cross and crescent

7/29/2019 Cross and Crescent

1/14

2013.09.11. Cross and Crescent

mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index5.html 1/14

CHURCH HISTORY

CHRISTIAN CHURCHESFOLK BELIEFS

MUSLIM RELIGIOUS LIFE

CHRISTIAN CHURCHES

The Reformation in Europe

The Catholic Church before the Reformation

The turn of the 15th and 16th century is one of the most contradictory periods in the history of Europe.Besides the Renaissance which shocked the world view of the middle ages, the geographical discoveriesthat gave new dimensions to the stereoscopic boundaries, or the Ottoman advance that was threatening thecontinent - the most important changes were the growing interest in religion. According to modernhistoriography the causes for theReformation were due to neither the decline of the Catholic Church nor tothe "anti-feudal struggle latent in religion" but rather to the new religious needs that appeared in the 15thcentury as well as in the demand to reform the Church structures of the middle ages.

The first significant Church reforms took place in Italy and Spain, where the prelates who lived exemplarylives and the committed seculars stood up against the ignorance and sinfulness of the church. Hence tocharacterise the 16th and 17th centuries merely in terms of the counter Reformation would be misleading,since the Catholic reformstriving towards internal revival appeared prior to the Reformation.

These revival movements usually started off from the bottom up and their most important manifestationswere the reforms of the old monastic orders, the foundation of laic religious groups which inspired the birthof new types of monastic orders (to begin with the Jesuit order) and the proliferation of Biblical based and

personal toned religious literature that satisfied the new demands being made upon religion.From among the movements whose aim was to revive the Catholic Church, only the Reformationestablished an overall programme of reform, which was worded by the Council of Trento (hereinafterreferred to as: Trident) (1545-1563). First of all the council clarified the teaching of the Catholic Church in
http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1173.htmlhttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1173.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1172.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1171.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1170.htmlhttp://-/?-http://-/?-http://-/?-http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index.html


2/14



regard to all the questions being raised by the reformers. However, the strengthening of church disciplineand the stipulating of ministerial service as the priority of the clergy were considered to be even moreimportant. Bishops became the executives of reform, and were made personally responsible for theexecution of reform resolutions immediately after the formation of the council. This process took place at avery different pace and with various degrees of effect in different countries.

The Lutheran Reformation and the establishment of the Evangelical Church

At the beginning of the 16th century the need for the Church's revival was formulated in Church institutionsand universities in several different parts of Europe. One part of this general reform movement was theappearance of Martin Luther (1483-1546) lecturer at Wittenberg university, who did not intend to cause aschism by his 95 doctrines but rather wished to contribute towards the revival of the Catholic Church in thespirit of the era's reformist endeavours. Luther spoke out against the practise of selling indulgences formoney, and attacked the theological background of the Church.

As a result of Pope Leo 10th (1513-1521) and Luther's determination as well as the groundswell ofsupport by German society (primarily the princes), the reform process that had begun within the CatholicChurch split between the followers of the Church and those of Luther. Therefore Luther's appearance mustbe interpreted as a purely religious matter, while at the same time the schism that he caused can be tracedback to mainly political reasons (the disunity of the German Empire and its traditionally bad relationship withRome).

The essence of Luther's doctrine is that we can only reach salvation by the mercy of God (sola gratia) andexclusively through faith (sola fide). The only source he recognised for his doctrine was the Bible, and herefused to recognise that Church tradition was as equally important as the Scriptures (sola Scriptura). He

only kept two sanctities of the week (Christening, and the Lord's Supper) and rejected the monasteries, aswell as the obligation to respect mass and the saints.

The simultaneous struggle against the Catholic Church and the increasingly more radical people'sReformation (Anabaptists) made it necessary for the Lutheran Reformation to transform into a Church. Thefundamental creed of the Lutheran followers was worded by Philip Melanchton (1497-1560), and acceptedby the Imperial Diet of Augsburg in 1530 (the Augustan Confession from the Latin name of Augsburg; thisis where the old official name of the Lutheran Church originates from: Evangelical Church of AugustanConfession). In the Holy Roman Empire the Evangelical Church became emancipated from the CatholicChurch in 1555 in accordance with the Augsburg Peace in Religion.

The Helvetian orientated Reformation and the establishment of the Reformed Church

Luther's doctrine was further developed by others, one of which was the Swiss Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)a parish priest in Zurich. From 1519, by following in the footsteps of the German reformer, he hadformulated his theology, which contradicted Luther's doctrine on several points. Primarily he did notrecognise the holiness of baptism and the Lord's Supper, and rejected the belief in the physical presence ofChrist at the Lord's supper. Even the reconciliation negotiations (1529, Marburg Colloquium) were unable

to resolve the differences between the two reformers which eventually led to the sundering of theReformation. He also put the fundamental principles of his theological doctrine into practice, and in co-operation with the town council he reformed the Church of Zurich (the abolition ofcelibacy and fasting,reforming the church service, sermons in German, undecorated churches). His work was completed by his
http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1177.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1175.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1174.html


3/14



successor Heinrich Bulinger (1504-1575) whose doctrine was greatly influential in the whole of Europeincluding Hungary. The doctrines of (German and Swiss) reformers further developing the Lutheran theorieswere compiled into a congruous system by John Calvin, who was of French origin. The work of Calvin whohad significant theological and humanist qualifications, can be mainly traced to the town of Geneva (1536-1538, 1541-1564). He went beyond the doctrines of his predecessors as regards the comprehension ofGod's mercy. According to this God predetermines people's fate to eternal damnation or eternal bliss(predestination, or praedestinatio in Latin). On the question of the Lord's Supper, he took an intermediate

standpoint between Luther and Zwingli: according to him the Lord's Supper is an intermediary of Christianmercy.

