cutlips pr manual

INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL

FOR

Cutlip & Center’sEFFECTIVE PUBLIC RELATIONS

10th edition

Glen M. Broom, Ph.D. and Bey-Ling Sha, Ph.D., APRSchool of Journalism and Media Studies

San Diego State University

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE 3

MODEL COURSE SYLLABUS 4

PART I CONCEPT, PRACTITIONERS, CONTEXT AND ORIGINS

Chapter 1 Introduction to Contemporary Public Relations 6

2 Practitioners of Public Relations 12

3 Organizational Settings 20

4 Historical Origins 26

PART II FOUNDATIONS

5 Professionalism and Ethics 33

6 Legal Considerations 40

7 Theoretical Underpinnings: Adjustment and Adaptation 49

8 Communication and Public Opinion 55

9 Internal Relations and Employee Communication 63

10 External Media and Media Relations 70

PART III MANAGEMENT PROCESS

11 Step One: Defining Public Relations Problems 78

Out–of–Class Assignment for Chapters 11–14 85

12 Step Two: Planning and Programming 86

13 Step Three: Taking Action and Communicating 92

14 Step Four: Evaluating the Program 98

PART IV THE PRACTICE

15 Business and Industry Public Relations 105

16 Government and Public Affairs 107

17 Nonprofits, Trade Associations, and

Nongovernmental Organizations 108

Public Relations Strategic Planning Process Handout 111

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall 3

PREFACEThis manual provides suggestions for using Cutlip and Center’s Effective Public

Relations, 10 ed., by Glen M. Broom in your public relations course. The goal is to help you plan your course, prepare lectures, create class assignments, and develop tests to measure your students’ mastery of course content. The content presented here is intended to help instructors, not to serve as a student supplement to the text. For the latter, please refer your students to the text’s Companion Website at www.pearsonhighered.com/broom.

In the spirit of collegiality, we request—in the strongest terms—that you not share the content in this instructor’s manual directly with your students. Please do not post the manual content on your course’s electronic classroom or on any Internet websites. Doing so means that your students may share that information with students whose instructors use this manual strictly for exams. In short, disclosure of the manual’s content undermines its purpose and nullifies its use by other instructors.

Each chapter section that follows includes: (1) a study guide—objectives that specify the knowledge and skill outcomes your students should be able to achieve after they study each chapter to help you plan lectures; (2) a summary of major concepts and elements most salient to the objectives to help you prepare lectures; (3) multiple-choice questions, applied scenario questions, and essay questions to help you create exams to measure students' achievement of the objectives; and (4) out-of-class assignments to help you engage students in exploration and discussion. You will find more here than you can use in a single semester, meaning that you will have new exam questions and exercises for later semesters.

We recommend that you collect exams after students have had a chance to review their answers. Many websites now collect exam questions for open access by students around the world. Therefore safeguarding the exam questions in this instructor’s manual is paramount to their continued usefulness for your own and others’ exams in future semesters.

Begin the first lecture for each chapter by reviewing the study guide objectives (also in the text) so students will know what is expected of them. In fact, you may want to tell your students that the exams are designed primarily to test mastery of the outcomes stated in the objectives, although they are responsible for all content in the text chapters.

The service-learning project for the strategic planning process chapters in Part III engages students in developing a public relations plan for a community client. This team project requires extraordinary effort from both you and your students, but it is the most effective method we have found for teaching the management process. This project gives students firsthand experience in dealing with the realities and complexities of public relations management, and it provides valuable assistance to a deserving community organization.

This instructor’s manual begins with a suggested syllabus for a 15-week course. You surely will need to modify the syllabus to fit your own schedule and content preferences. In addition, you will need to regularly provide updated supplemental readings for each chapter.

We welcome your feedback on this manual and invite your suggestions. Best wishes to you and your students for a successful course.

Glen M. Broom, Ph.D. ([email protected])Bey-Ling Sha, Ph.D., APR ([email protected])

School of Journalism and Media StudiesSan Diego State University

San Diego, CA 92182-4561

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall4

mailto:[email protected]

Model Course SyllabusNOTE: YOU MAY WANT TO ADD ARTICLES FROM CURRENT PROFESSIONAL AND SCHOLARLY JOURNALS TO COMPLEMENT TEXT READING ASSIGNMENTS AND TO TAILOR THE COURSE TO YOUR OWN CURRICULUM AND SETTING.

PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

Instructor: Classroom:Office: Class Meeting Time: Office Hours: E-mail address:Office Phone: Department Phone:

COURSE DESCRIPTION: In Principles of Public Relations you will learn about the theory and practice of public relations, how public relations operates in organizations, its impact on publics and its functions in society. You will study the professional development of the field; concepts, issues, and principles in the practice; and models and theories guiding the practice. You will apply course materials to public relations program planning and management by working in a group on a strategic planning project.

For those planning public relations careers, this course provides a foundation for the public relations major. The course also meets the needs of those planning other professional and managerial careers that require an understanding of public relations concepts and management practices.

TEXT: Glen M. Broom, Cutlip and Center’s Effective Public Relations, 10th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice–Hall, Inc., 2009)

REQUIREMENTS AND GRADES: PercentFirst exam 30Second exam 30Program Proposal 15Final exam 25

TOPICS AND READINGS: Following are assigned readings from the text.

Week 1: Introduction to Contemporary Public Relations

Text: Chapter 1 and one other chapter chosen from Chapters 15–17 according to your interests.

Week 2: Practitioners of Public Relations

Text: Chapter 2.

Week 3: Organizational Context

Text: Chapter 3.

Week 4: Evolution of Public Relations


Text: Chapter 4.

FIRST EXAM

Week 5: Professionalism, Ethics, and Legal Considerations

Text: Chapters 5 and 6.

Week 6: Theoretical Underpinnings—Adjustment and Adaptation

Text: Chapter 7.

Week 7: Communication and Public Opinion

Text: Chapter 8.Week 8: Internal Relations and Employee Communication

Text: Chapter 9.

Week 9: External Media and Media Relations

Text: Chapter 10.

SECOND EXAM

BEGIN PROGRAM PLANNING PROJECT

Week 10: Process Step 1—Defining Public Relations Problems

Text: Chapter 11.

Week 11: Process Step 2—Planning and Programming

Text: Chapter 12.

Week 12: Process Step 3—Taking Action and Communicating

Text: Chapters 13.

Week 13: Process Step 4: Evaluating the Program

Text: Chapter 14.

Week 14: Process Step 4 (continued)

FINAL PROGRAM PROPOSALS DUE

Week 15: Professionalism

Text: Review Chapter 5 and read the two other chapters from Chapters 15–17 that you did not read during the first week of the semester.

FINAL EXAM

Chapter 1

Introduction to Contemporary Public Relations


Study Guide Objectives

After studying Chapter 1, your students should be able to:

1. Define public relations as the management function that emphasizes builds and maintains relationships between organizations and their publics

2. Distinguish between the public relations and marketing functions of organizations, identifying the exchange between provider and customer as the distinguishing characteristic of marketing relationships.

3. Define and differentiate among related concepts, including internal relations, publicity, advertising, press agentry, employee relations, public affairs, issues management, lobbying, investor relations, and development.

4. Outline how public relations helps improve organizations and society.

Major Concepts and Elements

Public relations is the management function that establishes and maintains mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and the publics on whom its success or failure depends (pp. 3 and 7).

Marketing is the management function that identifies human needs and wants, offers products and services to satisfy those demands, and causes transactions that deliver products and services in exchange for something of value to the provider (p. 9).

Internal relations is the specialized part of public relations that builds and maintains mutually beneficial relationships between managers and the employees on whom an organization’s success depends (p. 10).

Publicity is information provided by an outside source that is used by the media because the information has news value. It is an uncontrolled method of placing messages in the media because the source does not pay the media for placement (p. 11).

Advertising is information placed in the media by an identified sponsor that pays for the time or space. It is a controlled method of placing messages in the media (p. 13).

Press agentry is creating newsworthy stories and events to attract media attention and to gain public notice (p. 15).

Public affairs is a specialized part of public relations that builds and maintains relationships with governmental agencies and community stakeholder groups in order to influence public policy (p. 17).

Lobbying is a specialized part of public relations that builds and maintains relations with government primarily to influence legislation and regulation (p. 18).

Issues management is the proactive process of anticipating, identifying, evaluating, and responding to public policy issues that affect an organization’s relationships with its publics (p. 20).


Investor relations is a specialized part of corporate public relations that builds and maintains mutually beneficial relationships with shareholders and others in the financial community to maximize market value (p. 21).

Development is a specialized part of public relations in nonprofit organizations that builds and maintains relationships with donors and members to secure financial and volunteer support (p. 23).

All effective organizations establish and maintain relationships identified as important to survival and growth (p. 23).

The social function (mission) of public relations is to facilitate adjustment and maintenance in the social systems that provide us with our physical and social needs (p. 26).

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Effective Public Relations (text) introduces the management function dealing with:

A. putting a positive “spin” on bad news.B. altering perceptions and manufacturing consent.C. professional subterfuge and deception.D. relationships between organizations and stakeholders.E. relationships within families, work teams, and groups. D (p. 3)

2. The contemporary concept of public relations is based on which of the following key words?

A. Inducing, engineering and creatingB. Asymmetric, one-way and propagandaC. Reciprocal, mutual and betweenD. International, global and diverseE. Alter, reshape and manufacture C (p. 4)

3. When Harwood L. Childs wrote that the basic function of public relations “is to reconcile or adjust in the public interest,” to what was he referring?

A. Uniting public opinion D. Inducing public supportB. Helping organizations change E. Propaganda and persuasionC. Two–way communication B (p. 5)

4. Public relations typically does not have responsibility for which one of the following?

A. Monitoring awareness inside and outside the organization B. Counseling management on policyC. Improving product design and packagingD. Analyzing the impact of policies on publicsE. Producing measurable changes in behavior C (pp. 6–7)

5. The management function most often confused with public relations is:

A. Advertising D. MarketingB. Lobbying E. DevelopmentC. Personnel D (pp. 8–9)


6. Which of the following identifies needs and wants, provides products to meet them and deals with customers?

A. Advertising D. MarketingB. Lobbying E. DevelopmentC. Personnel D (p. 9)

7. When a practitioner attempts to make a product newsworthy in order to get media and public attention, it is called:

A. Product publicity D. Product advertisingB. Consumer relations E. Institutional advertising or advertorialsC. Issues management A (pp. 8–9)

8. Which specialized part of the practice deals with an organization’s “number one public” and its “most important asset”?

A. Product publicity D. Product advertisingB. Sales promotion E. Issues managementC. Internal relations C (p. 10)

9. Information from external sources used by news media based on its news value is:

A. Public relations D. Press agentryB. Publicity E. PropagandaC. Public affairs B (p. 11)

10. According to the text, what is the major difference between publicity and advertising?

A. Publicity identifies the source, thus the term “good publicity”B. The practitioner controls advertising but not publicityC. Publicity targets multiple publics while advertising targets only consumersD. Advertising supports marketing while publicity supports public relationsE. The effects of advertising are easier to determine B (pp. 12–14)

11. The method that provides the practitioner with the greatest control of content and placement in media is:

A. Advertising D. MarketingB. Lobbying E. DevelopmentC. Issues management A (pp. 12)

12. When is it appropriate for practitioners to use an advertorial?

A When they are not satisfied with what is being said in the mediaB. When they feel that their publics do not understand an issueC. When they want to add their voices to a causeD. When they want control over message content, placement and timingE. All of the above E (p. 13)

13. When one author wrote, “Very simply, my job was to get the client’s name in the paper,” he was describing the role of:

A. Journalism D. Media relationsB. Public relations E. Press agentryC. Public affairs E (p. 15)


14. Which of the following is practiced more to attract public attention than to build understanding?

A. Public relations D. Press agentryB. Publicity E. PropagandaC. Public affairs D (p. 15)

15. The armed forces and many government agencies typically use which one of the following to designate the public relations function?

A. Public affairs D. Press agentryB. Issues management E. Social marketingC. Propaganda A (p. 16)

16. Which of the following casts corporate practitioners in the role of serving as liaisons between their corporations and governmental units?

A. Lobbying D. Issues managementB. Public affairs E. DevelopmentC. Marketing B (p. 17)

17. The specialized part of corporate public relations designed to build and maintain community and governmental relations is:

A. Public relations D. Press agentryB. Publicity E. PropagandaC. Public affairs C (p. 17)

18. Which of the following is devoted to directly influencing government legislation and regulations?

A. Advertising D. MarketingB. Lobbying E. DevelopmentC. Personnel B (pp. 18–20)

19. Which of the following present(s) a more accurate description of lobbying than do the images of cigar-chomping, well-connected insiders handing out stacks of cash in the halls of government?

A. Researching legislators’ positions on issuesB. Creating information to educate and persuade related to these issuesC. Studying government, legislative process, public policy and public opinionD. Mobilizing like-minded folks “back home,” referred to as “grassroots lobbying”E. All of the above E (pp. 18–20)

20. Introduced in the mid-1970s, ________ is the term usedto describe the practice of identifying emerging trends, setting priorities, and implementing strategies to respond to environmental changes.

A. Persuasion D. Issues managementB. Public opinion E. LobbyingC. Publicity D (p. 20)

21. Which part of public relations deals with emerging trends and their potential impact on an organization?

A. Persuasion D. Issues management


B. Public opinion E. LobbyingC. Publicity D (p. 20)

22. Issues management is NOT part of strategic planning and management when it

A. builds coalitions with other parties interested in an issue.B. adjusts the organization to improve relationships with stakeholders.C. uses only persuasive communication to influence public policy.D. accelerates issues of opportunity.E. eliminates or redirects potential threats. C (p. 21)

23. The specialized part of corporate public relations that interacts with shareholders and the financial community is which of the following?

A. Accounting D. Public affairsB. Issues management E. MarketingC. Investor relations C (p. 21)

24. Practitioners working for nonprofit organizations to increase contributions and membership are the specialized part of public relations known as:

A. Investor relations D. DevelopmentB. Marketing support E. Internal relationsC. Constituent relations D (p. 23)

25. The Tylenol crisis demonstrated that public relations is:

A. closely linked to sound business practices and corporate social responsibility.B. a good way to “get media coverage” even during a crisis.C. an effective strategy for diverting attention from a negative situation.D. the correct approach for marketing products when public trust is threatened.E. All of the above. A (p. 25)

26. In the final analysis, an organization’s relationships with its publics is the responsibility of which one of the following?

A. Human relations department D. Communication specialistsB. Public relations specialists E. Top managementC. Marketing specialists E (p. 26)

Case Study Scenario Questions

The executive director of a large charitable organization decides to add a staff member to manage public relations. The executive director sees public relations as writing publicity releases and feature stories that “tell our story.” She plans to hire a recently laid off local newspaper journalist with no public relations background. When she learns that you are taking this course, however, she asks for your opinion of her plan.

1. What advice would you give her concerning hiring a journalist for the position?

A. This is a good idea because journalists were the first public relations practitioners.

B. This is a good idea because public relations is mostly publicity, and journalists know best what journalists want.


C. It would be better to hire someone with a degree in public relations because they can do publicity and have a variety of other technical skills.D. It would be better to hire someone with a degree in public relations because they

will be educated to assist the organization in adapting to its publics.E. It would be better to hire someone with an master’s degree in business

administration because public relations is a management function.

Answer guide: Option D is the best answer because, as text pages 4–8 point out, public relations involves more than just publicity and other technical skills (C). It requires information that those with masters in business administration don’t have (E) as indicated by the many parts and specialties covered on pages 10–23. While it’s true that the first public relations practitioners were former journalists (A), public relations has evolved to include so much more than “telling our story” that option B is an inadequate rationale.

2. Which advice would you give her regarding the role of publicity in a public relations program?

A. With two–way communication, publicity is outdated and is no longer needed. B. Publicity is dangerous because the practitioner cannot control it.C. Because publicity is to be the major strategy of the program, the executive

director really should hire the former newspaper journalist.D. Publicity is the primary tactic used in public relations, typically negating the

need for other approaches to solving public relations problems.E. In addtion to publicity, the practitioner should also have communication and

technical skills, as well as management skills such as planning, monitoring, analyzing, counseling, etc.

Answer guide: Option E is the best answer because it is the only one that attempts to inform the executive director of the full range of public relations activities noted on pages 6 and 7. Option D simply perpetuates the myth that publicity alone can solve most public relations problems. Likewise, reinforcing the executive director’s perception of public relations as publicity (C) would be a disservice to her, to whoever takes the public relations position, and to the field of public relations. While it is true that the practitioner cannot control publicity (B), as noted on page 11, lack of control hardly makes publicity “dangerous.” Some practitioners will agree with option A, but it ignores the reality that publicity still plays an important role in many public relations programs (pages 11–12).

Essay Exam Questions

1. Define “public relations” and “marketing,” then explain why these two management functions often are confused. In your answer, point out the major difference that distinguishes the two functions.

Answer guide: Refer to text definitions on pages 7 and 9. Answers should identify confusing use of titles, lack of clear understanding of the differences between the two functions on the part of both managers and practitioners, and public relations practitioners responding to demand for marketing communication—typically taking the form of product publicity (pages 8 and 9). Because public relations staff often are the


ones with experience in attracting media coverage and in media relations, they are called on to assist with the marketing effort. The major distinction between the two functions is the nature of the relationship involved. Marketing focuses on exchange relationships with customers, in which an exchange of things of value are exchanged. In the case of public relations, a multitude of relationships are established and maintained with a wide range of organizational publics. (See pages 6–10.)

2. Contrast publicity with advertising. In your answer, address issues related to message control, expense, and relationship to marketing.

Answer guide: Practitioners have no control over what happens to their publicity (p. 11 and 12). It may be trashed, altered or used as is, but it is relatively inexpensive because they don’t have to pay the media to use the information. Practitioners can control their messages in advertising (p. 12 and 13). Media will use advertising as submitted because practitioners pay for the time or space. Thus, it is more expensive. Most advertising messages are designed to sell goods and services to customers targeted by marketing, but some—advertorials—are designed to a reach other publics with public relations messages. Most publicity messages are designed to reach other than customer publics with public relations messages, but product publicity (p. 9) targets customers as part of the marketing strategy.

Chapter 2

Practitioners of Public Relations



1. Describe practitioners’ characteristics and work assignments.

2. Define the four major roles played by practitioners, discuss the major differences among the roles, and distinguish among them in practice.

3. List the five criteria for evaluating the professional status of public relations and discuss the extent to which public relations measures up on each of the criteria.

4. Outline the major requirements for success in public relations, identifying writing as the primary requirement for entry in the field and success in the practice.


Public relations is an emerging profession, with professionalism an important goal for all who work in the field.

The U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics estimated public relations employment to be 243,000 in 2006, and projected an 18 percent increase to 286,000 by 2016.

Whereas New York City has been the headquarters for the major public relations firms, the largest Public Relations Society of America chapter is in Washington, D.C., and the


second largest chapter is in Atlanta, Georgia. The third largest chapter is in New York City.

The single largest employer of public relations practitioners is the federal government, although they typically work under other titles, including “public affairs” and “public information.”

In the last 40 years, the percentage of women in public relations has increased from 25 percent to almost 70 percent. Public relations students at many universities and colleges are a minimum of 64 percent to more than 80 percent female.

Writing and editing top the list of what public relations do at work. Other tasks include media relations and placement, research, management and administration, counseling, special events, speaking, production, training, and contact.

Practitioners assume organizational roles, with one becoming their dominant, defining role. Four role models describe the patterns of behavior adopted by practitioners to carry out their assignments:

The communication technician typically implements program tactics determined by others and does not play an active role in strategic planning.

The expert prescriber acts as the authority on all public relations matters while the client or employer assumes a passive role. The expert prescriber defines problems, selects solutions, implements programs, and assesses impact with little input from the client.

The communication facilitator maintains two–way communication and facilitates discussion. Working under the assumption that the more information both sides of the relationship have about each other, communication facilitators work to remove barriers and keep communication channels open until decisions are made.

