aspect of the fuel issue is obvious

besides the fear of shortages and that is the destruction to the

environment. Although Alaska's north slope was found to be rich in

1 :i

'I

K ri 14,1] i.

Ehrlich and Ehrlich, Population, Resources, Environment: Issues in Human Ecology, pp. 120-122.

40

oil just last year, two major problems have come out of this dis-

11 covery. One possible problem that has caused serious environmental

problems is the off-shore drilling process has had serious accidents

that have led to oil slicks. The north slope discovery would Involve

off-shore drilling that could damage the environment if an oil slick

did occur. Secondly, slicks ruin the aesthetic qualities of the

environment for residents and tourists alike when they occur. Also,

there are plans to pipe the oil across Canada which environmentalists

object to.

Part of the reason for environmental concern is that we do

have the fules for energy but do not have the technology to recover

the fuels in such a way that would keep the cost of energy down.

An example is the oil shale that runs through Wyoming and Colorado

which would cost about $5 a barrel versus $3.25 a barrel regular g

United States' price, and $2 a barrel for Middle East oil. The |

cost is not so much an environmental concern here but the tearing

up of the land to get to the oil shale would be unprecedented and

mountains of ash left from the extraction process would also be a I

12 danger to the environment.

Coal is still a very Important source of power for this

country, but it too complicates the ecology of the environment.

The coal in the Rocky Mountains is not feasible for mining because

"*" "Getting More Power to the People," Time, XCVII (April

19, 1971), 71.

12 Ibid., 73.

41

it is too far away from large population centers to make the cost

worthwhile. The sulphur in coal smoke from existing plants that

produce electricity is another problem that pollutes the environ­

ment. Finally, the last major problem is the method of getting

coal through strip mining, because it destroys, in many instances,

the land like oil shale extraction. Consequently, there is no

top soil, no plants, or animals that can occupy these areas. Some

leaders in the coal business believe that new techniques should be

developed for taking the sulphur out of the coal smoke and ways of

gasifying coal should be developed so that it can be transported

13 through pipelines.

Ultimately the environmentalists' battle is based upon

value orientations relating to concern over the environment and

on value orientations concerning human needs and rights. The '

environm.entalists value clear air, water, and land whether it » I

costs the consumer more or not because the ultimate value, human

life, is believed in danger if this value structure is not adhered j I

to and taken seriously. Udall expressed this when he said: I

As our land base shrinks, it is Inevitable that incompatible plans involving factories, mines, fish, dams, parks, hlghv;ays, and wildlife, and ,, other uses and values v.'ill increasingly collide.

13 "Getting More Power to the People," Time, 73.

""•" Udall, The Quiet Crisis, pp. 195-196.

42

Protecting and cleaning up the environment v /ill mean changing

present trends in life styles and will probably cost the consumer

more in taxes and daily living cost. The environmentalists, how­

ever, equate the quality of the environment with the quality of

human existence. Wliatevcr the changes necessary to achieve the

environmental quality \ 7ill be taken by environmental leaders.

CHAPTER V

ATOMIC ENERGY

A Technical Description of Reactors

After exploring the technological-technique process and

values, of the human reaction to these processes and values, and

of the environmental factor and values, then it is possible to

place this information in the context of a specific real-life

situation. The fusion reactor is caught at the center of this

triangle and is, and will continue to be, the center of contro­

versy for some time. To understand the full picture of fusion

reactors we will examine the following topics: 1) Why do we

need them? 2) What is the difference between them and fission i H

and breeder reactors? 3) What are the advantages of fusion

reactors? and 4) What are the disadvantages of fusion reactors?

Power from nuclear energy that provides the fuel for our

electrical society is the key motivation for developing the nuclear

reactors. Already we have faced a number of power shortage crises

that have threatened to shut down factories and to leave families

without heat in the winter and cooling in the summer. At present

there appears to be no decline in our power needs; instead there

has been a five per cent increase in energy consumption per year

since 1965. Although we have large quantities of coal, gas, and

43

44

oil, some are too costly to extract and these resources will not last

forever besides the fact that they pollute. Another possible, alterna­

tive is importing large quantities of oil the way we have been doing

but this definitely increases the complexity of our foreign relations.