Similarly to Zwingli, Calvin also placed a very strong emphasis on the practical execution of theReformation: under his plenipotentiary guidance Geneva became the centre of the Helvetian Reformation.The essence of the Church constitution he introduced is that parishes should be led by the presbyteryconsisting of Pastors and secular believers. By his moral doctrine which encouraged people to work and tosave as well as permitted a righteous collection of interest he gave a push to the formation of capitalism; hisChurch administration system contributed towards the development of political democracy. Thecontinuation of his work by the Genevan reformer is connected to the name of his successorTheodor deBeze. (1519-1605)

The spread of the Reformation in Hungary (16th century)

The Catholic Church at the beginning of the 16th century.

The state of the Hungarian Catholic Church in the 15th century was in line with the European tendency at

the time: the prelacy primarily carried out office and political activities, the poor and uneducated lowerclergy could barely complete their tasks, and the monastic orders (due to the so called commendatory-system) were in a serious crisis. Church reform appeared in a very watered down version: it consisted of afew weak attempts by the prelacy to renew the monastic orders (more or less successfully) and thepreaching of Franciscan writers urging reform - all praiseworthy but insignificant efforts. At the same timeunder the supervision of the clergy and religious attitude of the believers it had undergone significantchanges: the various religious associations (confratenitens), the flourishing of pilgrimages, foundations makingdonations for churches and the growth of codex literature all prove that people were indeed interested intheir faith, and that the turn of the 15th and 16th century was the golden age of religious literacy in Hungary.

The Lutheran Reformation in Hungary

New ideas soon appeared in this intense and sensitive religious atmosphere. According to the historicaltraditions of the Protestant Church 1521 saw the appearance of the Reformation in Hungary: where severalteachers of the college of Buda had already been teaching in the spirit of Luther's doctrine. From 1522more and more young Hungarian students pursued their studies at the university of Wittenberg which wasconsidered to be the centre of new education. Before Mohcs, the new doctrines found their followers in

the capital, and from among the German citizenry and the German courtiers of the royal court, and even thewife of Louis II. - Queen (consort) Mary symphatised with them. In the 1520's even the citizenry of thetowns of Upper Hungary and Transylvania became acquainted with the Lutheran doctrines and joined it inlarge numbers.


4/14



The main enemies of the new belief were the prelates and the lesser nobility: the prelates regarded the rapidspread of new ideas as heresy while the nobility regarded it as "German practise". This resistance wasworded by article 4. of the Parliamentary session in 1525, which committed Luther's followers to burn atthe stake (in the spirit of the anti heresy laws of the Middle Ages). Despite the fact that according to theaforementioned article executions indeed took place, mass persecution was not carried out (mainly as aresult of the weakness of the central powers and the Catholic Church).

The spread of the Reformation was significantly helped along by the battle of Mohcs, the chaotic politicalsituation arising from the Turkish onslaught and the decline of Church structures. The Lutheran doctrinesgained lasting success among the Saxons of Transylvania and Szepes. The Reformation of the TransylvanianSaxons is linked to the name ofJohannes Honterus (1498-1549) Pastor of Brasso, while that pertaining tothose of Upper Hungary can be tied to Leonhard Stckel (1510-1560) the rector of Brtfa. It was Stckelwho edited the first Lutheran spirited and highly significant document of the Hungarian Reformation whichwas used by the five free royal towns of Upper Hungary as a protection against King Ferdinand the 1st 'scharges of heresy. (Confessio Pantaploitana, 1564.)

The first period of the Hungarian Reformation lasted until about 1540, which is deservedly called the period

of sanctuary. Students returning from the university of Wittenberg and Catholic priests (mainly Franciscans)who had accepted the new doctrines were preaching Luther's doctrines in the towns of Hungary andGermany as Pastors or travelling preachers. The most important representatives of the first generation wereMtys Br Dvai (around 1500-1545) who was given the name of the "Hungarian Luther" byhistoriography, Imre Ozorai author of the first Hungarian language Lutheran book and Andrs Glszcsi (? -around 1543).

The fact that the Reformation had also reached the Hungarian villages and agricultural towns was the resultof the tireless literary and missionary work of thepreachers. The names of Andrs Horvt Szkhrosi poet

and the preacher of Tllya, Mihly Sztrai (? - 1575) the reformer of the occupied areas and Gl Huszr(?- 1575) printer and preacher who visited half of the country - must definitely be mentioned. It is importantto emphasise that the Lutheran doctrines effected Hungary through the interpretation of the reformer PhilipMelanchton who had a strong influence on the Hungarian students of Wittenberg.

In the first period of the Reformation the doctrine did not have the result of forming a creed since thebelievers were relatively free to choose from the elements of theological doctrines and from Church events.This kind of eclectic religion was characteristic of the reform supporting aristocrats as well as communitiesof agricultural towns or village parish priests. Land owners who stood by the Reformation (Elek Thurz,Ferenc Rvay, Pter Pernyi, Tams Ndasdy, Pter Petrovics) insisted on preserving several elements of

Catholic religious practise. Although land owners played an important role in the rapid spread of theReformation, villages and agricultural towns under their power still chose from the different tendenciesindependently from them. The religious affiliation of the communities often depended on the clergyman theycould take into service and the doctrine he represented.