The problem–solving facilitator collaborates with other managers to define and solve problems. Practitioners working in this role work with others in the organization to apply to public relations the same step–by–step management process that is used in other parts of the organization.

Practitioners operating in the communication technician role, tend not to play the other three roles. On the other hand, those who play any one of the other three roles also tend to operate in the other two. Research findings confirm two dominant roles occur in practice—public relations technicians and public relations managers. Practitioners who do research and gather information are the ones most likely to operate in the manager role.

Successful public relations practitioners recognize that their organizations’ stakeholders now include multicultural employees, patrons, donors, investors, clients, and customers. As a result, public relations staffs must also represent the diversity of the communities their organizations serve.

To qualify as a true profession, public relations must measure up on criteria basic to all professions: 1) Requires specialized education to acquire a body of knowledge and skills based on theory and developed through research. 2) Provides a unique and essential service recognized as such by the community. 3) Emphasizes public service and social responsibility over private interests. 4) Gives autonomy to and places responsibility on


practitioners. 5) Enforces codes of ethics and standards of performance through self–governing associations of colleagues.


1. According to the text, which one of the following is the single largest employer of public relations practitioners?

A. Intel Corporation D. Burson–Marsteller B. Federal government E. American Medical AssociationC. General Motors Corporation B (p. 30)

2. Approximately 35 percent of all practitioners work in:

A. Government D. Health care and hospitalsB. Corporations E. Educational institutionsC. Public relations firms B (p. 31)

3. U.S. Department of Labor statistics indicate that approximately ______ of public relations practitioners are female?

A. 8 percent D. 68 percentB. 28 percent E. 88 percentC. 48 percent D (p. 31)

4. Which of the following majors show up as the one most frequently held by public relations practitioners?

A. Marketing C. Business AdministrationB. Communication D. JournalismC. Public Relations C (p. 32)

5. According to salary surveys, what sector pays practitioners the highest wages?

A. Industrials / manufacturing D. Financial / insuranceB. Scientific / technical E. Health careC. Advertising agencies A (p. 33)

6. According to salary surveys, what specialty pays practitioners the highest wages?

A. Special events D. Employee relations/communicationB. Web site management E. Publicity/media relationsC. Financial/investor relations C (p. 33)

7. Salaries are highest in what section of the country?

A. Midwest D. Northeast–Middle AtlanticB. South E. Northwest–HawaiiC. Southwest D (p. 33)

8. Findings from many salary surveys show a pay difference between men and women in public relations. One study found that the difference was:

A. not statistically significant in the early and latter years of women’s careersB. statistically significant in all surveys conducted over the years.C. simply a function of women being younger then their male counterpartsD. not related to the gender of respondents.


E. All of the above. A (p. 34)

9. What task dominates as the common denominator for all public relations practitioners?

A. Writing and editing D. Planning special eventsB. Promotion and sales E. Research and evaluationC. Media contact and placement A (pp. 35 and 36)

10. Being “good with people” is often the first thing many associate with public relations, but how important is it on the list of ten common tasks in public relations practice?

A. Most important (1 of 10) D. Least important (10 of 10)B. In the top third (3 of 10) E. Not important at allC. About in the middle (6 of 10) D (p. 35)

11. Practitioners in which role primarily produce communications and edit copy?

A. Expert prescriber C. Communication facilitatorB. Communication technician D. Problem–solving process facilitator

B (pp. 38 and 40)

12. If the client or employer defines the problem and selects the solution, then the practitioner implements the program, which one of the following best describes the practitioner’s role?


B (pp. 38 and 40)

13. Even though they are not present when management makes a decision, which practitioner role often is given the job of explaining it to employees and the press?

A. Expert prescriber C. Communication facilitator B (p. 40)B. Communication technician D. Problem–solving process facilitator

14. Top management tends to leave public relations in the hands of the __________ and assumes a relatively passive role, often so they can “get back to business.”

A. Expert prescriber C. Communication facilitator A (p. 40)B. Communication technician D. Problem–solving process facilitator

15. Which role tends to limit other key manager’s participation in public relations programs and to lead to increased dependency on the practitioner?


16. Which role leads to the greatest dissatisfaction with practitioners and produces turnover in the ranks of public relations?


17. Which type of practitioner acts as a liaison and provides guidance (often mediating) but does not make decisions about communication content?

A. Expert prescriber C. Communication facilitator


B. Communication technician D. Problem–solving process facilitatorC (pp. 40 and 41)

18. Practitioners operating in the _________ role assume that effective two-way communication improves the quality of decisions for both their organization and the publics it serves.

A. Expert prescriber C. Communication facilitator C (p. 41)B. Communication technician D. Problem–solving process facilitator

19. Which role has the practitioner collaborating with other managers in applying management processes?

A. Expert prescriber C. Communication facilitator D (p. 41)B. Communication technician D. Problem–solving process facilitator

20. Which practitioner is most likely to be invited to management team meetings and to participate with line managers in strategic planning?

A. Expert prescriber C. Communication facilitator D (p. 41)B. Communication technician D. Problem–solving process facilitator

21. In surveys of practitioners, those who score high on one role stand alone, while others tend to score high on all three of the other roles. Which role stands alone?

A. Expert prescriber C. Communication facilitator B (p. 42)B. Communication technician D. Problem–solving process facilitator

22. Which type of practitioner tends to work for organizations with relatively stable and low-threat environments?


B (pp. 42 and 43)

23. Which practitioner role tends to work for organizations with relatively unstable settings, but in which changes pose little danger?


C (pp. 42 and 43)

24. Which type of practitioner tends to work for organizations with relatively stable, but threatening environments?


D (pp. 42 and 43)

25. Which type of practitioner tends to work for organizations with rapidly changing and threatening environments?


A (pp. 42 and 43)

26. What one activity, more than any other, assures advancement into management more than any other?


A. Writing and editing D. Special events planningB. Promotion and sales E. ResearchC. Media contacts E (p. 43)

27. There is general agreement the criteria used to judge the professional status of public relations. Which one does not belong on the list?

A. Requires specialized education to acquire a body of knowledgeB. Receives state sanctioning through licensing. B (pp. 47–48)C. Emphasizes public service and social responsibility over private interests.D. Gives practitioners autonomy and holds them responsible.E. Enforces codes of ethics and standards through an association or peers.

28. What one trait tops almost every list as a concern among those hiring new graduates for public relations positions?

A. Management skills D. Writing skillsB. Objective thinking E. Research skillsC. Responses to tension D (p. 50)


You have just graduated with a degree in public relations. You started seeking employment early, using contacts and sending resumes to organizations that interest you. As a result, you have several leads. You want to work for an organization that will allow you fast advancement and that will provide you with the greatest possible earnings in the shortest amount of time.

1. Which of these positions will most likely offer the career potential that you seek?

A. A writing internship at a large public relations firm in New YorkB. A public relations publicity position with a new, small, high-tech company in

Georgia that designs telecommunications systemsC. A public information officer position at your local junior collegeD. A marketing communication position with a Kansas City hospital

Answer guide: Option A is the best answer for several reasons. First, the pay in New York (A) would be higher and the opportunity to demonstrate and improve your writing skills in a large firm will be rewarded in subsequent positions. Salaries are relatively low in entry–level positions, but rapid advancement to higher pay is common. Option B is in the relatively low-paying South and in a scientific/technical company in which scientists are richly rewarded, but support staff relatively low paid. The not-for-profit positions (C and possibly D) typically pay less than Options A and B. Salaries in the Midwest (D) are below the national mean. (See pages 33–38 and 48–50.)

2. Which of the following personal characteristics will have the greatest influence (positively or negatively) on your earning potential over the course of your career?

A. You are female D. You have a 3.8 grade point averageB. You are an African American E. You minored in businessC. You have excellent writing skills

Answer guide: Option A is the best answer. Pages 33–34 and 44 report several studies show that “women earn less than men even when they have equal education, professional


experience, and tenure in their jobs” (p. 34). One scholar wrote of the “million–dollar penalty for being a woman” (p. 44). Page 45 reports that minority public relations practitioners (B) are increasingly in high demand as more and more organizations realize the need to communicate within a pluralistic society. Thus, the principle of supply and demand indicates that African Americans and other minorities will fare better than females as a category. Although pages 36 and 50 point out that writing ability (C) is important throughout one’s career, other skills–particularly research–are also important to advancement and the higher management salaries (pp. 33, 34, 43 and 50). Your grade point average (D) and a minor in business (E) should be real assets, but will not weigh as much as gender in determining earning potential over your entire career. Happily, this situation is improving (page 33, 34 and 44).


1. Discuss why public relations does or does not qualify as a “profession.”

Answer guide: Answers should be developed around the professional criteria on page 47.

1. Requires a specialized education to acquire a body of knowledge. Although a body of knowledge is developing, practitioners can enter the field without specialized study to acquire it.

2. Provides a unique and essential service. Both the unique and the essential nature of public relations service is questionable. Many think they can do it without training or experience. Even practitioners disagree on what public relations is.

3. Emphasized public service and social responsibility over private interest. Public relations’ commitment to social responsibility is questionable when frequently practitioners are involved in self–serving behavior.

4. Gives autonomy to practitioners. Since most practitioners function in staff positions, autonomy is rare.

5. Enforces codes of ethics and standards. Several professional organizations promote codes of ethics, but do not strictly enforce them. Codes of ethics and standards of performance are not universally adopted by practitioners and there are no real penalties for not adhering to codes.

2. Describe the education, skills, and other qualities necessary to succeed in public relations.

Answer guide: Answers should include at least a bachelor’s degree in public relations (p. 32) with classes in research and social science, and preferably courses or experience in a specialized field (pp. 32–33). Newspaper journalism experience is not required but provides understanding of media gatekeepers (p. 32). Skills include all those associated with the work assignments on page 35, with writing as the common denominator. Qualities include those listed by Rich Long: 1) Results—the ability to get results, 2) Conceptualizing—being a quick study, 3) Human Relations—being a team player, 4) Style—having a can–do attitude, and 5) Intangibles—having charisma (p. 48).

Out–of–Class Assignment


First, ask students to collect at least ten display or classified public relations job advertisements from Web sites (such as PRSA’s or O’Dwyer’s online job listing), Sunday newspapers, The Wall Street Journal, professional journals and newsletters (including O’Dwyer’s PR Services Report and PRWeek). (Note: You may skip this part of the assignment by collecting and duplicating the ads yourself. This may prevent destruction of library and reading room copies of journals and newsletters.)

Second, ask students to do content analysis of the ads using the ten work assignments on text page 35 as categories for coding elements of the advertised positions. Students should develop new categories for assignments not included in the text list. Simple frequencies should suffice for rank ordering the work assignments being advertised.

Third, ask students to identify the concept of public relations suggested by each of the advertisements, using the definitions in Chapter 1. The concepts should include references to text definitions of “public relations,” “marketing,” “internal relations,” “publicity,” “press agentry,” “public affairs,” “issues management,” “lobbying,” “investor relations,” and “development.”


Chapter 3

Organizational Settings



1. Discuss top management’s role in determining the status and role of public relations.

2. Distinguish between line and staff functions, and explain why public relations is a staff function in most organizations.

3. Compare the major advantages and disadvantages of internal departments versus outside counseling firms.

4. Describe working relationships between public relations and other departments in organizations.

5. Outline the four primary approaches public relations firms most frequently use to bill clients.


Top executives determine the status and role of public relations in organizations, as well as establish the major thrust of public relations by their words and actions.

If public relations is to become and remain part of the management team it must contribute to achieving organizational goals and demonstrate accountability through measurable results.

Public relations is part of staff management, serving as advisers and support staff to line managers. Line management has both the responsibility and the authority to set policy and to make decisions about operations and organizational behavior.

The “Excellence Study” identified the following factors as determinants of public relations effectiveness: 1) Empowerment of the function—the senior public relations executive is part of the dominant coalition and involved in strategic planning, 2) Communicator role—the public relations unit is headed by someone able to enact the manager role (rather than the technician role), 3) Organization of the function—an excellent public relations units integrates all subpart of the function into a single department, and 4) Model of public relations—the department reflects the two-way symmetrical, or mixed-motive, model of public relations.

Advantages of internal public relations departments are: 1) team membership, 2) knowledge of the organization, 3) economy for ongoing programs, and 4) availability.

Disadvantages of internal departments include: 1) loss of objectivity, 2) domination by and subservience to others in the organization, and 3) confused mission and roles.

Public relations departments must work closely with other departments, including marketing, legal, human resources, and organizational development.


Advantages of external counseling firms include: 1) variety of talents and skills, 2) objectivity, 3) range of prior experience, 4) geographical scope of operations, 5) ability to reinforce and upgrade internal staff efforts, 6) flexibility, and 7) reputation.

Disadvantages of external counsel include: 1) internal opposition, 2) questions about cost, 3) perceived threat to old guard and set ways, 4) resistance to outsider advice, 5) personality conflicts, 6) clients’ lack of understanding of public relations, and 7) unavailability of clients to outside counselors.

Common methods used by outside counseling firms for charging clients include: 1) monthly retainer, 2) minimum retainer plus actual staff time charges, 3) straight hourly charges, and 4) fixed project fee.


1. For public relations to remain part of the management team, it must do which one of the following?

A. Conduct research on other departments to gain an edge at budget meetingsB. Join line managementC. Become part of the marketing departmentD. Prepare communication auditsE. Contribute to organizational goals and show measurable results E (p. 55)

2. Which of the following is required of top management for long–term public relations success?

A. Commitment to and support of public relationsB. Incorporation of public relations perspectives in policy makingC. Coordination of what is done with what is saidD. Clearly defined goals and objectivesE. All of the above E (p. 57)

3. Which one of the following explains why the text refers to public relations as a staff function?

A. Staff functions include all of top managersB. Staff officers direct other officialsC. Staff officers include heads of engineering, production, and marketingD. Staff officers determine the ground rules and sets the courseE. Staff functions advise those who have the authority to set policy and oversee

operations E (p. 57)

4. Besides public relations roles, which one of the following is likely to have the greatest impact on whether or not public relations is part of the management team?

A. Top management and public relations staff view the function as “management”B. Staff training, particularly holding graduate degreesC. Extent to which the function is tied to the marketing “bottom line”D. Overpromising—making commitments beyond what is reasonableE. Overselling management on capabilities and expertise A (p. 60)

5. Which one of the following is a major determinant of whether or not public relations practitioners will be part of an organization’s decision–making coalition?


A. The practitioners’ individual characteristics—“the intangibles”B. The extent that the practitioner does research—“scanning for planning”C. The appointment of new CEO or restructuring—“organizational change”D. The views held by line managers and practitioners—“dominant coalition”E. All of the above E (pp. 59–61)

6. When public relations operates as part of organizational overhead and consists mainly of routine communication output and highly structured activities:

A. the focus is on “Management by Objectives.”B. the function deals primarily with “programmed decisions.”C. the emphasis is on “nonprogrammed decisions.” B (pp. 60 and 61)D. the practitioner plays the “problem–solving facilitator” role.E. the function has achieved “line management” status.

7. The “Excellence Study,” provided a guide for structuring and managing public relations. Which of the following was not included as a recommendation?

A. The senior public relations executive is a member of the “dominant coalition.”B. Both men and women have equal opportunity to occupy the managerial role.C. Public relations should be a separate management function.D. The department should reflect the two-way symmetrical model.E. All of the above. B (p. 62)

8. Which of the following best represents “team membership”?

A. Internal department advantage C. External firm advantageB. Internal department disadvantage D. External firm disadvantage A (p. 63)

9. Which of the following best represents economy for a continuing public relations effort?

A. Internal department advantage C. External firm advantageB. Internal department disadvantage D. External firm disadvantage A (p. 63)

10. Which of the following best represents loss of objectivity?

A. Internal department advantage C. External firm advantageB. Internal department disadvantage D. External firm disadvantage B (p. 66)

11. What is the most commonly used title for departments charged with carrying out the public relations function?

A. Public affairs D. Corporate communicationsB. Public information E. Community relationsC. Public relations C (p. 67)

12. Which organizational function is most likely to conflict with public relations over institutional advertising and product publicity?

A. Marketing C. Organizational developmentB. Legal counsel D. Human resources/personnel A (p. 67)

13. Which department is most likely to conflict with public relations over responding immediately to media requests for information during crises?

A. Marketing C. Organizational development


B. Legal counsel D. Human resources/personnelB (pp. 68 and 69)

14. Which department is most likely to conflict with public relations over employee communications and internal relations?

A. Marketing C. Organizational developmentB. Legal counsel D. Human resources D (pp. 70–71)

15. Outside the U.S., public relations firms are typically called which of the following?

A. Marketing communicators C. Publicity agenciesB. Public relations associates D. Organizational relations firmsC. Public relations consultancies C (p. 72)

16. Public relations firms are monitored most closely in which of the following?

A. China C. United StatesB. Asia D. RussiaC. Europe C (p. 72)

17. Which of the following arguments is the most persuasive argument against combining public relations and advertising firms?

A. Public relations firms lose their independence to compete for business.B. Clients lose the benefit of the counselor’s alternative view.C. More and more clients are switching to the “communication supermarkets.”D. Two different traditions and cultures make it difficult for them to form a team.E. All of the above D (p. 73)

18. What was the most compelling reason GTE Diversified Products hired an outside international public relations firm?

A. Company headquarters are located far from communications centers.B. The firm had an existing network of media contacts in company markets.C. The firm offers expertise the organization could not afford to hire full–time.D. Crucial policy matters require the independent judgment of an outsider.E. Company wanted to appear bigger than it really is. B (pp. 74 and 76)

19. After its initial proposal, an outside counseling firm often begins its work for a client organization by conducting which one of the following?

A. Interviews with employees D. Crisis management planB. Public relations audit E. Financial reviewC. Presentation B (p. 77)

20. Which one of the following is most likely to have a variety of talents and skills?

A. Internal department advantage C. External firm advantage C (p. 79)B. Internal department disadvantage D. External firm disadvantage

21. Which of the following is most likely to suffer from questions about costs as their most frequent problem?

A. Internal department advantage C. External firm advantage C (p. 79)B. Internal department disadvantage D. External firm disadvantage


22. Which one of the following is NOT commonly used by public relations firms to charge clients for services?

A. Percentage of sales achieved D. Retainer plus staff timeB. Straight hourly charges E. Project fixed feeC. Monthly retainer A (p. 80)

23. Which one of the following has recently become popular with clients (but not public relations firms) as the preferred method for paying outside firms for public relations services?

A. Percentage of sales achieved D. Retainer plus staff timeB. Straight hourly charges E. Project fixed feeC. Monthly retainer E (p. 80)

24. According to counselors, the most common threat to a client–firm relationship is which one of the following?

A. Clients’ questions about costs and hours billed A (p. 81)B. Resistance to outside advice by insidersC. Superficial grasp of organization’s unique problemsD. Outsider threat to old guard and set waysE. Personality conflicts


The administrator of a large private hospital has decided to expand the role and function of public relations. She wants the expanded function to handle regular press relations and publicity for hospital programs, to produce monthly newsletters for community and user groups, to manage the hospital’s web site, and to manage the annual “Healthfest” special event. She asks you to counsel her on the advantages and disadvantages of adding a practitioner to her staff, versus retaining one of the local public relations firms.

1. Of the activities that she wants done in the expanded function, which would you most likely recommend to be done by an outside firm?

A. Handling the regular press relationsB. Producing publicity for hospital programsC. Producing monthly newslettersD. Managing the hospital’s web siteE. Managing the annual “Healthfest”

Answer guide: Option E is the best answer because managing the annual “Healthfest” requires a specialized service that is not needed on a full–time, continuous basis (pages 63 and 74). Options A and B both relate to on-going publicity. They require staff attention throughout the year. Options C and D also requires graphic design and desktop publishing skills, which will be practiced more frequently than the special events management skills needed to implement the annual Healthfest.

2. In comparing costs on an hourly basis, how much more would you advise her that an outside firm might charge compared to internal staff costs?