Due to concern over all of the possible implications of fuel shortages

that have been reviex ed, the Nixon administration is developing a

national energy policy as of April, 1971. This policy must set some

desirable balance between what we have and what we need. The appar­

ent fuel shortages, pollution, and reactor efficiency are the main

reasons that a national energy policy is needed at this time.

Pox>7er has probably always been the most salient characteristic

of nuclear power from the atomic bomb to the present fission reactors.

Fission reactors represent one of the first peaceful uses of atomic

power. The fission reactor works in the manner described below: { ;

In a nuclear plant, the heat is derived from a self- |

sustaining nuclear fission chain reaction in the fuel (usually enriched uranium) of the reactor. After leaving the turbine, spent steam enters a condenser, where it is converted back to water by passing over cooling tubes. The water is pumped back to the reactor, and the cycle begins again. In a boiling-water reactor, vjater (called J the primary coolant) pumped through the reactor bolls, and the steam produced is transferred directly to the turbine (Figure 2). (in pressurized-water reactors, the pressurized water in contact \7lth the reactor does not boil, but water in a secondary cooling cycle is boiled to produce steam.) The water which passes through the condenser cooling tubes to convert the primary coolant from steam to water (Figure 2, lower right) is called condenser cooling water. This water may be taken from and returned to a natural body of

•'•"Getting More Power to People," Time, XCVII (April 19, 1971), 71, 73-74.

45 water, with or without being cooled before return to the lake or stream, or else (as in an automobile engine) recycled continuously in a closed-circuit system that Incorporates some cooling device.^

The breeder reactor works like the fission reactor except

for one major change. Tlirough a change in the core of the breeder

reactor more fuel is produced than used, Uranium-238 wraps the

core of plutonium-239 and uranium-235. The uranlum-238 is trans­

muted into plutonium-239 as the high-speed neutrons spin out from

the core. Consequently, both heat and new fission fuel are pro-

duced at a rate of 12 to 14 for every 10 disintegrated.

At this time there is no one single design concept for the

fusion reactor but there are a number of possibilities being tested.

The fusion reactor produced heat by fusing or brings atomic particles

together whereas the fission reactor splits atomic particles. The

fusion reactor depends upon very hot plasma suspended in a magnetic

field of either linear or toroidal shape. The energy would be

absorbed in a liquid lithium shield that v/ould go to a heat exchanger

The heat exchanger would turn water to steam that would run the tur­

bine, then it would be condensed. Then the v/ater would return to the

heat exchange while the liquid returned to the shield. The figure

4 • on page 47 Illustrates this process in thermal energy conversion.

2 A. W. Flipper, C. A. Carlson, and L. S. Hamilton, "Impact of

Nuclear Power Plants on the Environment," The Living Wilderness, XXXIV (Autumn, 1970), 5-12.

^"Breeding Power," Newsweek, LXXVII (June 14, 1971), 67.

William C. Gough and Bernard J. Eastland, "The Prospects of Fusion Power," Scientific American, CCIV (February, 1971), 53-60.

46

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Although minute details have not been explained in the

various reactor processes, the major technical aspects have been

developed that will concern the social adaptation of society to

the fusion reactor. Understanding the major systems will facili­

tate explanations on the comparisons of the davantages and the

disadvantages of the various reactors as they relate to the tech­

nological, human, and environmental value structures later.

Adaptation to the Possibilities and Consequences of Reactors

In grasping the advantages and disadvantages of fusion

reactors it is necessary to place them in context with the fission

and breeder reactors because these systems represent the chief

source of competition for fusion reactors. Another complexity

encountered in this analysis was the lack of consensus on the

advantages and disadvantages of these systems from the point of

view of the scientists and economists. Although both sides usu­

ally admitted to the same advantages or disadvantages, the lack

of agreement seems to be on degree of emphasis placed on the

problem. Som.e either over-emphasized or under-emphasized one

aspect or another on almost every issue.

Both fusion and fission reactors have the advantage of

not producing conventional pollution like the smoke that is chem­

ically loaded from coal and oil plants. This would mean a cleaner

type of power and no expense Involved in cleaning up the pollution.