The Helvetian orientated Reformation in Hungary

In the history of the Hungarian Reformation, the influence of Zurich and Geneva - the two significant centres

of the Helvetian Reformation can be seen from the beginning of the 1550's. Klmncsehi not only followedthe Swiss Zwingli's ideas about the Lord's Supper but by complying with his practical programme heremoved the alters, pictures and ornaments from churches of the territory East of the river Tisza. This gothim into trouble with not only the Catholics but with the followers of the Lutheran Reformation too. Finally
http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1188.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1187.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1186.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1185.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1184.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1183.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1182.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1181.html


5/14



his death prevented him from establishing a Church organisation based on his own doctrines.

In the following decade the work started by Klmncsehi was continued by preachers who joined theHelvetian tendency in growing numbers. The Swiss Reformation - the representatives of which were calledsacramental ("simoniac") due to the views they held regarding the Lord's Supper, - were not only wide-spread among the nobility but among the citizenry of agricultural towns, the military of the border areas andthe peasantry. As a result of the educational and organisational work carried out by the highly

knowledgeable Istvn Kis Szegedi (1505-1572) and Pter Juhsz Mlius (1536-1572), by the second halfof the century the independent Reformed Church organisation was established. Attacks by the Catholicsand Lutheran followers as well as the arrival of a new trend from Transylvania - the deniers of the HolyTrinity (anti-Trinitarians) necessitated the strengthening of the doctrine and the Church administration. Theseparation of the German and Swiss trends had taken place by 1566-1567 in the Northeast and Easternparts of Hungary and in Transylvania, the most significant event of which was the Debrecen Synod thataccepted the 2nd Helvetian creed (1567).

This division only took place at the end of the 16th century in Northern and Western Hungary, as a result ofthe schism within the Evangelical Church. Under the influence of Melanchton's doctrines, some of the

preachers and nobles were inclined to symbolically interpret the Lord's Supper (kryptocalvinists, SecretCalvinists in English) and this group finally joined the Reformed Church following the religious dispute ofCsepreg in 1591 - according to which the denomination which belonged to the same ecclesiasticorganisation was divided. Calvin's doctrine was not exclusive in its influence upon the theology of theHungarian Reformed Church as the second generation of the Swiss Reformation - Bullinger and Beze -played an equally important role. As a result of the peculiar societal development in Hungary, several pointsof Calvin's doctrines came into realisation in a rather altered way. First of all presbyteries which were thebasis of the Calvin Church constitution only appeared from the 17th century, up to that point the directsupervision of congregations came under the minister's sphere of authority. Similarly to this, Calvin's

doctrine allowing the collection of interest could not be enforced either. However, the doctrine regardingarmed resistance against a tyrannical monarch prolifically effected the ideology of the Hungarian aristocracyduring the times of the anti-Habsburg rebellions.

The anti-Trinitarians

The most radical branch of the Hungarian Reformation which nevertheless became a firmly establishedChurch was the Holy Trinity denying (anti-Trinitarian) trend. Anti-Trinitarian ideas first appeared in Italy and

Poland. Anti- Trinitarians did not accept the divine nature of Jesus, therefore denied the Holy Trinity. Theirmost important representatives were Mihly Szervt (1511-1553) a Spanish doctor and theologian whowas sent to the stake by Calvin in Geneva, and Fausto Sozzini who represented a more moderate trend.

The appearance of the anti-Trinitarian doctrines in Transylvania is associated with the name of GyrgyBlandrata (1515-1588) who was the doctor ofZsigmond Jnos monarch at the Italian court. It was due tohim that the monarch and Ferenc Dvid (1510-1579) Reformed Bishop of Cluj (Kolozsvr) accepted theidea of rejecting the concept of the Holy Trinity. The free practice of the Anti-Trinitarian religion inTransylvania was permitted by the 1568 Parliamentary session in Torda, and thus the number ofpermittedreligions in the principality rose to four. Under influence of David who had a reputation for being a brilliant

orator and debater, the majority of the citizenry of Cluj joined the new doctrine. In the 1580's more thanhalf of the Hungarian population of Transylvania shared the anti-Trinitarian views. The establishment of aChurch and setting out of doctrines by this moderate tendency against the radical movements rejecting theHoly Trinity (Sabbathians) took place at the end of the 16th century, primarily due to the work of bishops
http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1194.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1193.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1192.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1190.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1189.html


6/14



Demeter Hunyadi (? - 1592) and Gyrgy Erdlyi (1551 - c. 1597). It would be accurate to say that therewas a Unitarian Church from the beginning of the 17th century.

Out of all the trends of Protestantism, the Anti-Trinitarians were the most active. Their more radicalrepresentatives had appeared as early as the 1570s in occupied Temeskz and Baranya, choosing Pcs tobe their most important residence. Their parishes were suppressed by the Counter Reformation only afterthe expulsion of the Turks. The expansion of the Anti-Trinitarians over to the East side of the river Tisza and

their strengthening in Transylvania were prevented by the Reformed Church by numerous religious disputesand various polemicist works.

The Catholic Church in the 16th century

Throughout the 16th century the Catholic Church virtually lost its position in Hungary. In the Battle ofMohcs out of the 12 bishops of the country 6 lost their lives. In the following decades both kings gave thebishops' seats (more importantly the income to be derived therefrom) to their supporters as a reward, manyof whom had little interest in the religious side of their parishes. They lived in Vienna and Pozsony, wherethey mainly performed political, diplomatic and according to the practice of the late middle ages,administrative tasks. Because of abuse, popes were reluctant to strengthen the position of bishopsappointed by monarchs on the basis of their right of patronage, as a result of which hardly any sufraganbishops were left in the country (3 in 1538 and 4 in 1574). The king himself did not hurry to fill beneficesleft vacant in the Church since the income from these was one of the important financial resources to beused in the defence against the Turks.