A. No more, because staff salaries and overhead costs are roughly the sameB. 30 percent more


C. 80 percent moreD. 300 to 500 percent moreE. 1,000 percent more if the outside firm’s practitioner is accredited

Answer guide: Page 80 reports that typical salary markups for counseling firms are 3 to 6 times the actual hourly staff costs. This means 300 to 600 percent of what they would have to pay and overhead costs of an internal practitioner. Thus, Option A is definitely incorrect. Option B and C are much too low. Option E is too high, so Option D is correct.

3. If you owned a local public relations firm, which reason would you give her as the best reason for hiring an outside counsel versus establishing an internal staff?

A. Variety of talents and skills D. Geographical scope of operationsB. Objectivity E. FlexibilityC. Range of prior experience

Answer guide: Since your firm is in the same city as the hospital, Option D isn’t applicable. Options B, C, and E are all good reasons, but the best reason according to public relations counselors (p. 79) is variety of talents and skills, Option A.


1. Describe the specialized form of public relations frequently practiced in Washington, D.C.

Answer guide: Pages 73 and 74 describe the practice of many firms in Washington, D. C. Public relations firms in the nation’s capital specialize in lobbying, public affairs, legislative affairs, and other government relations. Clients hire these firms to help them negotiate the public policy process and to influence those who formulate and implement public policy. Services may include simply issuing press releases or creating a web site, to providing updates on legislation that may affect the clients interests. Practitioners who represent foreign clients must register with the U.S. Department of Justice.

2. Public relations staffs must work closely with other staff and line departments. Pick two departments whose interests can overlap with public relations and discuss why or how confusion or friction can occur.

Answer guide: Pages 68—71 discuss potential conflicts between the public relations function and marketing, legal, and human resources. “Management” is not an acceptable “department” because the term includes all line and staff functions.


Chapter 4

Historical Origins



1. Use examples to illustrate how the development of public relations occurred during attempts to mobilize public opinion in struggles for power and to promote change.

2. Name major historical leaders in public relations and describe their respective contributions to the development of public relations and to current practice.

3. Trace the evolution of public relations from its American beginnings to modern practice.

4. Cite the origins of some of today’s principles and techniques of contemporary public relations.


The history of public relations is meaningful when viewed in the context of power conflicts brought on by political, economic, and social change. The eras include: 1) the “public-be-damned” period of American enterprise after the Civil War, 2) the “public-be-informed” period in which big businesses hired journalists to “tell their story,” 3) the “mutual understanding” period following World War I’s lessons from the behavioral sciences were introduced to public relations practice, and 4) the “mutual adjustment” period that began with environmental activism, antiwar protests, the consumer movement, and civil and equal rights movements.

Many of today’s public relations practices were shaped during the Revolutionary War by Samuel Adams and his fellow revolutionaries in an attempt to mobilize public opinion to support revolt against England—strategic organization, symbols and slogans, staged events, getting your story to the public first, and the sustained campaign.

Modern public relations evolved over seven periods of development:

1. Seedbed Era (1900–1916) of muckraking journalism countered by defensive publicity, far–reaching political reform, and Ivy Lee’s “Declaration of Principles.”

2. World War I Period (1917–1918) of dramatic public communication efforts to promote patriotism, sell war bonds, enlist soldiers, and raise money for welfare.

3. Booming Twenties Era (1919–1929) in which the propaganda lessons from the war period were applied to promoting products, gaining public acceptance of technology, winning political contests, and raising money for charity.

4. Roosevelt Era and World War II (1930–1945), the Great Depression and the second world war, which led to many advances in public opinion polling, uses of advertising, and acceptance of social responsibility by business and industry.


5. Postwar Era (1946–1964) of adjustment as the war–oriented economy was replaced by a service–oriented economy, the growth of public relations education and professional associations, and the emergence of television.

6. Period of Protest and Empowerment (1965–1985) of student protests and activism against environmental pollution, racial and gender discrimination, concentration of power and wealth, the Vietnam War, governmental abuse of the public trust, and growing recognition of organizational social responsibility.

7. Digital Age and Globalization (1986–present) with accelerating changes in technology, multiplying channels of communication, the evolution from national economies to a world economy, and terrorism.

George Westinghouse established the first corporate public relations department in 1889 for his new electric corporation to help promote his alternating–current system for distributing electricity.

The Publicity Bureau, the nation’s first publicity agency and forerunner of modern public relations firms, was founded in mid–1900 by George V. S. Michaelis, Herbert Small, and Thomas O. Marvin “to do a general press agent business for as many clients as possible.”

Ivy Ledbetter Lee (b. 1877) was among the first to use news releases (called “handouts”) on a large scale and issued his “Declaration of Principles” in 1906, laying the groundwork for contemporary practice. Lee was one of the first to realize the fallacy of publicity that was not supported by performance and that performance determines the nature of publicity. He died in 1934.

Edward L. Bernays (b. 1891) gained fame and fortune, along with wife Doris E. Fleischman, by coining the term “public relations counsel”; by teaching the first public relations course (1923); by writing the first the first book about public relations (1923); and by counseling major corporations, governments, and U.S. presidents. He continued as a forceful advocate for professionalizing and licensing public relations well into the early 1990s. Life Magazine name Bernays as one of “The 100 Most Important Americans of the 20th Century.” He died March 9, 1995, at age 103.

Doris E. Fleischman (b. 1891) married Bernays in 1922, but retained her birth name until late in life. She was equal partner in practice, although she often had to work in the background and to struggle for professional equality because (as she wrote) “many men resented having women tell them what to do in their business.” Fleischman was an early feminist whose books and articles helped establish the feminist movement for equality. She died in 1980, 10 days short of her 89th birthday.

Arthur W. Page (b. 1883), AT&T’s public relations vice president, 1927–1947, and the first corporate vice president of public relations, espoused a social responsibility concept of public relations: “All business in a democratic country begins with public permission and exists by public approval.” He died in 1960, five days before his 77th birthday.

Rex F. Harlow (b. 1893) taught public relations at Stanford University and founded both the American Council on Public Relations (merged with National Association of Public Relations Council to form the Public Relations Society of America in 1948) and the Public Relations Journal, which was published by PRSA until 1995. He died in 1993 at age 100.



1. Which one of the following best accounts for the development of public relations?

A. The Catholic Church’s “propagating the faith”B. The United States efforts to support warsC. Power conflicts and the recurring crises of change C (pp. 86–90)D. The continuing struggle between employers and employeesE. A planned, sustained effort by the profession to promote education in the field

2. What organization in 1641 conducted the first fund–raising effort documented in the U.S., including the first of countless public relations pamphlets and brochures?

A. The New England ConfederationB. The British Colonial governmentC. Harvard College C (p. 86)D. The founders of New HavenE. Massachusetts’ Nathaniel Ward

3. Which of the following was been called by some historians as “the best job of public relations known to history,” because “ignorance was supplied with information and illustration”?

A. The Federalist letters A (p. 88)B. Attracting British to settle New EnglandC. The Boston Tea PartyD. Indian resettlementE. The Narragansett Campaign

4. Amos Kendall, an unsung pioneer of public relations, was a key member of which president’s “Kitchen Cabinet” during the late 1820s and early 1830s —working as pollster, counselor, ghostwriter, and publicist?

A. Abraham Lincoln D. Andrew JacksonB. Theodore Roosevelt E. Woodrow WilsonC. Herbert Hoover D (p. 88)

5. Which one of the following was the product of ghost writers and press agents during a political campaign to defeat President Andrew Jackson—“Old Hickory”—but whom Scott Cutlip reported to be a “boorish, backwoods boob” who spent his years as Tennessee Congressman “loafing and boasting at the Congressional bar”?

A. Phineas Taylor (“P.T.”) Barnum D. Nicholas BiddleB. Davy Crockett E. Richard F. (“Tody”) HamiltonC. Mathew St. Clair Clarke B (p. 89)

6. Beginning in 1897, the term “public relations” appeared with increasing frequency in literature and executives’ speeches in which industry?

A. Circus D. OilB. Banking E. AutomobileC. Railroads C (p. 91)

7. The first corporate public relations (“press agent”) department was established in 1889 in what company?


A. Westinghouse D. Standard OilB. Illinois Central Railroad E. Carnegie-Frick Steel CompanyC. Burlington Railroad A (p. 91)

8. In which of the following eras did muckraking journalism lead to widespread introduction of public relations in business?

A. Seedbed Era D. Postwar EraB. World War I E. Roosevelt EraC. Booming Twenties Era A (pp. 92, 93 and 94)

9. The Publicity Bureau opened for business in 1900 “to do a general press agent business for as many clients as possible for as good pay as the traffic would bear.” What organization was the Publicity Bureau’s first client?

A. Westinghouse D. Standard OilB. Illinois Central Railroad E. Harvard UniversityC. Burlington Railroad E (p. 95)

10. The forerunner of today’s public relations firms—The Publicity Bureau, founded in Boston in 1900—gained national prominence in 1906 when it was employed by which one of the following?

A. Ford Motor Company D. The nation’s railroadsB. Standard Oil Company E. President Theodore RooseveltC. The meat packers D (p. 95)

11. The first full–time public relations practitioners were drawn from the ranks of which one of the following?

A. Business D. The Publicity BureauB. Government E. RevolutionariesC. Journalism C (p. 96)

12. Which practitioner is credited as being the first to realize the fallacy of publicity unsupported by good deeds, was among the first to use the “handout” (press release) on a large scale, and had great impact on the practice by issuing his “Declaration of Principles” in 1906?

A. George Creel D. Carl ByoirB. Edward Bernays E. Ivy LeeC. John W. Hill E (p. 98)

13. Who changed the scope of his practice from publicity to counseling clients and said, “If you issue an untruth in a public statement, it is going to be challenged just as soon as it sees the light”?

A. George Creel D. Carl ByoirB. Edward Bernays E. Ivy LeeC. John W. Hill E (p. 98)

14. In the Seedbed Era, the Committee on Public Information demonstrated the power of publicity to mobilize public opinion. Who did President Wilson appoint to head the effort to gain public support for U.S. entry into World War I?

A. George Creel D. Carl Byoir


B. Edward Bernays E. Ivy LeeC. John W. Hill A (p. 100)

15. Which practitioner is credited with coining the term “public relations counsel” in the 1923 book, Crystallizing Public Opinion?

A. George Creel D. Carl ByoirB. Edward Bernays E. Ivy LeeC. John W. Hill B (p. 102)

16. What year was the first public relations course taught at New York University?

A. 1893 D. 1943B. 1923 E. 1953C. 1933 B (p. 103)

17. Who struggled for professional equality because of her gender, worked as a partner with her husband in their firm, was an early feminist who kept her maiden name after marriage, and had to stay in the background while her husband gave advice to business leaders?

A. Doris Fleischman D. Constantine ClarkeB. Alice Beeman E. Mary Swain RoutzahnC. Leone Baxter A (p. 103)

18. Who was the first corporate vice president of public relations, insisting that he have a voice in policy and that the company’s performance would be the determinant of its reputation?

A. Carl Byoir D. Arthur W. Page B. Edward D. Howard II E. Paul Garret C. John W. Hill D (p. 104)

19. Who was the first woman to head a national public relations association—the Council for the Advancement and Support of Education (CASE)?

A. Doris E. Fleischman D. Constantine ClarkeB. Alice L. Beeman E. Mary Swain RoutzahnC. Leone Baxter B (p. 105)

20. Who opened the first African American owned public relations firm (1934) in Philadelphia to provide counsel to the Pennsylvania Railroad, and was the first African American to serve as president of a PRSA chapter and to earn APR (accredited)?

A. Joseph Varney Baker D. Harold BursonB. Tim Traverse-Healy E. Edward D. Howard IIC. Daniel J. Edelman A (p. 106)

21. Which woman (with husband Clem Whitaker) formed the first public relations agency specializing in political campaigns—headquartered in San Francisco?

A. Doris E. Fleischman D. Constantine ClarkeB. Alice Beeman E. Mary Swain RoutzahnC. Leone Baxter C (p. 106)


22. Who served in the British Royal Marines during World War II, earned the reputation as the “Edward Bernays of Europe” during his long career, and remains a leader in writing standards of practice and codes of ethics for public relations practice in the European Union?

A. Joseph Varney Baker D. Harold BursonB. Tim Traverse-Healy E. Edward D. Howard IIC. Daniel J. Edelman B (p. 107)

23. Who opened the first public relations firm owned by an African-American woman (1961) that served national accounts, and was the first African-American woman to join the Public Relations Society of America?

A. Doris E. Fleischman D. Constantine ClarkeB. Alice L. Beeman E. Inez Y. KaiserC. Leone Baxter E (p. 108)

24. Which two authors helped pave the way for public relations to become an area of academic study and professional practice when they published the first edition of our text, Effective Public Relations in 1952?

A. Harold Burson and Ivy Lee D. Scott Cutlip and Allen CenterB. Arthur Page and Paul Garrett E. Jim Grunig and George CreelC. Leone Baxter and Clem Whitaker D (p. 109)

25. Which era brought the formation of public relations professional associations?

A. Seedbed Era D. Roosevelt EraB. World War I E. Postwar EraC. Booming Twenties Era E (pp. 110 and 111)

25. Public relations textbooks written in the _________ era reflect the change from the “journalist-in-residence, telling-our-story” model of public relations to the “adjustment and adaptation” approach.

A. Booming Twenties Era D. Protest and EmpowermentB. Roosevelt Era E. Digitalization and GlobalizationC. Postwar Era D (p. 113)


A coworker who has not studied the historical development of public relations assumes that contemporary practice is a recent phenomenon. You decide to share some of what you learned from the text history chapter to illustrate how some of today’s principles and practices originated in the first part of this century, or even centuries ago.

1. You start by pointing out that the first use of the term “propaganda” was in the seventeenth century by which one of the following?

A. The Catholic ChurchB. Political campaignersC. Early settlers in the ColoniesD. Explorers trying to promote trips to the New WorldE. Military units trying to cause low morale among enemy troops A (p. 86)


2. You then point out that historian Allan Nevins said that Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay engineered “history’s finest public relations job” to gain national acceptance of the U.S. Constitution. This organized effort to urge ratification of the Constitution included which one of the following?

A. Church bulletins posted throughout the coloniesB. Meetings with newspaper editorial boardsC. The Federalist letters written to newspapers C (p. 88)D. A combination of news releases and feature storiesE. Town criers preaching the virtues of the new Constitution

3. When the nation’s first publicity agency was founded in 1900, common practices included keeping clients’ names secret and paying newspapers to carry the information provided by the agency. Which early pioneer changed these practices with his “Declaration of Principles”?

A. Carl Byoir D. Rex HarlowB. Ivy Lee E. Arthur PageC. Edward Bernays B (p. 97)

4. Which one of the following accepted the position of corporate vice president of public relations on the conditions that he would have a voice in policy, that company performance would be the basis of its reputation, and that he would not serve as simply a publicity specialist?

A. Carl Byoir D. Rex HarlowB. Ivy Lee E. Arthur PageC. Edward Bernays E (p. 104)


1. Trace the history of public relations from 1900, outlining some of the major developments and major figures in the evolution of modern practice.

Answer guide: Answers should include at least the following points: The Seedbed Era (pp. 93–100)—the relationship of the muckraking journalists to businesses’ awareness of the need for intermediaries. World War I (pp. 100–102)—the creation of the Committee on Public Information and its development of propaganda campaigns and influence in training post-war practitioners. Booming Twenties Era (pp. 102–105)—professional associations began to organize. Also Bernays wrote the first book public relations book and taught the first university course on public relations (p.102). Roosevelt Era and World War II (pp. 105–107)—first strategic political campaign, introduction of public opinion polling, occasional and defensive efforts gave way to positive, proactive, planned, on–going programs. Postwar Era (pp. 107–111)—growth of professional associations, expansion of formal education in public relations with the publication of Effective Public Relations, and internationalization of the profession. Period of Protest and Empowerment (pp. 111–113)—introduced “environmentalism,” “consumerism,” “peace,” “racism,” and “sexism,” changing the practice to helping organizations adjust and adapt to a radically changed environment. Digital Age and Globalization (p. 113–114)—widespread adoption of computers and communication technology, rapid acceptance of the Internet in everyday life, and redistribution of power from mass media to individuals. (Seven periods summarized on pages 92–93.)


2. Briefly describe the contributions of the following people to public relations: Ivy Lee, Rex Harlow, George Creel, Edward Bernays, Arthur Page, John W. Hill, and Leone Baxter.

Answer guide: Ivy Lee (pp. 97–99) ushered in modern public relations with his “Declaration of Principles,” which committed to operate in the open and to provide newsworthy information to the press. Rex Harlow (p. 100) founded the organization that later merged with another to form the Public Relations Society of America and started the professional journal, Public Relations Journal. George Creel (pp. 100–101) chaired the Committee on Public Information in which he demonstrated the power of publicity to mobilize public opinion in support of U.S. participation in World War I. Edward Bernays (pp. 102–103) wrote the first public relations book, Crystallizing Public Opinion, in which he coined the term “public relations counsel.” Doris E. Fleischman (pp. 102–103), an early feminist who is recognized as a full partner with her husband Edward Bernays and as the originator of the public relations newsletter. John W. Hill (p. 103) established a public relations firm, Hill & Knowlton, which today is one of the three largest worldwide. Arthur Page (p. 104) was the first corporate vice president of public relations, serving in that role at AT&T from 1927 until 1947. Leone Baxter (p. 106), along with her husband Clem Whitaker, established the first agency to specialize in political campaigns in San Francisco.

Chapter 5

Ethics and Professionalism



1. Identify the five characteristics of professions.

2. Describe the major professional organizations serving the field.

3. Describe the program of study in public relations recommended by the Commission on Public Relations education.

4. Identify the major motivations behind concern for professional ethics in public relations practice.

5. List and briefly discuss the positives of socially responsible public relations, as well as the major negatives attributed to public relations when it is not practiced in the public interest.

6. Outline and apply some of the major articles from the Public Relations Society of America Code of Ethics.

7. Outline the major arguments for and against licensing and accreditation of practitioners.



Professions are characterized by: (1) specialized educational preparation to acquire unique knowledge and skills; (2) a body of theory-based knowledge, developed through research, that provides us with principles of appropriate public relations practice; (3) codes of ethics and standards of performance established and enforced by a self-governing association of colleagues; (4) autonomy in practice and acceptance of personal responsibility by practitioners: and (5) recognition by the community of a unique and essential service.

Professional associations in public relations are international, national, specialized, regional, and local. Major international professional associations include: (1) International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) and (2) International Public Relations Association (IPRA). Major national professional associations include: (1) Public Relations Society of America (PRSA), (2) Canadian Public Relations Society (CPRS), (3) Chartered Institute of Public Relations in the United Kingdom (CIPR), and the (4) Public Relations Institute of Australia (PRIA). An important organization for students is the Public Relations Student Society of America (PRSSA), affiliated with the PRSA.

The most recent Commission on Public Relations Education recommended that undergraduate public relations programs contain the following core content areas of study: (1) Theory, Origin, Principles, and Professional Practice of Public Relations; (2) Public Relations Ethics and Law; (3) Public Relations Research, Measurement, and Performance Evaluation; (4) Public Relations Planning and Management; and (5) Public Relations Writing and Production.

Several major motivations underlie the concern for professional ethics in public relations practice. One principle behind professional ethics is the imperative of trust, meaning that practitioners should protect those who entrust their well-being to the professional. Fiduciary relationships are those in which professionals hold you (and your possessions) in trust and are obliged to act in your best interest. In other words, your well–being is entrusted to the judgment and actions of the professional. Practitioners also must behave ethically to protect the profession itself and their own position of privilege; this is the motivation of protecting professional privilege. Finally, practitioners are motivated to be concerned about ethics due their sense of social responsibility because professions must also fulfill expectations and moral obligations at the level of society.

Socially responsible public relations has positive consequences for society by: (1) improving professional practice by establishing and enforcing codes of ethics and standards of performance; (2) improving the conduct of organizations by emphasizing the need for public approval; (3) articulating all points of view in the public forum; (4) replacing misinformation with information, and discord with rapport; and (5) helping social systems adapt to changing needs and environments.