49

Tliere is, liowcvcr, concern over radioactive pollution from fission

plants. The fusion plants, however, will not produce the lar»e

quantities of radloaetive waste that fission or breeder plants will

produce. Fi gvire 2 .-.hous tliat the fuel Is fed right back into the

5 reactor field ot fusion reactors. A problem of fusion might be the

transfer of public tears from fission reactors concerning radioac­

tive waste to the developr.ient of fusion reactors, whether these

fears are justified e-r not.

In an effort to deal with the radioactive waste the Atomic

Energy Commission is building a waste disposal plant in Lyons,

Kansas. Tliis plant \,-i.ll be 1,000 feet below ground in an abandoned

salt mine which can house the waste of a possible 29 plants at the

end of this year, with room for much rore in the future. The salt

is a good cover for radioactive waste because of its high density

and high meltinc', point. The stability of the area makes it the

focal point for the largest project of its kind. There will be

over 500 room.s and nuiiicrous tunnels connecting the operation.

Cylinders will be lowered into graves in the salt room then the

rooms will be refilled with salt as graves in each room are full.

This process v/ill occur one room at a time. Although the cylin­

ders will corrode six months to ten years later, the radioactive

wastes will be safe in this depository. Since the Atomic Energy

Commission plans to have more than 500, up to 1000 reactor plants

''Fusion Power: Closer Than Before?", Washington Scientific Trends, XXII (June 2, 1969), 36, 38.

50

in operation by the year 2000, nuclear graveyards similar to the

one in Kansas will increase. It should be noted that this proj­

ect should be included in the total cost of the fission and breeder

reactors because it is directly related to these projects. Fusion

does not have fuel waste like fission or breeder reactors because

its fuel is fed back into Itself and does not become a waste product.

Another waste product that concerns both fission and fusion

is heat or thermal pollution. Although fusion plants are not

expected to have the high heat problems of fission plants due to the

efficient use of heat from fusion plants, water cooling in a greatly

reduced amount might be necessary. The problem with fission and

breeder reactors is that water is used to cool the steam from the

reactors through cooling tubes taking their water from lakes or the

bays. The tubes in turn heat up the water from lakes, streams, or

bay areas depending upon the location of the plant. The change in

temperature may not be more than a few degrees but this is enough

to cause changes in the ecology of the water and possible damage.

In a bay area, the estuary, which is the water mixed from fresh river

water meeting salty ocean water, will be hotter in the summer, keep­

ing the rich marine life away from tthe area, and warmer in the win­

ter, which will allow the marine life to feed longer. Ultimately, how

this will affect the total ecological picture is difficult to project.

^"A Nuclear Graveyard," Newsweek, LXXVII (March 29, 1971), 60.

51

but latent problems could be more serious Lhan anyone would expect.

Another problem is that during the cool.in:', process oxygen is lost

as the water in the tubes heats and is then returned to its original

source, which is anothei- factor to eonsidej- over a long period of

time. Loss of oxygen from the wat(-r is harmrnl to the ecology, and

to complicate the issui' even more-, rhemieals are run through the

cooling tubes to keep growth fon.i:. t i ons off the surface of the tubes.

Tliese chemicals are returned to the lake, river, or bay along with

all of the other chemicals and pollutant fj-om other sources. Finally,

the tubes themselves vjill corrode which vn.ll inject metals into the

water that will collect and will have their effect on plant and ani­

mal life. Social adaptation to these difficulties has been strained

and difficult due largely to the environmentalists, but technologists

have responded in ways to help facilitate social adjustment to the

technical aspects of fission reactors.

T\<ro types of technical adaptations have been proposed to help

solve the above problems. Cooling towers have been suggested and are

being used at some plants to help cool water taken from lakes, bays,

or rivers before it re-enters these areas. Some of these tov/ers use

fans to cool the water as it comes down through materials that slow

the water so that it can be cooled. These types of plants are some­

times used only on hot days to meet water requirements but could be

used all the time. These towers have their dravjbacks because they

' Ralph E. Lapp, "Nuclear Plant Controversy: Power and Hot Water," New Republic, CLXIV (February 27, 1971), 21-22.

52

they are noisy, take up large amounts of space, add to the cost of

o

the total project, and clutter the area. Another type of tower that

is being considered is the hyperbolic tower that works by spraying

water over plates, then it can run down and cool off in the process.