By taking advantage of the chaotic situation land owners set upon the often undefended Church lands(belonging to bishoprics, chapters and monasteries) and this type of looting took place with no regard to

any religious affiliation. Monastic communities that were in a crisis situation to begin with were given thefinishing stroke by the Turkish conquest and attacks upon theirmonasteries: only the Franciscans and thePaulits managed to preserve a few by the end of the 16th century while the rest of them ceased to exist inHungary. Despite the fact that the first generation of reformers were Franciscans, we have no knowledgeabout the transformation of entire monastic houses.

As a result of the Turkish threat, the Archbishopric of Esztergom had to move to the town of Nagyszombatwhich therefore became the starting point of the revival of Catholicism in Hungary. The first significantrepresentative of the Catholic revival and the Counter Reformation was Mikls Olh (1553-1568)archbishop of Esztergom. He was a humanist and had a very enthusiastic attitude towards the reforming ofthe Catholic Church: he entrusted people with Church visits to the parishes of the head diocese, then at thefive diocesan councils that took place between 1560 and 1568 he enacted laws to deal with the recogniseddeficiencies. He encouraged his bishops to enact similar reforming activities.

Other significant achievements of Olh's in 1554 were the uniting of the town school and chapter school ofNagyszombat and the chapter of Esztergom that had moved there, and later the foundation of the diocesanseminar in 1558. In 1561 he made the Jesuit order settle in its residence but due to financial difficulties andpersonal disagreements the Fathers had to leave the town in 1568. Olh's efforts for reform therefore endedin failure, nevertheless with his partners (Mikls Telekdi, Andrs Monoszlai, Gyrgy Draskovics) he laid

significant foundations which came to fruition in the following century. After a period of nearly two decadesabsence the Jesuits reappeared in Hungary in 1586.

Attempts made by Istvn Bthory the Prince of Transylvania to strengthen the Catholic Church's position inTransylvania were also futile in the short run. His exertions were severely limited by the Transylvanian


7/14



regulations (i.e. the bishop of Transylvania could not enter the principality). Bthory had also turned to themost effective representatives of the Catholic restoration: the Jesuits. He first made them settle in 1579 inKolozsmonostor then in Kolozsvr two years later where they managed to produce significant results mainlythrough their schools. During the chaotic decades that followed the prince's death they had to leaveTransylvania on several occasions, and in 1603 the angry citizens of Kolozsvr even ravaged theirmonasteries. In the same period several young monks joined the monastery (Pter Pzmny among others,latter Archbishop of Esztergom) who later became the leading characters of the Catholic revival in Hungary.

The development of the Catholic Church had a peculiar development in the occupied Hungary. Bishops ofthe territories occupied by the Turks could not return to their residences but lived far from theircongregations usually in Vienna, Nagyszombat or Pozsony. The majority of the people therefore joinedeither the Lutheran or Calvinist Reformation. The Catholic Church only survived in places where therelationship between the Franciscan monasteries and the local community was close, for example inGyngys or Szeged. In other areas (in the county of Baranya for instance) the secular Catholic preachers(called Licentiates from the beginning of the 17th century) maintained the Catholic faith of the villages. Alongwith the large number of Croatian and Bosnian Catholic settlers and traders arriving from the South,Bosnian Franciscans also appeared mainly in the Southern part of Hungary and areas along the banks of theDanube.

The picture of denomination in Hungary at the end of the 16th century

The various tendencies of Protestantism had formed into a Church by the end of the 16th century and thisresulted in a stabilised proportion among the denominations. Almost half of the 3.5 million of the country'sChristians belonged to the Reformed, and one quarter to the Evangelical Church. The remaining quarterjoined the congregations of the Unitarian, Orthodox and Catholic Churches. Thus, 85-90 percent of the

entire population of Hungary became Protestant.

Followers of the Reformed Church were mainly Hungarian aristocrats, citizenry of agricultural towns andsoldiers, most of them living in the central and eastern part of the country. The Evangelical Church waspushed to the border areas, and its congregation consisted of landowners, and the citizenry of Germantowns as well as the Slovak peasantry. Except for Transylvania, Unitarians were only present in theoccupied southern region of the country, however in the principality they represented half of the population.Catholics only formed significant groups in certain larger towns, on the estates of the few remaining Catholiclandowners, and in Szkely land (in Eastern Transylvania). The number of Orthodox believers was

increased by the Serb and Transylvan-Romanian immigration to the occupied territories. Amongst Croatiansthe Reformation went almost unnoticed, the majority of them remaining Catholic.

The forming of the various Protestant denominations into a Church was also completed by the end of the16th century. The Evangelical and Reformed (in Transylvania also the Unitarian) arch deacons and churchdistricts were formed, by superintendents at their fore. Superintendents were not linked to each-otherthrough an organisation, therefore a national Church did not come into being in the case of eitherdenomination. As part of the Hungarian feudalism the Catholic hierarchy also remained beside theProtestant Church system, and in the following century started a counter attack to regain the lost position ofCatholicism.