Public relations practiced without regard to its social responsibility has negative consequences for society by: (1) gaining advantage for and promoting special interests at the cost of the public well-being; (2) cluttering the channels of communication with publicity, pseudo-events and phony phrases that confuse or mislead, rather than clarify; and (3) corroding our public information system with cynicism and “credibility gaps.”


Codes of ethics and standards of performance reflect a growing acceptance of professionalism and a sense of cohesiveness among public relations practitioners, with the PRSA Code of Ethics being the most widely cited and most frequently debated.

Occupational licensing represents state-granted permission to practice a specific occupation. Licensing public relations practice would require demonstrating a compelling state interest and safeguarding practitioners’ freedom of expression.

Accreditation programs administered by professional associations certify professional competence, usually based on written and oral examinations evaluated by a panel of peers. The Universal Accreditation Board, led by the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) and including many other professional groups, awards the “APR” (Accredited in Public Relations) to those who successfully pass the verbal and computer-based examination. The International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) awards the “ABC” (Accredited Business Communicator), signifying that the practitioner has moved from craft-level practice to communication management.


1. Textbooks in public relations support which one of the following indicators of professional status?

A. Specialized educational preparation A (p. 120)B. Codes of ethicsC. Acceptance of personal responsibility by practitionersD. Community recognition that public relations is a unique and essential serviceE. All of the above

2. Which organization provides leadership in unifying public relations practitioners worldwide under a common vision: “One profession, one voice”?

A. International Public Relations Association E (p. 122)B. International Association of Business CommunicatorsC. National Association of Government CommunicatorsD. Public Relations Society of AmericaE. Global Alliance for Public Relations and Communication Management

3. Which organization was formed in 1947 when three smaller professional groups merged, is headquartered in New York, and is the largest professional organization serving the field?

A. Chartered Institute of Public RelationsB. International Association of Business CommunicatorsC. National Association of Government CommunicatorsD. Public Relations Society of AmericaE. International Public Relations Association D (p. 123)

4. Suppose you take a class on how to conduct surveys. This class would fall into which of the following areas of study recommended by the Commission on Public Relations Education?

A. theory and principles D. research, measurement and evaluation B. ethics and law E. writing and productionC. planning and management D (p. 128)


5. Professions draw upon a specialized body of knowledge based primarily on which one of the following?

A. Firsthand experience shared at professional meetingsB. Conventional wisdom and on–the–job experienceC. Theory developed through research D. Case studies and descriptive researchE. Newspaper reports about the profession C (p. 129)

6. One of the foundational research projects in public relations was the study of Excellence in Public Relations and Communication Management, conducted in the 1980s and 1990s. This project was supported by a grant from which organization?

A. Plank Center for Leadership in Public Relations B. IABC Research FoundationC. Foundation for Public Relations Research and EducationD. Institute for Public RelationsE. International Public Relations Association B (pp. 129-130)

7. The body of knowledge is documented in both scholarly and trade publications. Which of the following publications is targeted primarily to practitioners, with articles about their day-to-day problems and techniques to overcome them?

A. Public Relations Tactics D. Public Relations ReviewB. Public Relations Strategist E. PR WeekC. Journal of Public Relations Research A (p. 130)

8. Many public relations leaders have argued that public relations should act as the ______________ of their organization.

A. technology leader D. categorical imperativeB. overall marketing coordinator E. universal communicatorC. ethical conscience C (p. 124)

9. Although all of the following apply, which one is the primary purpose for establishing professional codes of ethics and standards of performance?

A. Protect the clients D. Support professional privilegesB. Maintain the public trust E. Enable a field to become a professionC. Protect the professional franchise A (p. 131)

10. The “fiduciary relationship” differentiates professionals from other skilled practitioners. Which one of the following best represents the nature of a fiduciary relationship?

A. Society extends certain privileges to professionals because of the value and trust they also receive from society.B. Clients actually pay the practitioner directly, with no middle person involved.C. Professionals hold you and your possessions in trust, and are obliged to act in your best interest. C (p. 132)D. Professionals should fulfill expectations and moral obligations that are expected of them by society.E. A professional’s actions should create the greatest good for the client and the community as a whole, rather than enhance the position of the practitioner.


11. If public relations is an emerging profession, society should benefit in several important ways. Which one of the following is NOT considered a benefit?

A. Public relations practitioners strive to develop recommendations concerning communication strategy in the marketing plan and help management relate decisions to corporate goals.B. By emphasizing the need for public approval, practitioners improve the conduct of the organizations they serve.C. Practitioners serve the public interest by making all points of view articulate in the public forum.D. Practitioners serve our segmented, scattered society by using their talents of communication and mediation to replace misinformation with information, discord with rapport.E. Ethical public relations practice contributes to clarification of public issues, not to distortion or obfuscation. A (p. 133)

12. Codes of ethics for public relations practitioners have little impact unless they are accepted and applied by their employers. Which two of the following practices is NOT used by public relations firms to encourage ethical practice among their employees?

A. Holding regular training sessions on ethical issues D and E (pp. 134, 136)B. Making sure that employees know they will be supported by the firm when they make difficult ethical choicesC. Requiring new employees to sign an agreement that obligates them to practice according to the PRSA Code of EthicsD. Requiring all new employees to have taken at least three of the five courses prescribed by the Commission on Public Relations Education E. Requiring all new employees to be accredited in public relations (APR)

13. Which of the following professional values from the PRSA Code of Ethics requires practitioners to “adhere to the highest standards of accuracy and truth . . . in communicating with the public”?

A. Advocacy D. LoyaltyB. Honesty E. FairnessC. Independence B (p. 135)

14. Which of the following core principles from the PRSA Code of Ethics requires practitioners to “be honest and accurate in all communications”?

A. Free flow of information D. Safeguard confidencesB. Competition E. Enhancing the professionC. Disclosure of information C (p. 135)

15. Edward L. Bernays for decades pointed to the absence of which one of the following as a major factor keeping public relations from being recognized as a profession?

A. Specialized education D. Community recognition of functionB. Licensing E. Codes of ethics and grievance boardsC. Continuing education units B (p. 138)


16. According to the late Edward L. Bernays and other advocates, licensing is necessary to preserve the well–being of society by doing which one of the following?

A. Regulate the access to top posts in the field to the most senior practitionersB. Exclude those who are not members of professional associationsC. Create an elite of public relations practitionersD. Achieve better wages for licensed practitionersE. Excluding those not properly qualified E (p. 138)

17. Opponents of licensing for public relations practitioners raise what Constitutional issue(s) as the major obstacle(s) to state licensing in the United States?

A. Compelling state interest and freedom of expression A (p. 138)B. Freedom of individual choice protected by the ConstitutionC. Differences in “public relations” practiced in one state compared to in anotherD. Imposition of educational requirements and testing is unconstitutionalE. Tenth Amendment forbids regulation of occupations and admission to practice

18. The argument that licensing would “professionalize the practice” has no legal basis because:

A. Controversy is not sufficient cause to regulate a practice B (p. 138)B. Licensing cannot be imposed simply for the benefit of an occupational groupC. There simply is no valid and reliable way to test those entering the practiceD. It is not constitutional to impose educational requirements and testingE. The Tenth Amendment forbids regulation of occupations and admission to practice

19. Although public relations is an unlicensed field, practitioners may obtain a form of professional status and credentialing by which of the following?

A. A strongly enforced accreditation programB. Obtaining a master’s degree from an accredited universityC. Establishing their own personal code of ethicsD. Participating in continuing education programsE. Joining the Public Relations Society of America A (p. 139)

20. Practitioners who successfully complete the Universal Accreditation Board’s portfolio presentation, panel interview, and computer-based examination are allowed to use which of the following after their names?

A. Licensed in Public Relations D. Certified in Public RelationsB. Accredited in Public Relations E. Board Certified in Public RelationsC. Accredited Business Communicator B (p. 139)

Mini-Case Study Scenario Questions

As president and CEO of a local public relations firm, Student PR, you are asked to approve a new business solicitation letter to local Chamber of Commerce members. It reads in part as follows: “Student PR offers the only top–quality professional public relations services available in this city. When you compare Student PR with work done by Cuttlefish, Inc., and MediaHits-R-Us (your two major competitors), only Student PR


can guarantee to raise the bottom line for your business.” You also use a bit of “puffery” by saying that your firm also serves “national clients,” even though you have done only local work for the local franchise of a national rental car agency.

1. Knowing the IABC Code of Ethics, what is your decision regarding the ethics of promising “to raise the bottom line”?

A. It is unethical because the code prohibits guarantees of quality or service.B. It is unethical because the code prohibits guarantees of specific results, which

are beyond the practitioner’s direct control.C. Both A and B are correct.D. It is ethical because professional public relations can affect the bottom line of

companies.E. It is ethical because you would not take on a client without knowing that you

can raise its bottom line.

Answer guide: The code does not prohibit guarantees of quality or service (Option A), but Article 11 (page 121) says, “Professional communicators do not guarantee results that are beyond the power of the practitioner to deliver.” Because option A is inaccurate so then is Option C. Because raising the bottom line is not in the member’s direct control, Options D and E are wrong, and Option B is correct—the behavior is unethical.

2. What is your decision about trying to impress prospective clients by claiming that your firm has “several national clients”?

A. It is ethical because a little puffery is fair in a competitive market.B. It is ethical because you did have one national client and you have a couple of

others that look “promising” because they have expressed interest.C. It is unethical because you cannot disseminate inaccurate information.D. It is unethical because you cannot disclose your firm’s client list.E. It is not an issue, because you are not the one who will sign the letter.

Answer guide: Options A and B are flat-out wrong. As a professional communicator, the IABC code requires that you adhere to the highest standards of accuracy and truth (Articles 1, 2 and 12). Honesty is an imperative. Period. Thus, option C is the correct answer. Option D has nothing to do with the situation, because you did not disclose anything confidential gained as a result of your professional work (Article 9). As for option E, you are responsible not only as the CEO, but as a member of the profession (Article 1). (See Code on page 121.)


1. A local public relations organization has sent the following proposition to state legislators asking that a bill be passed to regulate public relations practice through state licensing: “Resolved, that no person shall be permitted to practice public relations for financial gain in the State of _________ unless legally licensed and awarded the title ‘Certified Public Relations Counselor.’“ Your representative in the state legislature asks you to review the proposition and provide guidance. What advice would you give concerning the legal status of the proposition?

Answer guide: This proposition fails to consider freedom of expression. In Adams v. Tanner and Baker v. Daly judges ruled that “even abusive communication merits


protection under the First Amendment” (page 138). Licensing would indeed professionalize the practice. However, the courts have found that just because licensing might be beneficial, that is not a powerful argument. Licensing cannot be imposed simply for the benefit of those in an occupational group—either to raise standards of practice or to limit competition. Thus, professionalizing the practice is not a sufficient cause to regulate information (page 138).

2. Discus the relationship between professional privilege and social responsibility.

Answer guide: Professional privilege is provided because professionals do work seen as especially valuable to society. This work requires public trust and confidence and involves valuable knowledge and essential skills applied for the public good. Professional privilege rests upon an implicit agreement among the profession, the public, and the state, obligating professionals to fulfill that contract and to uphold moral obligations for the welfare of society. Thus, professionals have a social responsibility to improve institutions administering professional services, to be concerned with the consequences of their services, and to be judged based on their impact on society. Professional privilege is then a result of honoring that social responsibility. (See pages 131-133.)

Chapter 6

Legal Considerations



1. Summarize the basic structure of law in the United States and its relevance to the practice of public relations.

2. Outline the major principles of the First Amendment pertaining to freedom of speech and press.

3. Describe permissible federal regulation of First Amendment-protected expression in election communication, lobbying, communication between labor and management, and financial public relations/investor relations.

4. Outline constitutional protection and permissible federal regulation of copyright and trademark law.

5. Define and explain the major provisions of libel law and privacy law relevant to public relations work.


In the U.S., both the executive and legislative branches make law, whereas the judicial branch interprets law. Law is hierarchical, meaning that “the law” at a higher classification will supersede what is classified lower in the hierarchy. The U.S.


Constitution, the basis of all law in the U.S., outlines a minimum set of rights to which states may add for its residents.

Freedom of expression in the United States is protected from government control by the First Amendment to the Constitution. In addition to protecting those who “propagate the faith”—freedom of religion—the First Amendment protects speech rights, press rights, assembly rights, and petition rights.

Public relations practitioners and journalists have a symbiotic relationship, in which each needs the other. In the early 1990s, the Supreme Court ruled that journalists must keep promises made to their sources of information; these sources often are public relations practitioners. Public relations practitioners need to know that First Amendment protection of press freedom means that no citizen has a guaranteed right to require the print media to publish specific information.

In contrast, the Communications Act of 1934 gave the Federal Communications Commission the power to make and enforce programming policies for broadcasting outlets, on grounds that the U.S. airwaves are owned by the public and are a scarce resource that needs to be protected. Cable television operators have more First Amendment rights than do broadcasters, though cable still falls far short of the constitutional freedom of expression rights granted the print media.

The 1997 Supreme Court decision Reno v.American Civil Liberties Union made it clear that speech on the Internet was fully protected by the First Amendment.12 The decision overturned the Communications Decency Act (CDA) of 1996, in which Congress tried to regulate indecency on the Internet by forbidding the operation of certain Web sites. The Children’s Internet Protection Act (CIPA) of 2000 requires public schools and libraries that receive some federal money for Internet use to install “technology prevention measures,” meaning filters, on computers used by those 17 or younger to block material that is obscene, or is child pornography, or is “harmful to minors.” The Supreme Court upheld this legislation regulating Internet speech as constitutional.

Access to government-controlled information is important because the legal presumption in a democracy is that the information belongs to the people, not the government. The federal Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) of 1966 was a bipartisan effort in the U.S. Congress to promote full disclosure. The act applies only to documents, but the 1996 Electronic Freedom of Information Act added access to digital information.

First Amendment protection is considered to be an individual right in our democracy, but the courts have extended some First Amendment rights to corporations, which is important for public relations practitioners who “speak” on behalf those organizations.

Corporations regularly engage in First Amendment protected “commercial speech,” but such speech is more closely regulated than is “political speech.” For example, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that an advertisement expressing a view on a proposed tax referendum “is the type of speech indispensable to decision making in a democracy, and this is no less true because the speech comes from a corporation rather than an individual.”

First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti extended political speech rights to organizations; however, the Court did not say that corporate political speech rights were


equal to individual rights. Four areas of corporate political speech more closely regulated include political candidate elections, lobbying, labor relations, and securities trading.

The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA)—commonly referred to as “McCain-Feingold”—regulates political election contributions. Specifically, the Act: 1) prohibits corporations and labor unions from contributing to or making expenditures on behalf of the national political party committees or political action committees (PACs) established by federal candidates or other s working on their behalf; 2) limits individual contributions to no more than $2,000 per election for any one candidate, $5,000 per year to any one federal PAC, and $25,000 per year to a national political party committee; and 3) limits and monitors “electioneering communication” (commercials that indirectly support or oppose a candidate).

Lobbyists are required to disclose their activities under Title III, the Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act of 1946. This applies to people and organizations whose purpose is to influence legislation through “direct communication with members of Congress on pending or proposed federal legislation.” To more effectively regulate lobbying and protect public confidence in government, Congress enacted the Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995, with updated definitions, disclosure requirements, and restrictions.

The Foreign Agents Registration Act of 1938 requires all persons working as agents of foreign governments, companies, or political parties to register with the U.S. Attorney General and report every six months the names of the foreign interests, the activities they carry out, and where they get and spend their money. The Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995 also applies to the Foreign Agents Registration Act.

The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (Wagner Act) and the Labor Management Relations Act of 1947 (referred to as the Taft–Hartley Act) prohibit management from interfering with labor’s right to organize and to bargain collectively after a union is organized. Management cannot threaten to fire or punish employees because of union activities, make promises to influence votes, spy on union meetings, or call employees separately to discuss the union or to urge a vote against the union. According to the Supreme Court ruling, management is free to express its positions and opinions as long as the expression contains “no threat of reprisal or force or promise of benefit.”

The Securities Act of 1933 and the Securities and Exchange Act of 1934 mandate disclosure of material information by corporations in which members of the public own shares. Publicly held companies must continuously provide information about the health of the company if the information is likely to have a significant effect on securities prices or the information is likely to be considered important by investors.

Copyright law provides that the copyright owner “shall have exclusive right” to reproduce, distribute, and use original works of expression fixed in a tangible medium. It also preserves the public interest by making sure that in the future the work will pass into the “public domain,” when it can be used without restriction. Ideas, methods of operation, concepts, or utilitarian objects cannot be copyrighted. A combination of new federal legislation (Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002) and Securities and Exchange Commission and New York Stock Exchange rules implemented since November 2003 increase corporate transparency and timeliness, hold top management accountable for financial reports, and make sure insiders cannot exercise unfair advantage in either their compensation or stock trading.


Legal protection for “intellectual property,” so called because it refers to rights in intangible products of the mind or intellect, is found in the U.S. Constitution. The eight categories of works that can be copyrighted are literary works (includes databases, computer programs); musical works; dramatic works, pantomimes and choreographic works; pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works; motion pictures and other audiovisual works; sound recordings; and architectural works created after 1990.

The Lanham Trademark Act of 1946 and its amendments protect trademarks—words, names, and symbols used by companies to identify and distinguish their goods and services from those of others. Trade names identify the commercial name of the producers of goods. Service marks identify the source of services.

In civil law, a tort is anything considered legally wrong that one party does to harm another. Defamation occurs as libel when written statements diminish the respect, goodwill, confidence, or esteem, or otherwise produce adverse feelings about a person or institution. Slander takes the form of defamation that is spoken. The plaintiff’s burden of proof in a libel lawsuit include defamation, publication, identification, retraction, and fault.

The 1964 landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision, New York Times v. Sullivan, balances First Amendment right to free speech with right of individuals to not be libeled. Gertz v. Welch further identified three categories of legal persons for the purposes of libel: public officials, public figures, and private figures. Standards of proof for libel differ depending on the legal status of the plaintiff, with public officials needing to show “actual malice,” whereas private figures need only show “negligence.”

Privacy tort law involves invasion of personal privacy—the protection of an individual’s “right to be left alone.” Privacy law involves four different torts: 1) intrusion upon one’s seclusion or solitude, 2) public disclosure of embarrassing private facts, 3) publicity that places one in a false light in the public eye, and 4) appropriation of one’s name or likeness for another’s advantage. Public relations practitioners typically get formal consent for anything that is not obviously newsworthy, and especially for disclosing very private facts.

Other legal issues for public relations practitioners include litigation public relations, professional liability, and contract law.


1. Which of the following branches of government make laws in the United States?

A. Executive Branch Alone D. Executive and Legislative BranchesB. Legislative Branch Alone E. Executive and Judicial BranchesC. Judicial and Legislative Branches D (p. 145)

2. Administrative law include rules and decisions written by government agencies established by statute to write and enforce rules in regulated areas and activities—such as mass communication, public trading of stocks, and labor relations. Which of the following supersedes (overrules) administrative law?

A. Common law D. Statutory lawB. Executive actions E. None of the aboveC. Law of equity D (p. 146)


3. If a state legislature passes and the governor signs a law that grants public relations the status of a profession that requires a state license in order to practice, which of the following would take precedence and lead to the law being reversed?