Air is drawn up the tower like a chimney which picks up the heat

from the wateu as well as some of the moisture and leaves the tower

looking like steam. As nuclear plants get larger the heat problem

will increase which may m?an larger towers. Tlie towers could be

500 feet high and 200 feet wide which definitely would cost more than

the fan-type towers. The advantage with the higher towers is that

the water vapor will be lifted higher in the air so it will not cause 9

fog v -hlch does occur when plants are located in valleys. However,

two other shortcomings of these tox\7ers are: 1) they cannot be used

to cool salt water because the salt spray would ruin farm lands; and

2) the large amounts of v/ater that are evaporated would have to be

replaced at the source by the water that would come from rainfall or

r. 10

river flow.

Another answer to thermal pollution is cooling ponds. Cool­

ing poinds would be like small lakes that would still contain fish

and plant life. These ponds would cover large areas of land and

would still have many of the same problems that a natural body of o

Lapp, "Nuclear Plant Controversy: Power and Hot Water," 22.

^"Nuclear Fuel Runs Scarce," Business Week (March 21, 1970),

84-85.

Lapp, loc. clt., 22-23.

53

water would have from pollution like the cooling tube problems.

Even if the pond was stocked with special warm wa.ter fish, this

species might die during cold weather if the plant was shut down

for repairs. Besides radioactivity being a problem for the pond,

heavy chlorination would be necessary to kill off excess algae

, 11 ^^ growth. The cooling tubes, towers, and ponds are a problem of

fission and breeder reactors and not fusion reactors because of

a more efficient use of heat. Also, if water were needed for any

form of cooling, it would probably not be in the quantities

required for fission reactors unless the heat efficiency was not

reached.

Fusion reactors are safer than fission or breeder reactors

because they are not capable of "runaway" accidents. Fusion

reactors, unlike fission and breeder reactors, have no critical

mass for the reaction to occur. Critical mass is high density

of the fuel and a large quantity of fuel that in fission reactors

could have the potential for an explosion or excursion (core melt

down that allows radioactive materials to escape). In some cases

highly activated fuels might be used v;hlch would require cooling

systems but if these systems failed there would still be no nuclear

excursion. The fuels might leak from the plant but this problem is

more of design rather than leakage. In fusion plants that might

produce their o\-m fuel through a holdup-blanket, the level of

tritium radioactivity would have to be monitored to control possible

Gene Bryerton, Nuclear Dilemma (New York: Ballantine Book, 1970), p. 76.

54

excess build ups. Besides being safe from major explosions or excur­

sions, fusion reactors may be considerably safer in the event of

sabotage or natural disaster. The reason for this safety factor is

the lower amounts of radioactive materials and the alck of high

energy heat in the core of the reactor that could cause an explo­

sion or excursion. Although fusion reactors appear to be safer

than fission reactors, the fusion reactor has not been put to the

test that fission reactors have endured. Consequently, the above

estimates on the nature of fusion safety will still leave the hard

core environmentalist very skeptical , besides the insurance com­

panies will be skeptical, also.

At this time there has been a real controversy over how to

insure fission and breeder plants , and who will Insure them in case

of accidents. In a report called WASH-740, the Atomic Energy Com­

mission made an estimate of the least possible accident to the

worst possible accident. The upper range in human life was as high

as 3,400 dead witii over 40,000 injured. The upper range in dollars

was as high as seven billion. There is probably no one insurance

company that could cover that expensive an accident, and in addition

the estimate v;as made for plants about one-sixth the size of those

being planned now. Insurance companies that testified before the

Joint Committee on Atomic Energy declined to insure reactors because

they felt they were too great a risk. Instead of accepting this

12 Gough and Eastland, "The Prospects of Fusion Pov/er,"

62-63.

55

judgment the government allowed a bill to be passed insuring reactors

for 500 million dollars \7orth of damage with government or the tax

payers' dollars. Any damage after 500 million dollars that is not

insured by private companies will not be covered because the plants

will not be considered liable. There have been already enough acci-

dents like the Enrico Fermi to v ;arrant a second look at this policy.