Catholic revival and the counter Reformation (17th century)
http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1203.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1202.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1201.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1200.html


8/14



The first wave of the Counter Reformation at the turn of the 16th century

The spread of Protestantism in Hungary could not be prevented by the monarch and the state power in theperiod beginning with the Battle of Mohcs until the end of he 16th century. Vague Parliamentary decreesaiming at such were not carried out. The first more serious counter attack took place under the reign ofRudolf I, (following the Austrian and Czech examples) when a few Catholic prelates with military supportbegan the seizure of Protestant churches and schools, and drove out Pastors and teachers. This attempt wasalso supported by commanders of the mercenary army stationed in the Upper Hungarian region.

This kind of violent re-catholicisation was faced with a serious resistance by the Protestant aristocracy andthe town citizenry. The seizure of the Evangelical church of Kassa by the Catholics caused particularindignation among the public, alongside the new autocratically created article 22 that was added to theresolutions passed by the Parliamentary session of 1604 which forbade discussing religious matters withinParliament. These steps (among others) were the direct causes of the anti-Habsburg rebellion initiated byIstvn Bocskai in 1604.

State power and the catholic prelate soon faced the consequences of the sudden failure to reviveCatholicism: they could not achieve any results by the violent methods they used in the Austrian provincesand against Protestantism which was supported by the strong Hungarian feudalism. Therefore in theViennese Peace Agreement in 1606 and the following Parliamentary session of 1608 which sanctioned thisagreement the court and the holy orders made a compromise in religious matters, too. In accordance withthat the monarch ensured the free practice of religion for the aristocrats, nobles, border guard militarysoldiers, the free royal towns and royal agricultural towns. Naturally this only concerned the Lutheran(Evangelical) and the Helvetian (Reformed) trends. This religious freedom was strengthened andsupplemented by the Habsburg - Transylvanian peace agreements of the following decades, and formed thebasis of the legal relationship between the state and the Church right up until 1671.

Pter Pzmny and the Catholic revival

The events which took place after 1608 formed the most exciting turning point in the history of theReformation and Counter Reformation. This was the time from when the Catholic Church - the goal ofwhich was revival - began to realise its aims - something it had failed to do by guns and violence. The twoleading personalities of the Catholic revival in Hungary were Ferenc Forgch (1607-1615) and PterPzmny (1616-1637) Archbishops of Esztergom. Forgch (previously himself the believer of reviving of

Catholicism by armed force), held a provincial council in 1611 in Nagyszombat which decided theexecution of resolutions passed by the council of Trento. Although in Hungary the council was only officiallyannounced at the bishoprics of Zagreb and Gyr, the planting of the most important Church disciplineresolutions into practice began from the 1610's (synods, church visits, education of priests)

Jesuits also appeared in Hungary in the same years and by 1615 they already ran two colleges (inNagyszombat and Homonna) in the country. Jesuit institutions were regarded as important centres not onlyfor their famous schools but for the evangelist work they carried out on the properties of the growingnumber of Catholic noblemen.

The work of Pter Pzmny who became the Archbishop of Esztergom from being a Jesuit, - was evenmore significant than that of his predecessors. The secret of Pzmny's astonishing influence lies in the factthat he managed to utilise all means of the Church revival in a masterly manner. In all the genres of religiousliterature he left something lasting (works on religious disputes, theological summaries, preaching, prayer


9/14



books), paid attention to the education and upbringing of Catholic priests and helped in the foundation ofJesuit colleges. Within this field his most significant achievement was the foundation of the university ofNagyszombat in 1635. In addition he held syndics at county, provincial and national levels, and organisedChurch visits to the parishes of the Church districts. Numerous aristocrats and nobles became Catholicunder the influence of Pzmny and the Jesuits, but according to the right of presentation their conversioneventually resulted in the catholisation of the serfs who lived on their lands. Although the statement hiscontemporaneous made is slightly exaggerated, they were right: Pzmny was born in a Protestant country,

and died in a Catholic one.

Although Pzmny's colleagues and successors were not such outstanding characters as himself, by theirpertinacious work they significantly contributed towards the success of the Catholic revival. Besides theprelates - most of whom had been following Roman studies - the Jesuits were the main participants of thisprocess. By 1650 four Jesuit Colleges, eight residences and fourteen missionary stations were operating inthe country with 149 Jesuits, and this had tripled by the beginning of the 18th century. Other monasticorders (mainly Franciscans, Paulits and Piarists) also carried out significant ministerial, teaching andmissionary work in Hungary. By the middle of the century the majority of the prelate had completed aseminar and held the required basic qualifications. Catholic religious literature had appeared which was bothin quantity and quality a worthy competitor of the literature of the Reformation.

Results of the Catholic revival in the Turkish occupied areas and in Transylvania appeared late andmetostatically. Jesuit evangelists began their work in 1612 among those Catholics who lived in areas underTurkish occupation, and they supplemented the work of Bosnian Franciscans and evangelists sent fromRome, although the co-operation between the different orders were not always free from disagreements.Pzmny's synods had legalised the operation of licentiates who managed to keep their congregation in theirCatholic faith right until the end of the occupation. Within the Principality of Transylvania only theFranciscans of Szkely land, secular priests and Jesuits under the threat of expulsion represented the

Catholic Church.

The internal crisis of Protestant Churches and their revival movements

The Catholic revival represented by Pzmny and his followers significantly weakened the positions ofProtestantism in Hungary (mainly by the conversion of the leading nobility). At the same time the ProtestantChurches themselves went through a crisis period during the 17th century. Against the Evangelical andReformed orthodoxy which became uncompromising throughout religious disputes and dogmatic debates,

other waves of reform appeared. The most significant of these within the Reformed Church was Puritanismwhile within the Evangelical Church it was Pietism (the last of these only appeared in Hungary from thebeginning of the 18th century).