A. Common law D. Statutory lawB. Executive actions E. U.S. ConstitutionC. Law of equity E (pp. 146-147)

4. Freedom of expression is protected from government control in the United States by which one of the following?

A. Third Amendment D. McCain-Feingold ActB. Taft–Hartley Act E. None of the aboveC. First Amendment C (pp. 146-147)

5. Which of the following rights is NOT protected explicitly by the First Amendment?

A. Freedom of speech D. Freedom of religionB. Freedom of the press E. Freedom of publicityC. Freedom of assembly E (pp. 146-147)

6. Which one of the following rights is protected by the First Amendment?

A. Print media have the right to choose what to publish and what not to publish.B. Advertisers have the right to insist that newspapers publish their paid

advertisement.C. The FCC has the right to make and enforce programming policies for broadcast

media.D. Public relations practitioners have the right to insist that newspapers publish

their press releases.E. Children have the right to view whatever Internet content they wish, as long as

they are using school computers. A (pp. 148-149)

7. The Freedom of Information Act of 1966 is designed primarily to do which one of the following?

A. To promote full disclosure from the executive branch of governmentB. To give media access to all meetings and proceedings in governmentC. To make such law consistent across the 50 statesD. To make both documents and computer files available to the publicE. All of the above A (p. 150)

8. The Freedom of Information Act of 1966 allows government employees to withhold—under special conditions—whole or parts of documents if the information deals with which of the following?

A. Oil and gas wells D. Confidential business informationB. National security E. All of the aboveC. Personnel information E (p. 150)

9. In deciding the precedent-setting corporate political speech case, First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti, the Supreme Court ruled which one of the following?

A. Corporations are too powerful to be allowed to participate in politicsB. That the voice of corporations has been overwhelming politicsC. The First Amendment applies to individuals, not corporations


D. That “political speech” is protected, regardless of who is speakingE. Corporations undermine citizens’ confidence in government D (p. 150)

10. The Campaign Reform Act of 2002 prohibits which of the following?

A. Corporations contributing funds to referendum campaignsB. Individuals contributing to federal Political Action Committees (PACs)C. Giving more than $1,000 for commercials that endorse candidatesD. Solicitations for soft money accounts by members of CongressE. Contributions to local political organizations by labor unionsD (pp. 151-152)

11. Which of the following is “lobbying” and therefore covered by the Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act of 1946 and more clearly defined in the Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995?

A. Conducting a public relations campaign to convince citizens to support a bill pending in the Congress

B. Testifying before a committee of Congress about your expertise on the effect of the legislation

C. Writing an editorial in your company newsletter about the legislationD. Contacting a former colleague who works in the president’s press corps to set

up an interview with someone in the White House about the billE. Hiring a staff member to conduct a direct mail campaign to representatives and

senators providing basic information about the bill E (pp. 151-153)

12. When Congress passed a law in 1938 to deal with “the spread of pernicious propaganda” and to put “the spotlight of pitiless publicity” on “the sources of such efforts,” they were concerned about which one of the following?

A. Religious conservatives D. Foreign agentsB. Communists organizing labor E. Radical suffragettesC. Unscrupulous stock brokers D (pp. 153-154)

13. In corporate communications with its employees regarding the possibility of workers bringing in a union, the Taft–Hartley Act prohibits which of the following?

A. Telling employees that union dues will be highB. Describing current working conditions without unions as idealC. Arguing that the proposed union has a long history of strikesD. Promising early vacations to workers not affiliated with the unionE. All of the above D (p. 154)

14. The Securities Act of 1933 and subsequent acts regarding public trading of company stock require that public relations practitioners report information if it does which one of the following?

A. Relates to material financial information about the companyB. Is likely to affect securities prices C. Is likely to be considered important by a reasonable investor in making

investment decisions.D. All of the aboveE. Only A and B D (pp. 154-156)


15. Public relations practitioners who work in investor relations or financial relations typically and legally are not involved in which of the following activities?

A. Preparing the annual reportB. Reporting to other managers nonpublic information in order to help them buy

or sell stockC. Issuing proxy materials telling shareholders what business will be conducted at

the annual meeting.D. Releasing announcements about changes in company officers to national

business and financial mediaE. Giving specific directions to investors about how to cast their votes if they

cannot attend the annual meeting B (pp. 155-156)

16. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, along with related legislation, resulted in which of the following important changes in financial public relations?

A. Held top management personally accountable for a company’s financial reportsB. Helped public relations practitioners gain inside information on companies,

which would help them decide whether to buy or sell those companies’ stocksC. Made it more difficult for public relations practitioners to disclose company

financial information in a timely wayD. Established oversight boards to ensure uniform legal behavior by companies’

outside auditorsE. Both A and D are correct E (pp. 156-157)

17. Copyright protection CANNOT be extended to which of the following:

A. The design of the table lamp on your nightstand A (p. 157)B. The musical score to a hit Broadway playC. Editorials in national newspapersD. Photographs transmitted by the Associated Press to clients on its worldwide

circuitE. The textbook we use for this class, Effective Public Relations.

18. Which of the following requirements must be met for a libel lawsuit to be actionable?

A. Defamation D. FaultB. Identification E. All of the aboveC. Publication D (pp. 160-161)

19. What was the significance of the 1964 landmark Supreme Court case, New York Times v Sullivan?

A. Balanced First Amendment right to free speech with libel lawsB. Defined three categories of legal persons for the purposes of libelC. Extended First Amendment protection of political speech to corporationsD. Extended First Amendment protection of commercial speech to corporationsE. Protected children from television content that is “harmful to minors”

A (p. 161)

20. Which one of the following appropriately connects the plaintiff’s burden of proof with his or her legal status as a person?


A. Both public officials and private figures need to show negligenceB. Public officials need to show actual malice, whereas private figures need to

show negligenceC. Both public officials and private figures need to show actual maliceD. Public officials need to show negligence, whereas private figures need to show

actual maliceE. Both negligence and actual malice must be shown, regardless of the plaintiff’s

legal status as a person B (pp. 161-162)

21. In countering a libel lawsuit, which one of the following legal defenses basically means that time has run out?

A. Summary judgment D. PrivilegeB. Truth E. OpinionC. Statute of limitations C (p. 162)

22. The concept of privacy as it relates to public relations practice includes which of the following:

A. Public disclosure of “embarrassing” facts about a plaintiffB. Publicity that puts the plaintiff in a “false light” in the eyes of the publicC. “Appropriation” of the plaintiff’s name or likenessD. Only A and BE. A, B, and C E (pp. 162-163)


When your company’s annual report was delivered to you today (a Friday), you noticed that a crucial “not” was omitted from an important statement. The missing word reverses the intended meaning of a summary statement about company finances. You have only until Monday to meet the SEC’s deadline for mailing the reports. You check your original text submitted to the printer and find that the mistake is not in the original. It is now 4:00 p.m.

1. Which statement below best describes your responsibility?

A. Since you provided correct information to the printer, you are not responsible.B. You have a legal, but not an ethical responsibility.C. You have an ethical, but not a legal responsibility.D. You have both an ethical and a legal responsibility to correct the mistake before

distribution.E. You have neither an ethical nor legal responsibility to correct the mistake, but

would in order to defer negative consequences from your superiors.

Answer guide: You have both an ethical and a legal responsibility to correct the mistake before distribution of the annual report (Option D). The Securities Exchange Act requires that investors have accurate information during the trading of securities (page 155) and forbids release of inaccurate information that could affect stock sales (page 155). Likewise, PRSA’s code of ethics requires that you are “honest and accurate in all communications” (Chapter 5, Exh. 5.7, p. 135) and the IABC code of ethics requires “professional communicators disseminate accurate information and promptly correct any erroneous communication” (Chapter 5, Exh. 5.1, p. 121). Thus, Option E is wrong and


Options B and C are only partially accurate. The fact that you provided correct information to the printer (Option A) is not relevant. Your responsibility is for the information that reaches stockholders.

2. What would you do?

A. Mail the annual reports as they are, figuring few would notice the error.B. Make the printer reprint them free to correct the error even though it will delay

your mailing by two weeks.C. Have the printer print an insert free and spend the weekend inserting them in

order to make your Monday deadline.D. Pay the printer to print an insert and pay your staff overtime over the weekend

to insert them in order to make your Monday deadline.E. Forget the whole thing and trash the annual reports.

Answer guide: Option A would represent fraud (p. 155) and would leave you and your company open to lawsuits until corrective information is provided to stockholders. Because you have a legal obligation to provide this information to stockholders, you cannot just forget the whole thing (Option E). You should not pay the printer to correct his mistake (Option D) and you cannot delay the mailing for two weeks (Option B). Therefore, Option C is the only feasible option, but you must make sure that the insert is attached to every annual report. If you don’t attach the inserts, some could fall out or be left in the envelope, leaving you and your company liable for fraud. If investors made decisions based on the erroneous information because of missing inserts, again you and your company are liable. Furthermore, with the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, you and other members of your company’s top management would be held personally accountable for this error. (pp. 156-157).


1. Discuss rights and limitations related to corporate political expression and corporate involvement in elections.

Answer guide: Answers should include corporate involvement in candidate elections and issue referendums, contributions to candidates, and controls that are put on corporations in order to protect the public from corporations dominating or inhibiting political expression of individuals. (See pp. 150-151). The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 prohibited or limited “soft money” contributions to political parties for “party building” purposes, increases contribution limits on individuals and organizations, and limited “electioneering communications”—commercials that covertly support or oppose a candidate without saying so directly). (See Exhibit 6.2, p. 152.)

2. The network news reports that a major food chain, Food Bear, consistently restocked tainted meat after bleaching it or disguising the flavor with seasonings. The accusations are untrue. You are director of public relations for Food Bear. The CEO calls a special meeting to deal with the crisis created by this newscast. He wants to sue the network for defamation. What should you advise him, concerning whether or not libel has occurred?

Answer guide: At a minimum, the five conditions on pages 161-162 should be included in answers. Because the network broadcast the allegations, the condition of publication


has been met. Because both people and institutions can be defamed, the condition of defamation is met. Because Food Bear was identified by name, the condition of identification has been met. The last condition—“fault”—is met because the network demonstrated “negligence: an error or defect of judgment…or neglect of care or performance.” In the final analysis, however, the degree of fault will be up to the jury.

Chapter 7

Theoretical Underpinnings: Adjustment and Adaptation



1. Define a system and explain how systems theory is useful for explaining how concepts of adjustment and adaptation apply to public relations.

2. Explain the differences between open and closed systems, using notions of reactive and proactive public relations.

3. Define systems theory concepts – homeostasis, static and dynamic states, morphogenesis, negative and positive feedback, and cybernetics.

4. Diagram, label, and explain the open systems model of public relations.


The concept of ecology applied to public relations suggests that organizations and others in their environments are interdependent, and that public relations’ essential role is to help organizations adjust and adapt to change in their environments.

To survive in today’s turbulent environment, organizations must (1) accept the public responsibility imposed by an increasingly interdependent society, (2) communicate, despite multiplying barriers, with publics that are often distant and diverse, and (3) achieve integration into the communities that they were created to serve. In short, the job of public relations is to help organizations adjust and adapt to their environments.

Public relations practitioners must anticipate and monitor changes in an organization’s environment in order to be proactive—anticipate and plan for—rather than simply react to change—reactive.

A system is a set of interacting units that endures through time within an established boundary by responding and adjusting to change pressures from the environment to achieve and maintain goal states.

Systems theorists typically define “the environment” as anything that generates change pressures—information, energy, and matter inputs—on a system.

Public relations management is charged with keeping organizational relationships in tune with the mutual interests and goals of organizations and their publics. Public relations is


part of the adaptive subsystem, not the production, supportive-disposal, maintenance, and managerial subsystems.

Organizations, as living systems, engage in exchanges with their environments, producing changes in both the systems and their environments. Organizations vary in their sensitivity to their environments, just as do their public relations functions.

Closed systems have impermeable boundaries, so they cannot exchange matter, energy, or information with their environments. Open systems, on the other hand, exchange inputs and outputs through boundaries that are permeable. Social systems cannot be completely closed or totally open, so they are either relatively open or relatively closed.

Homeostasis refers to the goal states of systems, an equilibrium that is subject to change as a result of systems inputs. The more changeable homeostatic states of relatively open systems are dynamic states, as compared to the less changeable static states of relatively closed systems.

Morphogenesis refers to changes in the structure and process in relatively open systems. Positive feedback causes the system to amplify or maintain the change pressures, leading to even greater systems change—morphogenesis. Negative feedback leads to system adjustments designed to reduce or counteract environmental change pressures.

Cybernetics is the study of input–output self–regulation process in systems.

Reactive public relations employs relatively closed systems approaches to program planning and management. Proactive public relations, in contrast, gathers information, makes adjustments, and generates internal and external output to prevent or avoid problems.

Closed systems public relations is based on the assumptions: (1) that the purpose of public relations is limited to effecting changes in the environment, and (2) that organizations have the power to change their environments. The goal is to maintain the status quo. In relatively closed systems, the public relations function tends to be one-way, craft, functionary, technician-oriented; little or no research is done for public relations programs.

In contrast, open systems public relations builds and maintains relationships on the basis of reciprocal output–feedback–adjustment, with change occurring both within the organization and in the environment. In relatively open systems, the public relations function tends to be two-way, symmetrical, professional, functional, managerial, and research-based.

The open systems model of public relations calls for research skills to monitor publics and other environmental forces, as well as forces within the organization. Working in this model, practitioners become managers of change.


1. What is the term introduced to represent the concept of interdependence of organizations and publics in their environments?

A. Ecology D. ProactiveB. Integration E. ReactiveC. Open system A (p. 167)


2. What is the appropriate term from systems theory for a set of interdependent parts?

A. System D. EnvironmentB. Adaptive subsystem E. HomeostasisC. Structure A (p. 170)

3. What is the appropriate term from systems theory for anything that generates change pressures?

A. System D. EnvironmentB. Adaptive subsystem E. HomeostasisC. Structure D (p. 171)

4. A component in one system, can be a/an ______ in another suprasystem?

A. Closed boundary D. CyberneticB. Environment E. HomeostasisC. Subsystem C (pp. 172-173)

5. What is the appropriate term from systems theory for the part that directs and controls other parts of the system?

A. Production subsystem D. System maintenance subsystemB. Adaptive subsystem E. Managerial subsystemC. System structure E (p. 173)

6. Which one of the following refers the goal states that change because of changing environments?

A. Morphogenesis D. HomeostasisB. Cybernetics E. ReactiveC. Positive D (p. 175)

7. What is the appropriate term from systems theory for goal states that are relatively stable, versus relatively changeable?

A. Dynamic states D. CyberneticsB. Static states E. System balanceC. Morphogenesis B (p. 175)

8. What is the appropriate term from systems theory for changes in the structure and process element in the open systems model?

A. Morphogenesis D. Negative feedbackB. Processes E. Positive feedbackC. Cybernetics A (pp. 175-176)

9. What is the appropriate term from systems theory for the response that says, “Cut back, slow down, discontinue”?

A. Morphogenesis D. Negative feedbackB. Processes E. Positive feedbackC. Cybernetics D (p. 176)

10. What is the appropriate term from systems theory for when the system responds by amplifying or maintaining deviation?

A. Morphogenesis D. Negative feedback


B. Processes E. Positive feedbackC. Cybernetics E (p. 176)

11. What is the appropriate term from systems theory for the input–output, self–regulation process?

A. Morphogenesis D. Negative feedbackB. Processes E. Positive feedbackC. Cybernetics C (pp. 176-177)

12.The beef industry denies that “mad cow” disease is an issue in the U.S., resists increased inspections of cattle arriving slaughterhouses, and calls on cattlemen nationwide to persuade their representatives and senators in Congress to stop legislation to require “tracking” of cattle to their sources. What best describes the industry’s approach?

A. Open systems approach D. Morphogenesis in practiceB. Reactive public relations E. Cybernetic control systemC. Functional public relations B (pp. 178-179)

13.In contrast to what many organizations and their associations do, the California Pistachio Commission (the growers) asked the Agriculture Department to apply tighter standards and to increase inspections to ensure product safety when increased levels of mold were found in their product. What best describes the industry’s approach?

A. Open systems approach D. Morphogenesis in practiceB. Reactive public relations E. Cybernetic control systemC. Functional public relations A (p. 179)

14.Which of the following does NOT fit with the functionary practitioner role?

A. Attempts to preserve and promote a favorable image of the organization.B. Concentrates on supplying information about the organization.C. Gives practitioners little say about what is said.D. Emphasizes maintaining the status quo within the organization.E. Calls for an open system response to adjusting to change. E (pp. 180-181)

15.Which of the following does NOT fit with open systems?

A. Maintains the status quo and changes the organization’s publics.B. Changes public relations from how it is typically practiced.C. Suggests adjustment and adaptation and appropriate responses to the

environment.D. Uses two–way symmetric communication.E. Employs professional as opposed to craft practitioners. A (pp. 182-183)

16. Which approach casts public relations practitioners in the technician role?

A. Open systems D. ProactiveB. Functional E. FunctionaryC. Adaptive E (p. 182)

17. Which of the following does NOT fit with the functional practitioner role?

A. Provides opportunity for impact on decision–making.


B. Casts the practitioner in the technician role.C. Employs two–way communication.D. Poses a role seldom fulfilled in the real world.E. Allows practitioners to fulfill a counseling and management role.

B (pp. 182-183)

18. Which approach calls for research skills to monitor publics and other environmental forces?

A. Open systems D. Reactive outputB. Closed systems E. Functionary roleC. Historicist causality A (p. 182)

19. Public relations scholars (James and Larissa Grunig) describe “craft public relations” and “professional public relations” as similar to the text definitions of which of the following?

A. Amateur versus paid D. Closed versus openB. Marketing versus public affairs E. Negative versus positive feedbackC. Accredited versus certified D (p. 182)

20. The text suggests that the most useful aspect of the open systems model of public relations is which one of the following?

A. Eliminates need for research D. Functionary approach to the functionB. Effective use of the media E. Avoids costly organization changeC. Proactive corrective action C (p. 183)


You are the director of public relations for a hospital. You learn that one of your staff physicians is an impostor. He has a high school education, but no college or medical school preparation. He has delivered babies, set bones, sutured wounds, written prescriptions, etc. His skills appear to be sufficient enough to have fooled hospital officials, his fellow medics at the hospital, his colleagues in medicine generally, the American Medical Association, the state medical society, and the county medical society. When confronted with the evidence, he admits to being an impostor, but points to his unblemished record of patient care.

1. Which action provides the most open and responsive means of repairing the hospital’s relations with the impostor’s patients?

A. Contact his patients to make appointments with each for free health examinations and to solicit their concerns about the doctor’s treatment and the hospital’s responsibility.

B. Make sure that the impostor is legally punished for his hideous acts. C. Notify the press and set up a conference to denounce the imposture while

denying that the hospital was at fault.D. Apologize and compensate his patients with large financial settlements.E. Admit fraud on the part of the hospital and try to convince everyone that there

was reason for the mistake.


Answer guide: Open systems exchange information and are responsive to environmental changes (pp. 182-183). Therefore, Option A is best because it is the only one that takes in information from the patients while providing problem-specific corrective action. Options B through E utilize only one–way communication and represent closed system reactions.

2. Which action best demonstrates adjustment to changing environments?

A. Announce stronger regulations for checking credentials of health professionals.B. Limit recruitment of staff doctors to the top ten medical schools.C. Implement a campaign to improve the hospital’s image.D. Implement actions based upon information provided by patients and publics.E. Attempt to deflect attention from the incident.

Answer Guide: While options A and B appear to be good adjustments and are problem specific, they may not meet the real concerns of patients and publics. Thus, the hospital’s changes may not be in tune with the mutual interest and goals of the hospital and its publics (p. 183). Option C is managed and purposive, but without considering feedback from affected patients, it represents closed one–way communication. Option E is totally closed and probably will be counter-productive. Option D is the best answer because this option is grounded in research, which suggests change based on feedback or – using the terminology of systems theory – morphogenesis based on environmental inputs.


1. First, how would you define environmental change pressures and, second, how do relationships change in response to environmental pressures?

Answer guide: According to systems theory, the environment is anything that generates pressure for change. People, trends, etc. create pressure for change, which becomes like a chain reaction affecting more than the initial group involved. Relationships must change to compensate for the environmental pressures. If they do not, relationships become dysfunctional and no longer mutually beneficial. Participants who refuse to change tend to act and react in ways inappropriate to the new circumstances and generate maximum disorder (pp. 171-172).