Fission and breeder reactors definitely have their problems as con­

firmed by the attitude of the Insurance companies. The fusion reac­

tors do not have nearly the technical disadvantages that either of the

other two processes have, but fusion reactors could inherit the doubts

and fears associated with its predecessors.

Finally, there is a very special advantage that fusion reactors

have to offer and that is the fusion torch. The torch uses the high

temperatures from the fuel plasma for the treatment of various waste

products in a re-cycling concept. "In principle, a single fusion plant

could not only dispose of thousands of tons per day of solid waste, but

also provide a continuous supply of fresh raw material—thereby closing

the cycle from use for re-use." The variety of uses for the fusion

torch could possibly be unlimited; it is even being considered for the

desalination of water. This concept has technological, human, and

environmental values of a positive nature which give the fusion reactor

a marked advantage over fission and breeder reactors.

1 3

Shelden Novick, The Careless Atom (New York: Dell Publish­ing Company, 1969), pp. 63-71.

Amasa S. Bishop, "Environmental Considerations," Lecture, September, 1969 (Mimeographed).

56

After examining the possibilities and consequences of

fission and fusion reactors, it is obvious ihat there are con­

siderable differences between th(- two syst .nis tiiat cannot be

ignored. Also, the differences in th( two :.ysioiiis rec|uire each

to be considered as separate units. The- i'i nal interpretation

and conclusions of these two systems will le e>'.prL.ssed in

Chapter VI.

CHAPTl'lx VT

1Nj'i:KrRi:i'Ai'i o: ^ AND CONCLUSIONS

Social adaptation to the teclinical aspects of fusion devel­

opment is the central concern ivf th i.-', thesis. Instead of examining

the procesj; of social change, the process of social adaptation was

explored. Since ada;^tation means adjustment to change, the nature and

the direction of the a.daptative process is the significant aspect when

trying to ascertain its course in relation to a specific piece of tech­

nology. Value orientations were emphasized as the major criteria for

the direction of the adaptatlve process. Both the value orientations

and the technological possibilities of fusion reactors V7ere examined

and observations v;ere made on the possibilities of conflict and adapta­

tion in various chapters. The final intrepretatlons and conclusions

will be made in the following discussion.

The fusion reactor is the dependent variable and society is

the independent variable. This relationship means that the acceptance

of fusion reactors v/ill depend on the state of the social environment

at the time whatever group attempts to introduce it into society. The

three main value orientations that were explored are: humanistic

values, technological values, and environmental values. Interpreting

the fusion reactor in terms of technological values is a consideration

of methods and potentials. The fusion reactor must be efficient in

its use of heat during the transfer process. If it is not efficient,

it will be in conflict with the technological value of efficiency

57

58

and could mean the adoption of fission or breeder reactors over

fusion reactors. The technological values of planning, organiza­

tion, specialization, and technology as the creator and as the

problem solver are being complied with in every v/ay possible in

fusion development. Government and private funds have been pro­

vided for the development of fusion reactors which require highly

specialized knowledge in the expanding field of plasma physics.

The planning of fusion reactors is especially important for safety

reasons and for efficiency. The organization of those who own

and/or monitor the fusion reactors will be very complex because

nuclear pov7er systems will overlap into a number of governmental

and business areas. If the fusion reactor complies with all of

the technological values, then it will be probably economically

profitable which is usually the final consideration for economic

institutions when adopting a new piece of technology. A note of

concern here night be the environmental safety of fusion reactors

if they are as successful as some scientists hope, but they

probably will not be capable of producing the economic profits

desired by private enterprise. The only possible hope for adop-•

tion might be the outlawing or over-taxing of other sources of

energy which would make fusion reactors the most desirable form

of energy production.

Interpreting the humanistic values as they relate to

fusion reactors is more complex because of the diversity of values.