Puritanism first appeared in England at the beginning of the 17th century. Its representatives placedemphasis on individual piety and intimate belief and at the same time took up as their cause theestablishment of a Presbyterian Church model. They were students educated in England and Holland whointroduced Puritanism into Hungary and Transylvania. Their most important representatives were Jnos DaliTolnai (1606-1660) Pl Medgyessy (1605-?) and Jnos Csere Apczai (1625-1659)) who tried toencourage the internal revival of their Church by introducing school reforms and by the issuing of spiritual

literature.

Their most powerful patron was Zsuzsanna Lorntffy (1600-1660): the wife of Gyrgy Rkczi I. Prince ofTransylvania. The movement had finally failed as a result of resistance by the representatives of Reformed


10/14



orthodoxy, most importantly bishop Istvn Katona Geleji (1625-1659) and the Prince, Puritanismnevertheless significantly influenced the later development of the Reformed Church council and religion ingeneral.

The Church policy of the Princesses of Transylvania: Gbor Bethlen and Gyrgy Rkczi was to strengthenthe Reformed Church, although Bethlen showed great patience towards Unitarian and Catholicdenominations, too. Throughout the reign of Gyrgy Rkczi I. but especially under his son Gyrgy Rkczi

II. there was increased pressure put on these two denominations. A decision made by the 1638Parliamentary session in Ds made the most moderate tendency of anti-Trinitariasm compulsory andtightened up the state supervision over the Unitarian Church (dsi complanatio). From this point onwardsthe more radical movements were persecuted by the law (the Sabbathians primarily). In 1953 Jesuits wereforced to leave Transylvania temporarily. As a result of the Church policy carried out by the ReformedPrinces, Reformed religion became the state religion in Transylvania in the 17th century.

The second wave of the Counter Reformation

The Catholic success in the first half of the 17th century was undoubtedly due to the efforts made towardsits internal revival, however, there is evidence that violent means were being employed at this time too,pointing towards a counter Reformation. The Counter Reformation line began to increasingly gain groundfrom the 1660's not only as a result of growing political tension but also due to the impatience of Lipt I.emperor and Hungarian king, and the ever more powerful Habsburg absolutist tendencies. Furthermore,because of the weakening of Protestant feudalism, the Hungarian prelate realised it was time for a moredetermined approach. These events followed the well-known pattern of the previous decades prior to theBocskai-revolt: i.e. the taking over of schools and churches, driving out of pastors and teachers andreplacing them with Catholics instead.

In the period between 1671 and 1681 following the suppression of the Wesselnyi conspiracy andmentioned as the "decade of grief", the religiously dissatisfied Hungarian feudal movement made an illegalattempt with the help of the Catholic prelate to completely destroy Protestantism. In order to bring this planinto realisation, under the leadership of Gyrgy Szelepchnyi archbishop of Esztergom (1666-1685) somefour hundred Protestant pastors and teachers were charged with political treachery, out of which -according to certain sources - 41 were condemned to the galleys. (1675). The 30 galley slave pastors whosurvived were ransomed by the Dutch admiral De Ruyter.

The second wave of violent counter Reformation proved clearly once again that such methods onlyencouraged Protestants to unite both locally and in national politics. The resistance led to the Kurutsrebellion under the leadership of Imre Thkly which again forced the court to compromise. TheParliamentary session in 1681 re-established the feudal rights of freedom and allowed the practice ofEvangelical and Reformed religions at articular places.

Summary

The 16th and 17th centuries were the most complicated period in the history of Christianity. The HungarianReformation had overtaken the development in Europe in all its forms, since the Anti-Trinitarians became anindependent Church in Transylvania. Another Hungarian peculiarity is that this variable religion was able toconsolidate, none of the Protestant denominations gained absolute predominance over the others, and thedifferent Church organisations were established simultaneously. Besides, the Catholic Church also remained


11/14



and the Catholic hierarchy had been continuously maintained, and at the beginning of the 17th century afteran apparent death that lasted for several decades, it was fighting for the re-conversion of souls as an equalpartner. A national Protestant Church therefore did not come into being in Hungary (as opposed to otherEuropean countries such as England, the German Principalities, and Scandinavian countries) and at the sametime the Catholic Church was neither able preserve its hegemony (as in Italy or Spain) nor to re-gain itspositions (France, Poland and the Habsburg territories).

The other important lesson to be learned from the Hungarian development was that in the Church history ofboth decades the dialectics of Catholic reforms, the Reformation and the Counter Reformation are clearlyvisible. In the first half of the 16th century the Reformation offered solutions to real demands whichcontained a message to all levels of society. Therefore its success cannot only be related to either a singlesocietal group (land owners for instance) nor to a type of colony (i.e. agricultural town). The solution itoffered for the religious demands made by society played as an important a role in its spectacular success asdid the disintegration of Catholic Church structures and political anarchy. At the same time Catholicismwhich was announcing an internal revival, in the following century managed to successfully fight againstProtestant Churches that had lost their spirit. However, in the historical era in which the Catholic Churchchose to enforce its will in regard to the Counter Reformation through violent means together with theHabsburgs (the first and seventh decade of the 17th century), they failed when faced with Protestantresistance. Lasting success could therefore only be achieved by both parties through the pursuit of a truerevival and by converting people without force.