2. Discuss terrorism as an environmental force that changed organizations.

Answer guide: There are many possible ways to answer this question. Simply put, terrorism has caused a major cost of doing business in most settings. Thus, employers spend more for security and employee safety. Likewise, government has had to increase expenditures in protecting public safety and government workers, often at the cost of convenience and efficiency. The result is changed structure and processes in most activities that are related to public health and safety. The continuing threat, no doubt, will put even more strain on the system, increasing the cost of many goods and services, and ultimately changing culture and society (pp. 171, 174-176).

Chapter 8

Communication and Public Opinion




1. Identify the first task of public relations communications in the crowded message environment.

2. Define communication as a two-way process of exchanging signals to inform, persuade, and instruct within intrapersonal, interpersonal, and social contexts.

3. Diagram the communication model, and label and briefly discuss the elements.

4. List and briefly discuss the four major categories of public relations communication effects

5. Identify and discuss the five dimensions of public opinion .

6. Outline the three dimensions that differentiate latent publics from active publics .

7. Define attitude and opinion, and distinguish between them.

8. Diagram and explain the model of individual orientation and the model of coorientation.

9. Define the four states of coorientational consensus.


The first task of public relations communications is to get attention of target publics. Second is to stimulate interest in message content. Third is to build a desire and intention to act on the message. And fourth is to direct the action of those who behave consistent with the messages.

Communication is a reciprocal process of exchanging signals to inform, instruct, or persuade, based on shared meanings and conditioned by the communicators’ relationship and the social context. Dissemination is simply sending out a message.

Elements of the communication model include the sender, the message, the medium or channel, the receivers, context of the relationship, and the social environment.

Public relations communication effects include:

Creating perceptions of the world around us—forming “pictures in our heads” about events, things, people and places we could not experience directly ourselves.

Setting the agenda—determining salience (importance) of issues and of positions taken by others in the news.

Diffusing information and innovations—increasing the information available for subsequent interpersonal communication and thus helping new ideas to spread through society.

Defining social support—defining socially accepted expression and behavior by providing “feedback” on our social environments.

Public opinion is a dynamic process of developing consensus (“thinking together”) that can be described at a single point in time using direction (evaluation), intensity


(strength), stability (duration), informational support (knowledge held), and social support (perception of ones’ views being shared by others).

The concept of a “general public” holds little, if any, value in public relations. Rather, effective programs communicate with and build relationships with specifically defined “target publics.”

Grunig’s situational theory of publics identifies three factors that move latent publics to become active publics: 1) problem recognitions—the extent to which people are aware that there is a problem, 2) constraint recognition—the extent to which people see themselves limited by factors that prevent them from doing something about the problem, and 3) level of involvement—the extent to which people see themselves being involved in or affected by the problem.

An attitude is a cross–situational predisposition or preference with respect to an object. An opinion is the judgment expressed about an object in a particular situation or given a specific set of circumstances.

Individual orientations to issues and objects in their environments include both salience—their feelings derived from a lifetime of experience (cross-situational value)—and pertinence—the relative value of the issue or object based on comparisons with other issues or objects in the situation (situational value).

The coorientational model includes four intrapersonal and interpersonal elements: Agreement represents the extent to which two or more persons share similar evaluations of an issue of mutual interest. Understanding represents the extent to which two or more persons share similar definitions of an issue of mutual interest. Accuracy represents the extent to which one’s estimate of another person’s views matches the other person’s actual views. Congruency, the one intrapersonal construct, describes the extent to which one’s own views match one’s estimate of another’s views on the same issue.

Monolithic consensus represents that state of public opinion in which high levels of actual agreement are accurately perceived by a majority of those involved. Dissensus represents that state of public opinion in which high levels of actual disagreement are accurately perceived by a majority of those involved. False consensus exists when there is actual disagreement, but a majority of those involved mistakenly think they agree. Pluralistic ignorance represents the state of public opinion in which the majority perceive little agreement, but in fact there is widespread agreement.


1. Which one of the following represents the correct order of the tasks of public relations communications efforts?

A. Get attention, stimulate interest, build desire to act, and direct the actionB. Stimulate interest, get attention, build desire to act, and direct the actionC. Build the desire to act, direct the action, stimulate interest, and get attentionD. Direct the action, stimulate interest, get attention, and build the desire to actE. Stimulate interest, build the desire to act, get attention, and direct the action

A (p. 188)


2. Which one of the following is NOT true about the challenge for public relations communications?

A. People are exposed to hundreds or even thousands of messages each dayB. The large number of media outlets means that many messages compete for

attentionC. People generally try to pay attention to every message they receive D. To defend themselves from the onslaught of messages, people become choosy

about which messages they pay attention toE. Public relations messages must compete against messages from multiple other

sourcesC (p. 188)

3. The “myth of communication” suggests that which one of the following is confused with the real meaning of communication?

A. publicity D. persuasionB. dissemination E. attentionC. encoding B (p. 188)

4. Communication is the reciprocal process of exchanging messages designed to inform, instruct, or __________. Which of the following completes the statement?

A. persuade D. misdirect the audienceB. stimulate E. create an imageC. divert attention A (p. 189)

5. In the communication model, characteristics of which one of the following affect people’s initial acceptance of the message, but not the message’s long-term impact?

A. the receiver D. the relationship contextB. the sender E. the social environmentC. the channel B (p. 190)

6. In the communication model, message effects are mediated by which one of the following?

A. the receiver D. the relationship contextB. the sender E. the social environmentC. the message itself A (p. 190)

7. For which one of the following, should you include only one side of an argument?

A. If receivers oppose your positionB. If receivers are well educatedC. If receivers are likely to be exposed later to persuasive messages countering

your positionD. If receivers already agree with your positionE. All of the above D (p. 190-191)

8. Early notions of mass communication viewed mass society as both passive recipients of media messages and vulnerable to being manipulated. Which best describes current thinking?

A. Audiences are more vulnerable and passive than ever before.


B. Television viewing in particular creates increased activity in the right hemisphere of viewers’ brains.

C. Internet use has led to increasingly passive recipients at the end of message transmission systems.

D. Active receivers are not uniformly affected by mass communication messages.E. All of the above. D (p. 192)

9. Lippmann’s model of the “triangular relationship” depicted the role of mass media in shaping public opinion. Which best describes the effect of mass communication in Lippmann’s model?

A. Developing an accurate assessment of the “scene of the action” C (p. 194)B. Developing a shared understanding of the “scene of the action”C. Developing a “trustworthy picture” of the world beyond our direct experienceD. Developing increasingly passive recipients of media messagesE. Developing increased activity in the right hemisphere of our brains

10. Walter Lippmann described the “triangular relationship” to depict the role of mass media in forming the “pictures in our heads.” Which one of the following best summarizes his view of mass media impact?

A. Children are sitting targets for the big three sources of influence—television, tools, and temptation.

B. As a high involvement medium, television produces a “see–learn–feel–do” sequence.

C. Most of us experience events, things, people, and places directly, thereby minimizing the effects of mass media.

D. Responses based on perceptions of the scene of the action have little consequence because they are just that, perceptions.

E. Responses based on our perceptions of the scene of the action have impact on the original scene of the action. E (p. 194)

11. Which of the following theories suggests that mass media affect what we think about—raising the salience of issues and the positions taken by people in the news?

A. situational publics D. agenda settingB. hypodermic needle E. diffusion theoryC. opinion formation D (pp. 195-196)

12. Which of the following theories suggests that media provide information from sources that would otherwise not be available through interpersonal networks?

A. situational publics D. agenda settingB. hypodermic needle E. diffusion theoryC. opinion formation E (p. 197)

13. The “silent majority” represents a condition in which:

A. A vocal minority really is a solid majority.B. Individuals think their opinion conflicts with those of most other people.C. The winning side on an issue remains silent in order to mislead public opinion

pollsters.D. Media coverage portrays the majority view, thereby making public expression

unnecessary.


E. None of the above occurs. B (pp. 197-198)

14. Evidence showing the extent to which people think others share their opinions indicates which one of the following dimensions of public opinion?

A. Informational support D. Stability B. Direction E. Social supportC. Intensity E (pp. 199-200)

15. A survey question asking people whether they “strongly agree,” “agree,” “disagree” or “strongly disagree” is measuring which of the following two dimensions of public opinion?

A. Informational and social support D. Direction and stability B. Direction and intensity E. Direction and social supportC. Intensity and stability B (pp. 199-200)

16. The text discusses five dimensions of public opinion. Which one of the following does NOT belong on the list?

A. Direction D. Informational supportB. Intensity E. AgreementC. Stability E (pp. 199-200)

17. Which of the following is NOT a useful concept in public relations programs?

A. “Target” public D. “Latent” publicB. “Strategic” public E. “Active” publicC. “General” public C (p. 201)

18. Which of the following is NOT a variable in Grunig’s situational theory of publics?

A. Problem recognition D. Level of involvementB. Constraint recognition E. Information seekingC. Cognitive organization C (p. 202)

19. Individuals assign value to objects in their environment based on their previous history with the objects and their assessment of the objects in the current context. Which of the following describes these two sources of value?

A. Salience and pertinence D. Congruency and accuracyB. Orientation and coorientation E. Direction and intensityC. Agreement and understanding A (p. 203)

20. Which one of the following is a “cross-situational predisposition or preference”?

A. Salience D. OpinionB. Attitude E. PertinenceC. Cognition B (p. 203)

21. In the coorientational model, if Person A holds a positive evaluation of Object “X” and Person B feels the same about “X,” this is an example of which one of the following?

A. High agreement D. Low accuracy but high agreementB. High accuracy E. High accuracy but low congruencyC. High congruency A (p. 205)


22. In the coorientational model, if Person A holds a positive evaluation of Object “X” and thinks that Person B feels the same about “X,” this is an example of which one of the following?

A. High agreement D. Low accuracy but high agreementB. High accuracy E. High accuracy but low congruencyC. High congruency C (p. 205)

23. If someone told you that public opinion on an issue could be described as “dissensus,” which one of the following (in coorientational terms) best fits that situation?

A. High accuracy, high congruency, and high agreementB. Low agreement, low accuracy, and low congruencyC. High agreement, high congruency, and low accuracyD. High congruency, low accuracy, and low agreementE. Low agreement, low congruency, and high accuracy E (p. 206)

24. Which one of the following represents the state of public opinion in which a majority perceives little agreement, but in fact there is widespread agreement?

A. Interpersonal congruency D. Coorientational consensusB. Pluralistic ignorance E. False consensusC. Complete consensus B (p. 206)

25. What is the most likely outcome of public communication?

A. accurate perceptions of agreement D. monolithic consensusB. actual agreement E. dissensusC. attitude change A (p. 206)

26. Use of repeated measures of coorientational states over time can help track changes in which of the following?

A. perceptions of agreement D. congruencyB. actual agreement E. All of the aboveC. accuracy E (p. 208)


Assume that you have been retained by the airport authority to develop a public relations program to prepare a media packet announcing that the city airport will be relocated. Your client thinks there is agreement between the airport authority board and the majority of registered voters that “a new airport should be relocated to the recently closed military base.” You decide to use the coorientational model to analyze the relationships between your client and registered voters in your community on the issue.

Using “airport relocation” as the object of coorientation (the “X” in the model), you begin researching the state of public opinion and the nature of coorientational relationships your client has with registered voters on this issue. You learn from surveys that, contrary to what your client thinks, a vast majority of registered voters feel the airport should be expanded and should remain where it is. In addition, a majority think that the airport authority has no plan to move the airport.

1. Which coorientational description best defines this relationship?


A. High agreement, high congruency, and high accuracyB. High agreement, low congruency, and low accuracyC. Low agreement, high congruency, and low accuracyD. Low agreement, low congruency, and high accuracyE. Low agreement, low congruency, and low accuracy

Answer guide: The only correct answer is Option C. There is no actual agreement—the majority of registered voters interviewed think the airport should not be moved to the old military base location. Each side of the relationship, however, perceives that the other side agrees that the airport should not be moved—high congruency on each side. Because both sides are wrong in their perceptions of the other’s views on the need to relocate the airport, there is low accuracy. (See pages 205-207.)

2. Which of Scheff’s states of coorientational consensus best describes the relationship between your client and the majority of the registered voters interviewed?

A. Monolithic consensusB. False consensusC. Pluralistic ignoranceD. DissensusE. Salience

Answer guide: The correct answer is Option B—false consensus. The two sides of the relationship actually do not agree on the need to relocate the airport, but thinks that the other side agrees with their view. Clearly, there is a perception of agreement when there is actual disagreement on the airport relocation issue. Pages 205-207 (including Table 8.1) outline Scheff’s states of coorientational consensus. Pages 207-208 apply coorientational concepts to organization-public relationships.

3. What should your public relations firm recommend to the board members of the airport authority?

A. Your firm should develop the most persuasive media packet possible. The client wants to make the announcement, and your job is to facilitate the client’s plan.

B. Your firm should tell the client that what is really needed is a campaign to convince registered voters that the airport needs to be relocated.

C. Your firm should report the survey results showing that a majority of registered voters do not support the relocation.

D. Your firm should come up with a message strategy that features the advantages of the relocation and argues that the military base is too good a deal to pass up.

E. Your firm should recommend that the client find a political advertising agency, because this situation calls for an advertising campaign.

Answer guide: The correct answer is Option C. The firm should not develop a persuasive program when the vast majority of registered voters do not support the relocation proposal. The real problem here is the inaccurate perceptions of registered voters’ views held by the airport authority board members. The firm should provide feedback on the level of actual agreement and point out that registered voters do not support the proposed relocation. The next recommendation would be to do more research to learn what registered voters know or do not know about the airport situation, and why they feel the


way they do about the present airport. The other choices either do not address the real problem in the client–public relationship or are inappropriate. (See pages 207-208.)


1. Explain how the spiral of silence works to influence public opinion.

Answer guide: Pages 197-198 trace the development of the spiral of silence effect on public opinion: Individuals observe and assess their social environments, assessing the distribution of opinions, determining the strength and chances of success for each, and determining the social sanctions and costs of each. The spiral begins when people choose either to remain silent or to express their views. It continues as others observe the presence or absence of support for their own views, translating their own observations into public silence or expression. When the media cover the loudest views more forcefully and frequently than others, they increase the adoption of those loudest views, and, in effect, reinforce the perception of public opinion.

2. Compare Shannon and Weaver’s model of “communication” to Schramm’s concept of communication as a two-way process.

Answer guide: Because Shannon and Weaver’s model is based on a telephone perspective, it fails to include the human factor. It ignores the way people relate to each other, to groups, organizations and societies. Schramm’s model is two–way and takes into account people’s frames of reference, their relationship, and their social situation. It shows communication as a reciprocal exchange of signals, based on shared meanings and conditioned by the communicators’ relationship and the social context (pp. 188-189).

3. List and describe the five measurable qualities (attributes) of public opinion. Recall that knowing these dimensions is essential to understanding public opinion on an issue, as well as for planning a program to change public opinion.

Answer guide: Public opinion is “thinking together” and can be described at a single point in time using direction (evaluation), intensity (strength), stability (duration), informational support (knowledge held), and social support (perception of others’ agreement or disagreement with one’s views). (See pp. 199-200.)

Chapter 9

Internal Relations and Employee Communication



1. Define internal and employee communication as a part of the public relations function, using the basic elements of the definition of public relations.

2. Argue convincingly for the importance of the internal relations function.

3. Discuss the impact of organizational culture on internal communication.


4. Apply systems theory to internal relations.

5. Discuss some of the regulatory and business contexts for internal relations.

6. Explain the major purposes of employee communication.

7. Describe non-mediated and mediated means of communicating with internal publics.


The coordination and mediation necessary for dealing with employees put public relations staff with communication knowledge and skills in a central role in managing internal relations.

As a part of the larger public relations function, the goal of internal relations and employee communication is to establish and maintain mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and the employees on whom its success or failure depends.

Employees are an organization’s greatest resource. As a result, the employee communication function must address: 1) the value of understanding, teamwork, and commitment by employees in achieving bottom-line results, and 2) the need to build a strong manager communication network that makes every supervisor at every level accountable for communicating effectively with employees.

The culture of an organization is what defines it as different from other organizations, as it defines the values, beliefs, assumptions, and expectations that guide both managers and employees in their effort to achieve the organization’s mission. Organizational culture affects internal communication, and it is often created by the members of the dominant coalition. Culture can be classified and explained using various dimensions, including those of Hofstede: power-distance, individualism, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity.

Organizations can function as closed or open systems. Closed systems do not receive input from the environment and thus are less likely to adapt to environmental change pressures. Organizations that function as closed systems tend to have an asymmetrical worldview, meaning that its goal is to get what it wants without having to change the way it does business. The asymmetrical worldview held by a closed organization tends to produce an authoritarian organizational culture. In this kind of organizational culture, communication is structured and formalized, decision-making is centralized, and employees experience high division of labor, with independent organizational departments. Input from employees is not sought or valued.

On the other hand, open systems seek feedback and input from its environment, which enables it to adapt to environmental change pressures and enhance its likelihood to survive. Organizations that function as open systems tend to have a symmetrical worldview, meaning that the organization incorporates negotiation, conflict resolution, and compromise in dealing with its publics. The symmetrical worldview held by an open organization tends to produce participative organizational cultures, which value dialogue, teamwork, and innovation. Decision-making in these organizations is decentralized, and departments tend to be interdependent.


Employee communication takes place in specific regulatory and business contexts. These include challenges related to safety and compliance, labor relations, and organizational change.

Employee communication serves three main purposes: acculturation, information, and listening. Acculturating employees means helping them to understand and internalize the organization’s culture and values. This can be done using vision statements, mission statements, policy documents, ethics statements, and training materials.

To inform employees about organizational developments, happenings, and news, public relations practitioners can use both nonmediated and mediated communication tools. Nonmediated communication channels include the grapevine and in-person meetings. Mediated communication channels include teleconferences and videoconferences; employee publications; inserts and enclosures; published speeches, position papers, and backgrounders; bulletin boards; intranets; hotlines; email; and new media.

Organizations can listen to employees using any of the nonmediated or mediated channels above. Listening is a form of organizational research, which is discussed in detail in chapter 11.


1. An organization’s most important relationships are those with:

A. Customers and other consumers D. Government regulators and inspectorsB. Investors and analysts E. Neighbors and the larger communityC. Employees and their supervisors C (p. 214)

2. Two factors have enhanced management’s respect for employee communication in public relations: One is the value associated with building employee understanding, teamwork, and commitment in achieving bottom-line results. What is the other?

A. Public relations’ expanded role in directly achieving bottom–line resultsB. The need for a strong management communication network and to hold

supervisors accountable for effective employee communicationC. Advances in technology require greater skill to carry out the employee

communication functionD. Employee disloyalty costs American businesses $150 billion a yearE. Public relations has the coordination and mediation necessary for dealing with

employees B (p. 214)

3. When surveyed, the majority of employees give their organizations high marks on which one of the following?

A. Credibility D. Downward communicationB. Manageability E. Upward communicationC. Use of the grapevine A (p. 215)

4. Some who study it define organizational culture as:

A. How supportive the organization is of the visual and performing artsB. The morale and general optimism of those who work in the organizationC. Documentation of how well managers and employees get along


D. The shared meanings, common values, and norms of group membersE. How interconnected and networked the internal publics are D (p. 215)

5. Which of the following dimensions of culture is likely to affect the relationship between supervisors and employees, a concern of internal communication?

A. Masculinity – Because most public relations practitioner today are womenB. Power-distance – Because this dimension deals with equality and hierarchy in

interpersonal relationshipsC. Confucian dynamic – Because supervisors are like teachers, and Confucius was

the best teacher non-Western historyD. Uncertainty avoidance – Because internal communication is designed to reduce

the uncertainties that employees feel about their jobsE. Individualism – Because public relations practitioners need to deal with

employees are individual stakeholders, not as an organizational public B (p. 216)

6. You are the public relations practitioner charged with encouraging all organizational employees to participate in the company’s recycling program. To do this, you create a campaign slogan: “Recycle for us; recycle for Earth”. This slogan is likely to resonate in what type of organizational culture?