Some people appear to have become so alienated from technology in

59

general that anything associated with technology will be considered

as a threat to existing life styles. For these individuals, a

return to the farm or communes is the only way to find their iden­

tity and happiness. Other segments of society will welcome the

manifest functions of fusion reactors as an inexpensive source of

electrical power but will be concerned over possible latent

effects of fusion reactors. These latent possibilities could mean

the further dehumanization of man by increasing the non-human value

orientation of technology. Many humanists enjoy the material bene­

fits of a technologically advanced society but are willing to give

up some of these benefits if it will bring humanlzatlon back. The

fusion reactor is big business but it will also support both the

individual and the group needs for power which makes it an inter­

mediate step concerning those institutions or organizations that

will affect human needs and rights. If humanists take the view

that m.an controls r.iachlnes then the fusion reactor should not be

objected to because its uses could be controlled by man to benefit

man. With man in control of his technological environment, the

fusion reactor as the intermediate power source could make a

reality out of many projects that could maintain the standard of

living that we nov; enjoy without depriving mankind of the right

to be human instead of a machine.

The environmentalist will provide the vanguard for almost

any movement concerning anti-fusion reactor construction. Inter­

preting the environment talists' values is probably the easiest of

60

the three value orientations but along with the technological values

is the one that will conflict the most with fusion reactor develop­

ment. Anything that endangers the quality of the environment will be

fought and probably halted. If fusion reactors are not as efficient

in the heat transfer process as they should be, then excess thermal

pollution will occur. Fusion reactor design is Important to insure

little or no radioactive leakage from these plants. Should either

one of these aspects of fusion development not pass the environ­

mentalists' value test, fusion reactors will have very little

chance for social acceptance or adaptation. As time passes, the

environmentalists' values concerning water, air, and land, will

probably be shared by growing numbers of people if pollution con­

tinues and if population growth soars.

In summarizing the interpretations of fusion reactors in

the context of the three major value orientations, it is obvious

that there is overlapping of values in all three areas. The

environmentalists' concern for efficient fusion plants coincides

with the technological desire for efficiency; however, technologi­

cal concerns center on profit while environmentalists wish to save

the environment. Humanistic values are in conflict with technologi­

cal values which transfer to a conflict with fusion development

because some humanist may see fusion development as one more way to

increase and to support the on-going system which they are dissatis­

fied with. The environmentalists will be in conflict with the tech­

nologist if the fusion reactor does not measure up to standards of

61

the environmentalists but is accepted by technologists. The con­

tinuum of possible conflicts and agreements is almost unlimited and

may be complicated by future fusion developments that have not been

foreseen. To continue the above discussion would go far into the

area of eonjeciure which is not the desire or concern of this

thesis but rather, our concern is with real life possibilities.

The following list contains the conclusions reached from

the research .:cco;iinlished in this thesis.

1. Fusion reactors are the preferable source of future

energy supplies for the following reasons:

a. There is little or no thermal pollution which

means water VJIII not have to be used for a

cooling process. If water x7ere required, it

would be in small amounts.

b. The source of fuel from the ocean would be abund­

ant and inexpensive which is a problem with both

fission and breeder reactors unless they increase

efficiency.

c. Due to the source of fuel for fusion reactors, the

environment would not be disturbed the way coal and

oil pollutes the environment.

d. The air and water pollution problems would not occur

like the ones experienced with oil and coal pollution,

e. There would be very few radioactive problems like

those connected with fission and breeder reactors

62

because fusion reactors do not produce radioactive

waste like the other two reactors. Also, radio­

active problems associated with mining fuel for

the other two reactors and transporting fuel

would pose fewer problems if fusion reactors were

adopted.

2. The fusion reactor would not be a preferable choice if it

should not achieve the efficiency necessary to prevent

thermal pollution, if it does not operate on an inexpensive

source of fuel, and it its design does not protect the

environment from radioactive leakage.

3. Power is necessary in some form of energy for this country

to maintain its present standard of living. The power

requirements are increasing each year. Consequently, a

realistic approach must be taken in attempting to find

a way to meet our power needs without destroying our

environment.

4. The fusion reactor has the potential to meet and to satisfy

the needs of all three value orientations if it does not

fall short of its expectations . Human values could be met

by using electric power for mass transit systems in the

city and on the road Instead of oil-burning engines. Auto­

mation might free man from the many boring jobs that he is

now forced to occupy or at least provide him with more

63

leisure time. The projects for meeting hmnan needs

could be unlimited if the supply of power were cheap.

5. It is apparent that economic Inteiest in profit may

be a deciding factor in the adopting, of lusioa reactors

regardless of the benefits that ii may have to offer

society. If the fusion reactors cannot produce Lhe

necessary profits, there will be no fusion reactors

unless the government decides to take action.