FOLK BELIEFS

Patronal Festivals

When in 1456 three months after Jnos Hunyadi's death, one of the most popular Franciscan orators of theera and hero of the struggle against the Turks: Jnos Kapisztrn died in jlak, thousands went on apilgrimage from all over the country to see him laid out in state and then later to his grave. These pilgrimswere people of all ranks: serfs, handicraftsmen, nobles. They were led by a common aim: to be able totouch the clothes of thepreacherwho was regarded as a Saint in his lifetime; to walk around his grave andbeg for his intervention on their knees, to be healed of their physical and spiritual pains. These sick peopleincluding the paralysed, those with cataracts, epileptics, people with fever, and those possessed by the devilwere all hoping for a miracle through the intervention of this wonder working priest. This example trulyexemplifies the spiritual mentality of man of this era. According to their societal position they went onpilgrimages both at home and abroad: the wealthier citizens and nobles visited the Holy Land, Rome,Aachen, Kln and Mariacell to witness a miracle and returned home physically and spiritually purified.

As the Turks advanced the more adventurous pilgrimages abroad became more difficult to complete, soinstead the domestic places of pilgrimage gained in popularity, especially since in Hungary all the majorregions had their own shrines. At the end of the 15th century, the number of letters addressed to the Pope in

which people asked for permission to hold parish feasts and for relics, had increased. By admiring relicsthey hoped for an effective protection from the increasing Turkish attacks, and looked for opportunities forpenance. On the one hand, pilgrimages abroad represent those roads through which Hungary joined theEuropean mentality and on the other hand they paint a picture of what the cult of Hungarian Saints in Europe


12/14



was like. (Saint Erzsbet of the rpd dynasty, Saint Margit, Saint Istvn, Saint Lszl). Pilgrimages athome and abroad mainly took place by individual initiation, though little is known about the method. We arefamiliar with the clothing worn by the pilgrims of the era and these were supplemented by a pilgrim stick anda pilgrim satchel. The long journeys on foot cost an enormous amount of money. Food could not be takenfor these journeys which could last for days, weeks or sometimes even for years, it was always obtained onthe spot.

Pilgrimages

Monastic orders and pious groups often helped the pilgrims on their journeys. For instance throughout theirjourneys to Aachen they were offered bread, meat, fish, fruit, beer and wine. The Hungarian group enteredAachen with a cross. Pilgrims on their journeys were given accommodation in people's houses, alms-houses, stables and barns. Pilgrimages of the Middle Ages were the types to ask for help, and the miraclecures took place at the holy places by walking around and touching the relics. Under the influence of theTurkish occupation and the denominations, the Mary shrines were the most popular among the domestic

places of pilgrimage. Virgin Mary worship which was rooted in a great tradition took up a new aspect. TheMary figure became an anti-Turk symbol through the influence of the Franciscan order. An example forsuch is the devotional ornament in Csksomly and the icon of the church in the lower town of Szeged whichaccording to the legend was hidden from the Turks in a lake outside the church in 1552. Some years later, aTurkish soldier found it while swimming his horse in the lake, and surprisingly he gave it back to theFranciscan monks.

The credit for the victory of the Catholic Szkelys (inhabitants of Szkely land in Transylvania) over thearmy of prince Zsigmond Jnos who wanted to force the people of Csk to become Protestants - was

attributed by the faithful to the intervention of the devotional ornament of Csksomly. Going on a pilgrimagewas considered to be a special event in the life of a Christian. However, church liturgy and superstition wereboth part of people's everyday life. The sacraments of the Church extended into every aspect of people'slives. They sanctified nature both in its living and lifeless forms, the steps of earthly life and the necessities ofeveryday life. Consecrated water was one example of a tool used for purification and sanctification andwhich was present at bothblessings and exorcisms. Other sanctified items were the consecrated candle,consecrated fire, consecrated food and drinks which mediates health and protection to those have faith inthem. From as early as the 16th century, the blessing of new bread became another religious observation. Itbecame a wide-spread habit among believers to carry consecrated scripts, miniatures and coins to places ofpilgrimage, in order to afford protection from danger.

Numerous scripts have survived from the 16th and 17th century which consist of superstitious rather thanreligious elements against illnesses and possession by the devil. One such article is a small book on exorcismthat has remained intact in the library of the Franciscan monastery in Gyngys, which contains variousblessings for keeping away evil spirits. Those who carried a scrap of paper were supposed to be safe fromevil harm, but they were useful in other cases, too. These pieces of paper with blessings written on themwere buried in the four corners of the garden, vineyard or arable land in the hope that they would ward offany possible destruction to the crops by the elements. The house and stable was protected in the same way.The Church of the Middle Ages had faith healing and other sets of texts for warding off bad fortune and

which regarded all matters and problems of human life and all the diseases of the body and spirit. This wasbased on the belief people held at the time that disease is caused by harmful spirits which can attackpeople's health, bring them bad fortune and suffering, kill their animals and destroy their crops. However, bycalling on God and the Saints the evil spirits can be made to leave.
http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1226.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1225.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1224.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1223.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1222.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1192.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1221.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1221.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1186.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1220.html


13/14



The basis of the faith healing prayers is faith in the magical power of the word. Texts of the ancient paganmagic incantations to cure sickness took on Christian tones in the course of time. Blessings plead for theeffective presence of God, and exorcism also sought to drive out the devil through His help. The first textsthat were found date from the end of the 15th century and are most likely of Church origin. PterBornemissza in his work entitled: Evil Spirits (1578) he includes eight faith healing prayers from Mrs.Benedek Tardoskeddi Szerencse, which she had learnt from "her grandmother and her priest". These givean account of the flourishing practice of faith healing prayers to relieve rheumatism, headaches, sore throats,

spells, worms, stomach ache... Faith healing was not only present in the lives of serfs but was a typicalmanifestation and need for the whole of society. This practice however was more or less suppressed by thecommon approach of Protestantism. Nevertheless it was perpetuated by the Franciscans, the order whichhad the closest contact with the people. (It is no accident that a synonym for Franciscian is "Friend" inHungarian /brother in English/).