A. High Masculinity – Because men tend to recycle more than womenB. Low Masculinity – Because this kind of culture rewards nurturing and

cooperationC. High Individualism – Because you need specific individuals to engage in the

desired behavior of recyclingD. Low Individualism – Because the slogan is appealing to the collective “us” and

“the Earth”. E. Both B and D are organizational cultures in which this slogan would resonate

E (p. 216-217)

7. In which one of the following “worldviews” tends to retain decision-making power and only reluctantly incorporates public input or makes internal changes?

A. Asymmetrical D. CoorientationalB. Symmetrical E. Culture of internal excellenceC. Co-acculturation A (p. 217)

8. Organizations that function as open systems receive input from the environment and often change as a result of that input. This situation represents which of the following organizational worldviews and cultures?

A. Asymmetrical worldview and participative organizational cultureB. Asymmetrical worldview and authoritarian organizational cultureC. Symmetrical worldview and authoritarian organizational cultureD. Symmetrical worldview and participative organizational cultureE. None of the above D (pp. 217-218)

9. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of an authoritarian organizational culture?

A. Innovation is encouraged and rewarded


B. Communication processes are structured and formalizedC. Individuals are held accountable for a limited area of responsibilityD. Tasks are routinized, and there is high division of laborE. Communication tends to be top-down A (p 218)

10. Employee communication happens in specific business and regulatory contexts. As public relations director for Groceries R Us, you must do which of the following in the United States?

A. Pay for your employees to take night classes to enhance their educationB. Provide full health, dental, and vision benefitsC. Hang posters listing worker safety standards from the Occupational Safety and

Health AdministrationD. Require your CEO to blog on the company’s websiteE. Give all employees access to email C (p. 219)

11. Which one of the following represents the situation in multinational corporations in which managers and employees are from different cultures and thus must be oriented simultaneously toward each other and toward aspects of each other’s culture?

A. Downward communication D. Global accuracyB. Upward communication E. Co-acculturationC. Integrated communication E (p. 220)

12. Employee communication has several purposes. Which one of the following purposes serves to help employees “understand and internalize the organization’s culture and values”?

A. Acculturating employees D. Listening to employeesB. Envisioning employees E. Paying employeesC. Informing employees A (p. 223)

13. Organizational mission statements accomplish which of the following?

A. They offer a standard format for reporting the missions of top-performing organizations

B. They summarize the policies of the organization that employees must followC. They help employees set priorities and goals related to the company’s missionD. They deliver specific and detailed information to target publicsE. They spell out the organization’s future goal and strategy C (pp. 224-225)

14. Surveys of employees often find which one of the following is the “preferred source” of information??

A. The “grapevine” D. The immediate supervisorB. The organizations’ Web site E. The chief executive officerC. The weekly employee publication D (p. 226)

15. Which one of the following typically fills information gaps left by an inadequate communication program?

A. Grapevine D. MeetingsB. Speeches/speakers’ bureaus E. Teleconferencing


C. Video, film, and slide presentationsA (p. 227)

16. Which one of the following is typically NOT a goal of employee publications?

A. Informing employees about the organization’s strategy and goalsB. Providing employees information they need to perform their assignmentsC. Encouraging employees to maintain and enhance the organization’s standardsD. Providing a direct vehicle for employee “whistle blowers” to report abusesE. Recognizing employees’ achievements and successes D (p. 228)

17. According to the text, organizational publications offer many advantages. Which of the following is NOT one of these?

A. They provide information to employees who don’t use computers at workB. They are versatile and can deliver specific and detailed information to narrowly

defined target publics C. They give sponsoring organizations a means of uncontrolled communicationD. They let the company go on record with its positions on specific issuesE. They offer a two-way communication channel C (pp. 228-230)

18. Which one of the following represents the most common form of periodical publication?

A. Newsletters D. Reprinted speeches, position papersB. Letters E. Inserts and enclosuresC. Bulletin boards A (p. 229)

19. What is the difference between a company’s intranet and the Internet?

A. Internet sites can be hacked into, but intranet sites are safeB. People’s Internet use can be monitored, but intranet use is impossible to

monitorC. People can access email using the Internet, but not using company intranetsD. The Internet is publicly accessible, but company intranets are accessible only to

employees D (pp. 231-232)E. None of the above is correct; the Internet and a company’s intranet are exactly

the same

20. When organizational culture is participative, companies “listen” to their employees’ questions and concerns. Which of the following listening methods can protect the identity of employees by allowing them to communicate anonymously?

A. Face-to-face meetings D. Third-party call centersB. Videoconferencing E. OmbudsmanC. Personalized emails D (pp. 232-233)



You have been asked to do a presentation for promising young executives in a multinational corporation. The topic is “the dominant coalition’s impact on how an organization does public relations.”

1. What topics would you include in your presentation?

A. How dimensions of culture affect public relations practice in organizations.B. How organizational structures affect public relations practice.C. Using power to develop an organization’s approach to public relationsD. Worldviews and their impact on organizational culture and public relationsE. The importance of co-acculturation in setting public relations goals and strategy

Answer guide: Option D is the only content based on the text content about the role of the dominant coalition and its impact on organizational culture. It is the dominant coalition’s worldview that determines whether an organization’s culture is either “authoritarian” or “participative.” (See page 217.) Authoritarian organizational cultures (associated with asymmetrical worldviews) have structured and formal communication, usually associated with top-down centralized decision-making. Dialogue is not encouraged and input from those outside the dominant coalition is not sought. Change is resisted, reflecting the closed system approach discussed in Chapter 7. Participative organizational cultures (associated with symmetrical worldviews) values dialogue and input from others, rewards teamwork and innovation accomplished by groups. Two-way communication is the key to the organization’s culture of teamwork, innovation, and valued employees. Public relations in the latter culture is seen as critical to organizational effectiveness.

2. What basis would you use to build a case for adopting the symmetrical worldview?

A. If public relations input is included, decisions can be more enduring and cause fewer negative reactions because public expectations were taken into account.

B. Public relations should be part of the dominant coalition in order to help develop persuasive strategy for “selling” top management decisions to employees.

C. Because the dominant coalition sets the goals that guide the work, public relations will be required in order to disseminate the goals to internal publics.

D. Because the symmetrical approach calls for individual accountability and formal communication, public relations is required to keep all employees on track.

E. If public relations input is included, then the dominant coalition can be more efficient because input from other employees and publics is not necessary.

Answer guide: Option A is the only choice that describes the symmetrical worldview and its impact on public relations (p. 217). All the other choices actually describe approaches more consistent with the asymmetrical worldview.


1. One of your clients asks for your counsel on the need for and goals of an employee communication program. This particular company has grown significantly during


the past two years, with new plants in several states and Mexico. The client says, “I think we need something more than our old informal, monthly newsletter put out by the personnel department, but I will have to explain to the executive committee why we should spend the money.” Outline the major goals of employee communication and how it is central to an organization’s ability to achieve its mission.

Answer guide: On page 214, Alvie Smith, former director of corporate communication at General Motors, gives two reasons why employee communication has become a more important part of the public relations function. Page 215 articulates the goal of internal relations. Pages 218-219 describe the participative organizational culture grounded in the symmetrical worldview that encourages two-way communication within organizations and that results in a greater overall organizational effectiveness. Page 223 lists the usual purposes of employee communication programs.

2. You are the employee communication manager of a large organization that runs a weeklong orientation session for all new employees, regardless of rank. Top management asks you to join with the Human Resources Department staff to update the program. The HR staff want to limit the focus to explaining “company policy,” benefits programs, sick- and family-leave programs, and retirement packages. What topics would you argue should be included in the orientation…and why?

Answer guide: On pages 223-224, the text outlines the central role that vision statements and mission statements play in helping managers and employees at all levels understand why the organization exists, what it hopes to achieve, and the values that guide the effort. Other policy documents and training materials can also help acculturate new employees. The internal relations staff can help the human resources department socialize and acculturate employees to their new organization and work setting. The goal is to ensure that new employees understand what is expected of them, what their responsibilities are, and how to act in accordance with the organization’s value system.

Chapter 10

Media and Media Relations



1. Discuss the major controlled and uncontrolled media used for communicating with external publics.

2. Outline how technology-based new media affect external communication practices.

3. Define the relationship between practitioners and journalists as being mutually dependent and mutually beneficial, but as sometimes adversarial.

4. Outline basic guidelines for building good media relations and working with the press.



Public relations practitioners use both controlled media and uncontrolled media to communicate with their organizations’ many publics. Controlled media include those in which practitioners have the say over what is said, how it is said, when it is said, and—to some extent—to whom it is said. Uncontrolled media are those over which practitioners have no direct role in decisions about media content. Instead, media gatekeepers decide if it is reported, what is reported, how it is reported, when it is reported, and to whom it is reported.

Technology has changed our notions about media, especially the concept of mass media. Three key changes with implications for public relations are that (1) audiences have become fragmented, choosing ever smaller niche media for their own unique needs, as opposed to being part of an undifferentiated mass; (2) audiences are more active, choosing two-way media that permit interactivity, as opposed to one-way media that permitted only passive reception of information; and (3) a “journalist” today is anybody with a camera cell phone and Internet access,

Traditional mass media continue to be economical, effective methods of communicating with large and widely dispersed publics. Consequently, public relations practitioners must understand how to use newspapers, magazines and trade publications, radio and television, and the other media as part of public communication efforts.

Newspapers remain the workhorse of the public information system, because newspaper coverage is the foundation of most public information programs. For most influential citizens, reading the newspaper is as much a daily habit as are eating and sleeping.

Newspaper readership is not uniform in society. Each day, approximately 51 percent of all adults read a daily newspaper and 58 percent read a newspaper each Sunday. However, only 37 percent of 18- to 24-year-olds read a newspaper daily, compared to more than 68 percent of those 65 and older. Furthermore, technology has changed not only the content of newspapers, but also their organizational structures and how they process news and information.

More than 19,500 magazines in the U.S. offer specialized channels of communication to narrowly defined audiences. Over the years, the magazine market has evolved from general to specialized publications as readers seek more targeted information for their interests, vocations, and hobbies.

Radio listening remains relatively constant at about three hours a day, with almost half listening in cars and a third listening at home. Each week, radio reaches more than 233 million people, or almost 93 percent of all people aged 12 and older. About 33 million Americans aged 12 and older listen to the radio via the Internet, up from 29 million online radio listeners the previous year. Of those online radio listeners, 63 percent have a profile on a social networking site such as MySpace, Facebook, or Linked-In. There are approximately 13,977 stations licensed by the Federal Communication Commission (FCC). Popular talk shows and telephone call-in shows make radio a force in local politics and public debates.

With more than 1,750 television broadcast stations and hundreds of cable and satellite TV channels, television is the most intimate mass medium, using the printed word,


spoken word, moving images, color, music, animation, sound effects, and more. Even with the popularity of the Internet, television remains an integral part of our lives; one study found that 46 percent of consumers who go online regularly visit the Web site of a television network. Television is the primary news source for the largest number of people. It also greatly changed elections campaigns—replacing speeches with “sound bites”—and diminished the role of political conventions and political parties.

The new media environment offers at least three challenges for public relations practitioners: (1) staying abreast of technological developments in new media; (2) conducting media relations with untraditional “journalists”; and (3) representing organizations in the new media environment. Almost all public relations practitioners agree that advances in technology such as e-mail and the Internet have changed how they do their jobs. Media relations has changed as practitioners must work with not only traditional journalists, but also “citizen journalists,” defined as anyone with access to a cell phone and the Internet who has information they wish to share. Because new media are increasingly interactive, public relations practitioners must build organization-public relationships in both the real world and the virtual world, using such new channels as YouTube, Twitter, Jaiku, Facebook, Second Life, and many others. Another part of building organizational relationships in the virtual world is ensuring that publics can find the organizations in which they are interested; this makes search-engine optimization (SEO) another tool in the practitioner’s toolkit.

The practitioner–journalist relationship is adversarial in nature, but at the same time is mutually dependent and mutually beneficial. Because of the crucial gatekeeping role played by reporters and editors in both print and broadcast media, practitioners must earn and keep the respect of journalists in the news media.

Basic rules for building good media relations include: (1) shoot squarely—“honesty is the best policy;” (2) give service by respecting media deadlines and by being available to the media; (3) do not beg or whine, especially by asking for special treatment: (4) do not ask media to kill a story; and (5) do not flood the media with information that does not have news value.

International media relations involves the same basic principles, as well as consideration of how media systems differ around the world. Authoritarian media systems are controlled by and subordinate to the state, as are communist media systems, although the latter also are required to espouse Marxist ideals and philosophy. Revolutionary media systems try to spread information suppressed by authoritarian or communist systems. Western media systems – found anywhere in the world – are characterized by freedom balanced with social responsibility. And developmental media systems are expected to support national goals toward development.


1. What type of media are those over which public relations practitioners have no direct role in decisions about media content?

A. Controlled media D. Advertising mediaB. Controlling media E. Marketing mediaC. Uncontrolled media C (p. 235)


2. Which two of the following are true with regards to the impact of new technology on public relations practice?

A. Audiences are more fragmented, choosing niche media for their needs.B. Audiences are less fragmented, preferring homogenous mass media for their

needs.C. Audiences are more passive, simply receiving information sent to them.D. Audiences are more active, choosing two-way media that permit interactivity.E. Audiences that report the news are clearly identified “journalists” with the

appropriate educational background and trainingA and D (p. 235)

3. For most influential citizens and leaders in government and industry, which one of the following is a daily habit?

A. Scanning the major networks evening news programs.B. Contacting news media to challenge or reinforce a reporter’s storyC. Reading at least one daily newspaper C (pp. 236-237)D. Going directly to the wire services for news, bypassing the traditional mediaE. All of the above

4. Although the number of daily newspapers continues to decline, what percentage of adults read a daily newspaper?

A. Approximately 10 percent D. Approximately 70 percentB. Approximately 30 percent E. Approximately 90 percentC. Approximately 50 percent C (p. 238)

5. Newspaper readership is not uniform across society. Which two of the following is an accurate description of newspaper readership today?

A. A higher percentage of older people read a daily newspaper, compared to

younger people.B. A higher percentage of younger people read a daily newspaper, compared to

older peopleC. A higher percentage of Hispanics and African Americans read a daily

newspaper, compared to non-Hispanics and non-African AmericansD. The majority of newspaper readers do not have college degreesE. The majority of newspaper readers do have college degrees

A and E (p. 238)

6. Newspapers offer which one of the following major advantages?

A. Younger publics tend to be among the most avid readers.B. The number of daily newspapers is increasing in order to reach more readers.C. Readers of weeklies and semiweeklies usually read little but pay attention to

practitioners’ advertising.D. Practitioners can pinpoint publicity geographically. D (p. 239)E. Four of every five readers typically read or scan all of their paper.

7. Which one of the following are readers with special interests likely to turn to for in-depth information about topics important to them?

A. Newspapers D. Television


B. Magazines E. Wire servicesC. Radio B (p. 243)

8. The text recommends using freelancers for placements in which medium?

A. Newspapers D. Wire services and news syndicatesB. Magazines E. RadioC. Television B (pp. 243-44)

9. Which medium offers public relations the greatest communication flexibility in terms of reaching people under a variety of circumstances?

A. Newspapers D. Wire services and news syndicatesB. Magazines E. RadioC. Television E (p. 244)

10. Which one of the following is often “local,” “person-to-person,” and likely to foster public debate on controversial issues?

A. Newspapers D. TelevisionB. Magazines E. Wire servicesC. Radio C (p. 245)

11. Which one of the following is considered “our most intimate mass medium” and “most important educational institution,” and has had great impact on national election campaigns—much to the dismay of “thoughtful observers”?

A. Newspapers D. TelevisionB. Magazines E. Wire servicesC. Radio D (p. 246)

12. According to the text, the use of video news releases (VNRs) in public relations poses several challenges. Which one of the following is NOT one of these challenges?

A. VNRs may blur the line between news and commercialsB. VNRs can be aired without first having passed journalistic standards for

verifying accuracyC. VNRs can be shown without identifying the source of the informationD. VNRs can be used to manipulate media content in favor of the VNR sourceE. VNRs can replace actual news reporting as a professional field

E (p. 247)

13. Which two of the following are NOT challenges posed by the new media environment for public relations practitioners?

A. Practitioners must stay abreast of technological developments in new media.B. Practitioners must conduct media relations with untraditional “journalists.”C. Practitioners must give up their code of ethics to be effective.D. Practitioners must use corporate blogs to reach their publics.E. Practitioners must build relationships in both the real and virtual worlds.

C and D (p. 248)

14. What is one manner in which new technologies have affected public relations practice?


A. New technologies have lengthened the news cycle, meaning that once

something becomes news, it stays in the news for a very long time.B. New technologies such as blogs have enabled virtually anyone to participate in

the news gathering process, meaning that public relations practitioners must work with both traditional journalists and “citizen journalists”

C. New technologies have enabled public relations practitioners to communicate better with corporate lawyers, thus reducing friction between the public relations and legal functions in organizations.

D. Despite advances in new technologies, most journalists still prefer to receive news releases via snail mail, in hard copy.

E. None of the above; new technologies have had no effect on public relations practice.

B (pp. 249-250)

15. Which two of the following are identified in the textbook as non-traditional media gatekeepers and influencers in today’s new media environment?

A. CEOs – People who lead the world’s major corporationsB. Bloggers – People who write weblogs for virtual communities of like-thinking

participantsC. Citizen journalists – Regular citizens who have access to information and the

technology to share itD. Marketers – People who control the marketing dollars within organizations.E. Dominant coalition – People who make major organizational decisions and

control organizational resources. B and C (p. 249-251)

16. As discussed your textbook, what does “SEO” stand for?

A. Super-Excited Officials – This is what all public relations practitioners need for

a successful news conferenceB. Search-Engine Organization – Public relations practitioners must work with

their company’s IT department to organize the search engines available to employees on their office computers

C. Suspicious Employee-Operatives – To enhance internal communications, public relations practitioners monitor the emails of suspicious employees, using technology to restrict employees’ privacy

D. Search-Engine Optimization – Public relations practitioners use SEO to make sure that their organization’s website comes up when stakeholders search for the company online

E. Standard Ethical Operations – These are guidelines for the ethical practice of public relations in a specific organization

D (p. 252)

17. One major impact of new media technology for the building and maintaining of organization-public relationships is which one of the following?

A. Loss of media credibility D. More interactive communicationB. A switch to printed media E. Less communication with colleaguesC. Increased use of the grapevine D (p. 252)


18. Which of the following violates the guidelines that your text provides for working with media representatives?

A. Talk from the viewpoint of the public’s interest, not the organization’s.B. If you don’t want something you said used in a story, tell the reporter that it was

“off the record.”C. If a reporter asks a direct question, give an equally direct answer.D. Do not call a press conference unless you have what reporters consider news.E. Tell the truth, even if it hurts. B (p. 259)

19. If a practitioner does not know the answer to a reporter’s question, which one of the following is the correct response?

A. Give the reporter other information the practitioner is certain to be correct.B. Tell the reporter that the information requested is not relevant to the story.C. Say that the information is “off the record” and will be disseminated later.D. Say “I don’t know” and promise to provide the information later.E. Say “No comment” rather than look like you don’t know. D (p. 259

20. In which of the following media systems does the state control the media and require it to espouse and promote Marxist ideals and philosophy?

A. Communist D. WesternB. Authoritarian E. DevelopmentalC. Revolutionary A (p. 260-261)


You are the public information officer for the state Chamber of Commerce. Each year the Chamber produces an economic outlook for the state. It contains projections on numerous economic factors for the upcoming year. It is generally viewed as being accurate and is, therefore, hot news to state media. Wanting to be fair to all media, you distribute the information through a news release with a publication date (sometimes referred to as “embargo date”) that falls on Wednesday—the day that most weeklies publish.