6. If the money being spent on fission and breeder reactors

were spent on fusion development, then the reactor

project might be a reality in 10 to 15 years. If fusion

reactors are successful then there is no point in spend­

ing large sums of money on a less efficient system.

7. Research of this type is important because scientists in

the physical and social sciences are attempting to take

more responsibility for what they do in research.

8. This research is definitely not conclusive because

fusion reactors are in the early stage of their develop­

ment. This work would be valuable to sociological

research because it would allow the investigation of

technological development as it occurs. This research

would be of major importance to those interested in tech­

nological change and value structures besides the research

in the sociology of science and complex organizations.

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" L i v i n g With Ator.rLc rower--And L ik ing I t . " U. S. News and World Mr^A^"iJ\, hXX (March 29 , 19 7 1 ) , 67 -69 .

Meie r , R icha rd L. "Tiie S o c i a l Impact of a Nuplex . " B u l l e t i n of ^^}^. ^}':''j-^ ''^j.yil^:^s_y XXV (March, 1969) , 1 6 - 2 1 .

"Nucleai Fuel Ihins S c a r c e . " Bus iness Week (March 2 1 , 1970) , 8 4 -85 .

"A Nuclear G r a v e y a r d . " liej v-^s^eek, LX}:VII (March 29 , 1971) , 60 .

Olson , Warren E. "RespcMis ib i l i ty : An Escape and an Approach ." l l ! l ' ^ t i a \ c- f tjie Atjjini^ S £ £ ^ XIX (March, 1963) , 2 -6 .

Schubert, A. E. "uUuit Nuclear Power Will Do to and for the Urban Environr.onL." The American City, LXXXIII (December, 1968), 67-69, 109.

Seaborg, Glenn T. "Need We Fear Our Nuclear Future?" Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXIV (January, 1968), 36-42.

"The Search For Pollution Free Fuel." £. S_ News and World Reports, LXXI (July 5, 19 71), 62-64.

Slidr.an , Aaron. "Barriers to Technical Innovation." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXVII (March 1971), 29-31.

Spinard, Bernard I. "ivamifIcatlons of Nuclear Energy." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, XXI (May 1965), 21-24.

"Utilities Burn Over Cooling Towers," Business Week (April 3, 1971), 52, 54.

Weinberg, Alvln M. "Nuclear Energv and the Environment." Bulletin of the Ato;rJc Scientists, XXVI (June 1970), 69-74.

Unpublished Material

Bishop, Amasa S. "Environmental Considerations," Lecture, Septem.ber 1969 (Mimeog]'aphed) .

APPENDIX. SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL ACCKLERAT idX^

A. Steam 160 years from lluyghens to the first steam railroad.

1666 Tlie suggc>stion of Christian Iluyr.hons, aft.er nearly a century of random, widely separatod experiments by different individuals, of an or);anized i iivestlgation of steam po\;er in France.

1690 Denis Papin's publication of first design for steam engine.

1707 Papin's formulation of complete tlieory of steam engine.

1711-22 Thomas Newcomen's experiments with steam engines.

1769 James Watt's patent of steam engine.

1774-78 Installation of steam engines in Boulton's Soho works

1807 Robert Fulton's steamboat.

1825 George Stephenson's steam railroad.

B. Electricity 80 years from Ampere and Volta to installation of the first commercial power plant.

1800 Andre Marie Am:pere's v.'ork in electrodynamics and Alessandro Volta's development of theory of current electricity.

1820 Hans Christian observations of electromagnetism..

1827 George Ohm's law on relationship between intensity of electric currents and resistance.

1831 Michael Faraday's discovery of electro-magnetic induction.

1831 Karl Friedrich Gauss' and Ivilhelm Weber's basic research in electricity and magnetism.

1837 Samuel F. B. Morse's electromagnetic recording telegraph.

1856-66 Laying of transatlantic telegraph cables.

1866-67 Development of commercial electric generators.

John Dlebold, Man and the computer: Technology a^ an Agent of Social Change (I ev; York: Avon, 1969), pp. xiv-xvii.