These brothers adapted themselves to serve the spiritual needs of the people and offered a healing solutionfor all their problems. This could have been part of the reason why some of the Franciscan monasteriesbecame symbols of peace and comfort (as well as places of pilgrimage), the warmth and glow of whichcould have far reaching effects in a country which had been dismembered by the Turks and had more thanits fair share of religious disputes.

MUSLIM RELIGIOUS LIFE

Djamis, mosques and dervish orders in Hungary

The entire population of Hungary was 3,5 million out of which 900,000 lived in the occupied areas. Thereligious life of the relatively small number - (50-80,000) of Ottoman-Turks was supervised by the mosquesand djamis that were either newly built or transferred from Christian churches. The djamis were largerchurches which gave a home to the Friday service the Hutbe.

The most important person was the imam who carried out ceremonies through prayer before thecongregation. At larger places there was a separate Friday preacher the hatib, who performed the sametask as the imam. On weekdays an ordinary preacher the vaiz held the service. There were several hafizes

in each djamis, people who knew the Koran by heart either fully or partially. The most well-known djamiservant is the mezzin who called the true believers to prayer five times per day. Payment for the servants ofthe mosque and the maintenance of the churches was the responsibility of the state or Church charities thevakufs.

Besides orthodox Islam, a large number ofdervish communities also flourished. The most important oneswere the bektasis, the halvetis and the mevlevis. The Gl Baba monastery of Buda that belonged to thebektasi order and was close to thejanissaries - was built by Jahjapasazde Mehmedpasha the thirdbeglerbey (Turkish governor) of Buda throughout his reign (1543-1548) near the sepulchral chapel the trbe of

Gl Baba. While only 10-20 dervishes lived in other monasteries, the Gl Baba monastery provided shelterto 60 dervishes.

The most famous monastery of the halveti dervishes was built around 1576 next to the trbe of SultanSuleiman I. (1520-1566) in Szigetvr. This soon became the religious and cultural centre of the area. The
http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1240.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1239.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1238.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1237.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1236.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1235.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1234.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1233.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1232.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1231.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1230.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1229.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1186.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1196.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1228.htmlhttp://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index1227.html


14/14


trbe and the monastery were looked after by some fifty soldiers. The most famous prior of the zavije(monastic order, monastery) was the Bosnian Sejh Ali Dede, an outstanding cultural character of the 16thcentury, who lived in Szigetvr between 1589-1598) and wrote his famous work "Seals of Wisdom".

The monastery of Jakovali Hassan pasha of Pcs was at its best in the 17th century. Its most outstandingprior was Pecsevi rifi Ahmed Dede who was born in Pcs Hungary and pursued out his studies in thecentre of mevlevian dervishes. In 1686 he fled from the re-occupying troops to Filibe (Plovdiv) where he

founded a new monastery and finally settled in Istanbul. Here he worked as the prior of JenikapiMevlevohane, and besides his teaching activities he translated religious literature right until his death in 1724.

Muslim schools, Muslim culture

In the 17th century 165 elementary (mekteb) and 77 secondary and academic theological schools(medrese) were operating in the 39 occupied towns. The mektebs taught writing, the four fundamentalarithmetic functions, the reading of the Koran and the most important prayers. Medreses carried out

secondary and academic training within the fields of Muslim religious sciences, Church law and Sciences ofNature. In Hungary, most medreses operated in Buda: seven in the Buda Castle and five in Vzivros. InPcs five medreses taught students, and in Eger and Eszk four medreses carried out such workrespectively.

The most dignified medrese of the occupation was built in Buda by Sokollu Mustafa Pasha throughout hisseventeen years of governing (1566-1578). The construction of this school was completed in the summer of1755 where the mufti of Buda performed the teaching, and was at the same time the most significantreligious superior of the occupying Muslims. The most famous teacher of the medrese was Isza Efendi who

was also the leader of the Turkish delegation at the peace negotiations in Gyarmat (1625) and in Szony(1627). In 1634 he was made a kadi of Bursza and in 1637 a kadi of Istambul, and in 1639 he wasappointed to the kadiasker of Rumelia, the most superior judge-advocate of the European provinces of theTurkish Empire.

Contrary to public opinion, the Ottoman rulers of the occupied areas were not uneducated barbarians. Inthe Djamis people not only prayed, but were taught to read and write, to read the Koran and prayers. Thesermon of the Friday and festive services the hutbe was the most effective form of political education. Therewere numerous elementary and secondary schools besides the mosques, and the monasteries of the Dervishorder also served culture and education.

The spread of culture was supported by the mosque and school libraries. In the school library of SokoluMustafa pasha in Buda, besides Muslim religious sciences other literature was also available for those wereinterested in oratory, poetry, astronomy, music, architecture or medical sciences. Despite the continuouswarfare, several cultural centres sprang up in this far corner of the Empire, where famous dervishes andscientists live for various periods of time. The most educated ones had their own libraries like Ali Cselebithe finance administrator of Buda who died in 1587, and left 119 Arab, Persian and Turkish languagebooks to posterity. Among these were religious, historical, political, astronomical and medical books as wellas novels, poetry volumes a dream book, and even a work on chess.

cross and crescent

Documents