68

69

1871 Hermann llelmholtz work in electro-dynamics.

1876 Alexander Graham Bell's telephone.

1879 Tliomas A. Edison's electric lamp.

1882 Installation of first commercial power plant.

C. Wireless Transnassion 66 years from Maxwell to commercial television.

1873 James Maxwell's work with electro-magnetic waves.

1886 Heinrlch Hertz's proof and development of Maxwell's work.

1900 Gugllelmo Marconi's development in short wave communica­tions .

1904-06 Sir John Fleming's Invention of radio tubes.

1906 Lee de Forest's development of radio telephone.

1920 Opening of conmiercial radio station.

1925 John L. Balrd's and Charles F. Jenkin's dem.onstrations of television.

1939 Opening of commercial television station.

2 D. Atorn:i c Power 50 years from Planck and Einstein to first

nuclear powered ship.

1900-05 Max Planck's and Albert Einstein's formulations of theories underlying nuclear fission.

1937 Otto Hahn's and Fritz Strassmann's experiments in nuclear fission.

1941 Self-sustaining nuclear reaction.

1945 Nuclear explosion.

1952 Thermo-nuclear explosion.

1956 Atomic power plant, Calder Hall, England.

1958 "Savannah," atomic powered merchant ship.

2 These dates are important because of their relevance to

this project

70

E. The Computer Experiments with computers go back to the work ol Leibnitz, and more recently, Babbage. But the i irst working analog computer was built by Vannevar Bush in 1925. Thirty years later, digital computers began to be used to a significant exteait for commercial purposes.

1939 Initiation of construction of digital computer.

19 4 Cor pie I-ion of Mcark I, first modern digital computer.

1946 Com;vletlon ENIAC, all-electronic digital computer.

1954 Sig.n'f Leant commercial applications of electronic digital cor.rruter.

- l!£l£ TTo.v.si:^tor Since its invention by Bardeen, Shockley and Brat tain, the transistor has revolutionized the world of electronics and has made possible many of the advances in communications, computeriza­tion, medicine and space exploration recorded over the past 15 years. The transistor is symbolic of the technology of our era: small, reliable, cool, all-pervasive.

1948 Developm.ent of transistor at Bell Laboratories.

1952 Transistorized hearing aids.

1952 Application of transistors to telephone communications.

1954 Transistorized military computer.

1958 Use of transistors in Explorer satellite.

1958 Installation of transistorized comimerclal computers.

G. Cryogenics Experiments v/ith low temperature or cryogenics date back to the early part of this century, but it was not until the 1950's that they became an important branch of the physical sciences. The phenomenon of superconductivity occurring at minus A20° F. is bringing revolutionary advances in power production and transmission, the space sciences, industry and medicine.

1950 B. T. Matthias' experiments in practical uses for cryo­genics.

71

1954 Dudley Back's invention of "Cryoton"—thin film cryogenic switch.

1968 Plans tor Stanford University linear particle accelerator to a cryogenic facility.

H. Th£ New Biol^g)^ (Genetics) Genetics go back to the experiments reported by Mendel in 1865 and the discovery of the chro­mosome arrangement of genes in the 20th century. The New Biology began in 1952.

1952 J. D. Watson, F. M. Crick and associates discover the double helical structure of DNA (Deoxyrlbonucleicacld) milecule—one of the two basic chemicals Involved in the genetic language.

1956 A. Romberg discovers the enzyme catalyst which leads to the transfer (copying) of genetic information.

1961 M. W. Nlrenberg begins to decipher the genetic code.

1966 R. W. Holley and M. G. Khorana complete the deciphering.

1966-67 S. Spiegelman, A. Kornberg and associates use enzymes to copy DNA from a virus—thus achieving the "replica­tion of Life."

I. Tne Laser In 7 years the Light Amplification Through Stimulated Emission of Radiation (Laser) became an important practical scientific discovery. The Laser has been used for such varied applications as drilling strong metals and delicate eye surgery.

1958 Extension of MASER principle for experiments in LASEPx. theory.

1960 Building of operational LASER.

1961 Continuous operating gas LASER

1963 Experimental LASER use in satellite tracking.

1963 Eye surgery using LA.SERS.

1965 Widespread commercial work in medical, scientific and industrial LASER applications.