You mail the release Friday before the Wednesday release date, because if you wait until Monday to mail it, weeklies will not have time to include it in their Wednesday editions. One of the state’s twice–weekly newspapers publishes the story Tuesday, however, scooping metropolitan papers and knocking the story off the front pages of those papers. Editors of several of these papers telephone, accusing you of playing favorites and saying that next year they will not honor your release date.

1. How would you release the economic projections next year?

A. Send out the information as soon as you have it and let the media determine the cycle in which it breaks.

B. Attach a letter explaining the problem and asking for editors’ cooperation in observing release dates.

C. Announce the results first at a news conference at Chamber headquarters so that media wanting to carry the story first will have to attend.

D. Announce the results at a news conference in one of the state’s major cities, rotating the site from year to year.


E. Don’t release this information at all, only respond to media inquiries.

Answer guide: Page 256 discusses treating journalists fairly. If this were spot news, option A would be advisable. Because this information falls more into “news and feature material,” however, Option D is defensible because it alternately releases the information “evenly among the competitors.” Option B, or this year’s process, does not protect journalistic initiative. Also, Option B didn’t work this year, why would next year be different? Option E is unacceptable because it punishes your employer, the media, and the Chamber members who paid for the information. Option C is thus the best option.

2. Assume that before you release the information next year, the same reporter who violated this year’s release date bypasses your office and calls the director of economic outlook research. When the director tells you that he gave the reporter the highlights of the report in a telephone interview, you realize that the reporter’s story will run the morning of the day you plan to release the report. What should you do?

A. Have the Chamber’s lawyer call the reporter and threaten to sue.B. Call a press conference and release the information now so other news media

will have the information before the story runs.C. Secretly release the report to another reporter who typically gives the Chamber

favorable coverage so she can scoop the offending reporter.D. Go ahead with the scheduled release of the report, but give it to other reporters

who ask for it before you release it generally.E. Go ahead with the scheduled release, but next year prepare a false report to leak

to the reporter who releases the economic data before the release date.

Answer guide: Having the Chamber lawyer call is not an option because no law is violated by the early release and there is no basis for a lawsuit. It would also be terrible public relations for the Chamber, probably becoming a story itself. Options B and C violate the guideline of protecting journalistic initiative and journalists’ “scoops.” The reporter apparently took initiative on his own to contact the director on the anniversary of last year’s release of the data. Because the state’s economy is newsworthy, he did not wait for your announcement. You should respect his initiative and let him have his scoop. Option E is not an option because it is unethical and violates the PRSA Code of Ethics. Option D is the best answer because it avoids favoring one news outlet over others, protects journalistic initiative, and yet gives others early access if they ask (page 256).


1. What are the strengths of newspapers as a medium for public relations messages?

Answer guide: Newspaper strengths include: (1) offering incomparable audience size and breadth, (2) providing a range and depth of content, (3) relating to local communities, (4) providing firsthand intimacy with local publics, (5) providing a fairly standardized definition of news, and (6) enabling practitioners to pinpoint publicity. (See page 239.)

2. Outline at least four guidelines that you will follow when working with the press.

Answer guide: Answers could be based on the “guidelines for good media relations”—(1) shoot squarely, (2) give service, (3) do not beg or whine, (4) do not ask for “kills,” and (5) do not flood the media (pp. 256-258). Or, answers could include the 10


“guidelines for working with the press”— (1) talk from the viewpoint of the public’s interest, not the organization’s; (2) make the news easy to read and use; (3) if you do not want some statement quoted, do not make it; (4) state the most important fact at the beginning; (5) do not argue with a reporter or lose your cool; (6) if a question contains offensive language or simply words you do not like, do not repeat them even to deny them; (7) if the reporter asks a direct question, give an equally direct answer; (8) if spokespersons do not know the answer to a questions, they should simply say, “I don’t know, but I’ll get the answer for you”; (9) tell the truth, even if it hurts; and (10) do not call a press conference unless you have what reporters consider news. (See page 259.)

Chapter 11

Step One: Defining Public Relations Problems



1. Outline the four–step problem–solving process as it applies to public relations.

2. Define research, identify its major purpose as reducing uncertainty in decision making, and discuss why it is essential in public relations program management.

3. Diagram and explain the “benchmarks model” of using research to plan, manage, and evaluate public relations programs.

4. Describe the attributes of a useful problem statement.

5. Differentiate between informal (“exploratory”) and formal methods of research, giving examples of both.


The four–step process includes: 1) defining the problem or opportunity, 2) planning and programming, 3) taking action and communicating, and 4) evaluating the program.

Research is the systematic gathering of information to describe and understand situations and to check out assumptions about publics and public relations consequences. Its main purpose is to reduce uncertainty in decision-making.

Methodical, systematic research is the foundation of effective public relations. In fact, studies of practitioners show a strong link between doing research and being “invited to the table” when decisions are being made—becoming part of the management team.

Problem definition begins with someone making a value judgment that something is wrong, could soon be, or could be better. That subjective judgment is followed by objective, systematic research to confirm and describe in detail the problem situation.

Useful problem statements: 1) are written in present tense, 2) describe a situation in specific and measurable terms, and 3) do not imply solution or place blame. In short, they describe what was learned in the situation analysis.


Situation analysis research gives practitioners and their employers and clients the timely, complete, and accurate information needed to understand the problem and to serve as a basis for strategic planning. It includes analyses of the internal and external factors and stakeholders. The analysis also assesses organizational strengths (S) and weaknesses (W), and identifies opportunities (O) and threats (T) in the situation (often referred to as “SWOT analysis.”)

A communication audit is a systematic documentation of an organization’s communication behavior for the purpose of understanding how it communicates with its publics.

The process of identifying who is involved and who is affected in a situation is called “stakeholder analysis.”

Informal (or “exploratory”) research methods are used for detecting and exploring problem situations, and for pretesting research and program strategies. The major limitation with informal methods results from how samples are selected—samples are typically of unknown representativeness, therefore the results of informal methods cannot be used to make inferences about known populations. Examples of informal methods include personal contacts; key informants; focus groups; community forums; analyses of 1-800 call-in lines, mail, e-mail messages, Internet chat rooms, online forums and blogs; and field reports.

Formal research methods are designed to gather data from scientifically representative samples. These methods make it possible to use inferential statistics to make estimates of populations based on data drawn from samples. In other words, practitioners can make accurate statements describing phenomena and publics based on evidence taken from scientifically representative samples. Examples include secondary analyses of existing databases, content analysis, and various types of surveys.


1. If public relations is to be a part of the rational problem–solving process in organizations, then planning will be based upon which one of the following?

A. Intuition and artistic judgment D. Years of similar past experienceB. Data from PRSA case studies E. The client’s perceptions of the problem C. Best available evidence situation C (p. 267)

2. What is (are) the major reason(s) more research is not used in public relations program planning, monitoring, and evaluation?

A. Lack of funds D. Both B and CB. Lack of research skills E. Both A and CC. Lack of management pressure D (p. 269)

3. Studies of public relations practitioners show that participation in management increases when they engage in which one of the following activities?

A. Research D. Continuing education programsB. PRSA accreditation E. Writing clinicsC. SWOT analysis A (p. 271)

4. The problem definition process is initiated by which one of the following?


A. The crisis begins. D. The data are analyzed.B. Someone feels the need. E. The publics are defined.C. Solutions are discussed. B (p. 273)

5. Which of the following is NOT required in useful problem statements?

A. Having concrete measures D. Being based on objective researchB. Suggesting realistic solutions E. Summarizing what is knownC. Describing the current situation about the problem B (p. 274)

6. Which of the following represents all that is known about a situation?

A. Situation analysis D. Communication auditB. Stakeholder analysis E. Exploratory methodsC. Scientific methods A (p. 275)

7. Which one of the following represents a systematic documentation of an organization’s communication behavior?

A. Situation analysis D. Communication auditB. Stakeholder analysis E. Exploratory methodsC. Scientific methods D (p. 275)

8. The “internal factors” portion of the situation analysis often includes which one of the following?

A. A communication audit D. A listing of media contactsB. Strategy suggestions E. Consumer survey resultsC. Community focus groups A (p. 275)

9. Which of the following would be included in a “stakeholder analysis”?

A. How people are affected by organizational policies and actionsB. What people know, how they feel and what they do related to the problemC. Who is involved and how they are affected in the situationD. All of the aboveE. None of the above D (p. 276)

10. Which one of the following helps determine the relative priority of target publics in the program strategy?

A. Benchmark data on competitors D. Communication auditB. Stakeholder analysis E. Exploratory methodsC. Clippings of media coverage B (pp. 276–277)

11. Which one of the following methods dominates public relations research?

A. Informal D. FormalB. Focus groups E. Content analysisC. Survey A (p. 279)

12. Samples of unknown representativeness are typically the major problem with which one of the following research methods?

A. Situation analysis D. Communication auditB. Stakeholder analysis E. Exploratory methodsC. Scientific methods E (p. 279)


13. Informal research methods are good at which of the following?

A. Describing how people are affected by organizational policies and actionsB. Describing what people know, how they feel and what they related to problemC. Describing who is involved and how they are affected in the situationD. Describing the impact of the program on the target publicsE. None of the above E (p. 279)

14. Which one of the following is typically an example of an “informal research” technique?

A. Random sample surveys D. “Key informant” in–depth interviewsB. RDD telephone surveys E. Doorstep interviewsC. Mailed questionnaires D (p. 280)

15. Which one of the following is typically the first step on the checklist for starting a research project?

A. Establishing what information is needed and how it will be usedB. Describing who is going to do each of the steps in the processC. Determining how much the research project will costD. Deciding what type of survey will be done before moving forwardE. Clearly establishing that you have the skills to do the research A (p. 286)

16. Which one of the following best describes a “secondary analysis” approach to gathering information?

A. Data gathered by researcher D. Data from content analysesB. Data gathered by someone else E. Data from panel studiesC. Data gathered from referrals B (p. 287)

17. The objective application of set procedures for determining what is being reported in the media is which one of the following?

A. Communication audit D. OmbudsmanB. Content analysis E. Field reportC. Advertising equivalency B (p. 288)

18. Which one of the following is the biggest disadvantage of the mail surveys?

A. Time delays in returning surveys D. Increasing postage costsB. Interviewer bias E. Lack of control over who respondsC. Lack of anonymity E (p. 289)

19. Which research method offers the advantages of high response rates, great flexibility in dealing with respondents, and good control of questions?

A. Secondary analysis D. Content analysisB. Focus groups E. Panel studyC. In–person interviews C (p. 289)

20. Which one of the following research techniques best allows tracking opinion change over time?

A. Secondary analysis D. Personal contactsB. Advisory committees E. Panel studyC. Key informants E (p. 290)


21. When is the proper time to use research in a public relations campaign?

A. In the beginning before taking any actionB. In the middle to test messages and actions, and to track progressC. At the end in order to evaluate the campaign’s effectivenessD. All of the aboveE. None of the above D (p. 291)


The executive director of a charity-run homeless shelter asks you to help solve what she calls "a public relations problem." For each of the past three years, the amount raised in the annual summer fund drive has decreased. "To solve the problem" (her words) the executive director wants you to design a new brochure that will "really catch the eye of our prospective donors" (again her words).

1. As his public relations consultant, how would you respond?

A. High a graphic designer and throw all your efforts into a top–notch publication.B. Realize that you are not up to the job and hire a creative firm that has won

numerous awards for publications.C. Convince the director that a regular newsletter to past donors is a better

approach than is the one-shot brochure.D. Do research to determine why funds have decreased.E. Switch to personalized direct mail to increase donations.

Answer guide: Option D is the best answer and represents the major point to chapter 11 (pages 272–275 in particular). You don’t know which is best of Options A, B, C, and E until you have completed your research. In fact, non are appropriate because the local daily newspaper is running a series of investigative reports about how the shelter’s funds have been used for staff retreats at expensive resorts and for travel to expensive seminars at Harvard University.

2. Which one of the following comes closest to defining the public relations problem?

A. Donations have decreased during each of the past three years.B. The agency needs a new and effective publication.C. The current fund drive must raise 20 percent more than last year’s fund drive.D. The annual fund drive program failed because of past public relations efforts.E. The organization is doing a poor job of communicating with its donors.

Answer guide: Option A is the only choice that meets at least two of the three criteria of useful problem statements. It 1) describes the current situation, and 2) does not imply solution or place blame (p. 274). It does not, however, describe the situation in specific, measurable terms. Option B suggests a solution and C describes the program goal. Options D and E blame past efforts without describing the current situation.

You are public relations manager for the economic development commission in your city. The city’s Department of Waste Management has announced plans to open a new landfill in the rural hills seven miles from the city. The department’s “Environmental Impact Report” states there will no danger to nearby residents or to the ground water in the area, but offers little solid evidence on which to base this conclusion. Opponents point out that this claim is unscientific conjecture.


1. What would you do first to research the problem?

A. Get a random sample from the telephone book and conduct a survey on public opinion toward landfill safety

B. Search for statistics on the subject by contacting environmental organizations.C. Conduct a focus group to get citizen inputD. Do an online search of all scientific research on landfillsE. Hire an out–of–state engineering consulting firm to get an unbiased opinion

Answer guide: Option D is best in this situation because no doubt much research has already been done on landfills and their effects on nearby residents and the ground water. According to text page 287, “It makes little sense to design and conduct research until after exploring the possibility that someone else has already done the work and published the results.” Options A and C will provide you with people’s opinions, not the facts that you seek. Option B could get you some good information, but it is likely to be one–sided, if not biased. Option E is expensive and time–consuming, and will most likely result in no better information than you can acquire with on online search.

2. If your research confirms that the danger to citizens and the ground water is not substantial and that the economic boost will be even more significant than originally claimed, how would you proceed?

A. Refuse to take part in “propaganda” to convince the citizens that it is safe because you still believe it is a health threat.

B. Immediately develop an action plan to persuade state citizens that it is in their best interest.

C. Plan a year–long grass–roots movement to change public opinion on the subject.

D. Conduct research to determine various stakeholders’ views and media habits.E. Ask the public relations practitioner in another state whose award-winning

program secured public acceptance of a landfill to send you a copy of the campaign plan.

Answer guide: Option D is the best answer because it outlines one of the recommended steps for doing a situation analysis (pp. 276–278). Option A puts your opinion before facts and the best interest of your employer and the community. Options B and C jump to the second step in the four–step problem–solving process, skipping the first step. Thus, the actions taken could be ineffective or even counterproductive. Option E is not acceptable because it ignores the major differences in time, place, and circumstance between your situation and the situation the award–winning program addressed. Certainly, after you understand your situation in detail, you might want to study the program to see what might generalize from that situation.


1. Discuss “listening” as systematic research and provide examples of research that perform the listening function?

Answer guide: Organizations cannot be open, cannot adjust to their publics unless they listen to those publics. Without feedback from publics, organizations become unsure what their publics want or think about them. This leads to purposeless communications and often results in frustrated and sometimes hostile publics. Some examples of research


designed to provide feedback are mail analysis, voice–mail tabulations of calls, and regular polling of public opinion. Such research takes effort and skill, but repays organizations by making them more open and by enabling them to maintain mutually beneficial relationships with publics (pp. 271–273).

2. Compare and contrast focus groups and community forums.

Answer guide: Both are informal research methods designed to explore how people view various issues or will react to proposals. They are both useful in providing information for more formal research methods, but results from neither can be inferred to larger populations because of problems with sample selection and sample size. Community forums involve large numbers of self–selected people while focus groups generally include only six to 12 volunteers or carefully selected “representatives” of target publics. Focus groups are usually more structured than community forums, but can be planned, conducted, and analyzed in a matter of days (pp. 280–281).

3. One of your clients suggests that the public relations problem is, “We need more state–wide media exposure.” Critique this “problem statement” using the characteristics of a useful problem statement presented in the text.

Answer guide: This client’s problem statement suggests a solution, not a problem. Media exposure is part of the communication strategy in a public relations program. The client’s statement does not describe a situation that currently exists, using specific and measurable terms. Useful problem statements detail the what, where, when, who, how, and why elements of the problem situation. (See page 274.)

4. Diagram the research benchmarks model and describe the purpose of using research at each of the benchmarks in the model.

Answer guide: Use Figure 11.2 (p. 270) as the basis for grading the answer to this question. Before the program begins, research is used to define the problem situation and to formulate the program strategy (T1 stake in the model). During the program, research is used to monitor the program in progress in order to adjust the strategy and fine-tune the tactics (T1a and T1b stakes in the model). After the program, research is used to measure and document overall program impact and effectiveness (T2 stake in the model). (See pages 270-271.)

Out–of–Class Service-Learning Assignment for Chapters 11–14

1. Ask students to select other members from the class to form teams of four to six members. These teams will function as public relations firms developing a program proposal for a prospective client, using the content of chapters 11–14 for guidance. Because the project requires many out–of–class group meetings and work, caution that compatible schedules are primary considerations when forming groups.

2. Select a community organization that has a specific and fairly narrow public relations problem for which they would welcome help in devising a strategic plan. The organization will serve as the client for a program-planning project. (Note: We recommend limiting the client pool to nonprofit community organizations. This eliminates a potential problem of exploiting students’ time, resources and talents in


service of a private, corporate interest—often for marketing, not public relations, ends. Selecting a nonprofit also serves as a model for future service the community.)

3. Invite the client to class and ask representatives bring background information to help students understand the client’s public relations problem. Clients typically provide flyers for each student, larger publications and more costly materials to each group, and more detailed and lengthy references to put on reserve in the library or reading room. The organization’s web site often is the best source of information and most convenient place to post information as the need arises.

4. Refer students to specific guidelines in each of the chapters, but use the public relations planning process and program outline on page 306 as the basis for the program planning process. (See class handout at end of this manual.) Periodically ask for progress reports for each of the steps outlined in chapters 11–14 and provide feedback (without grades) to help teams develop the most complete proposal given the time available.

5. Allow some class time for teams to meet and to give you an opportunity to meet with teams to discuss your comments and suggestions on their progress reports. You may also want to appoint or elect a “client contact team” to channel questions and requests for additional information from the client.

6. Encourage (or require) students to prepare their final program proposal in a professional presentation, including a cover letter, table of contents, executive summary, footnote references, and appropriate illustrations and appendices. Point out that their final project proposal will be a valuable addition to the professional portfolios for interviews for internships and jobs after graduation. Suggest that each student make a copy of the group’s proposal for his or her own portfolio. Ask students to turn in two copies of the final proposal: One for you to evaluate and one to forward to the client.

7. If time allows for class presentations, invite client representatives to class to hear and respond to the teams’ program proposals. (For large classes, you may want to do this after grading the proposals in order to select the best for presentation.

8. Grade the final program proposal based on the extent to which it incorporates the principles and guidelines in the chapters, not on the extent to which you agree or disagree with the selected strategy and tactics. Most important is the students’ ability to apply the process, not the specific content of their proposals. For example, grade the problem statement on the basis of how well it conforms to the guidelines on pages 274. Evaluate the situation analysis based on the extent to which it covers the essential points outlined on pages 275–276. Grade the definitions of stakeholder groups and publics based on the extent to which students use the approaches outlined on ages 309–310. Assess the usefulness of objectives using the four criteria on pages 311–312. Use the same approaches for grading other elements of the process. And finally, critique the program evaluation methods using the three levels of evaluation illustrated on page 358 and outlines on pages 358–372, paying particular attention to the extent to which impact evaluation proposals actually match the criteria specified in the objectives for each of the publics.

9. Assign a group grade for the project, allowing for different levels of contribution by individual members of teams. The exception is when members of a team agree that an individual has not participated in the project and submit a letter (signed by all) attesting to that assertion. Try to prevent this crisis, however, by counseling members to work


together, give each other a “little slack,” and to make every effort to incorporate individual contributions.

Chapter 12

Step Two: Planning and Programming



1. Define strategic thinking and strategy, and explain how they relate to strategic public relations management.

2. Describe the application of management by objectives (MBO) to public relations planning and management.

3. Outline the major steps in the planning and programming process.

4. List and describe the major approaches to defining publics.

5. Discuss the characteristics of useful program objectives and write examples.

6. Describe and give examples of the three major categories of disasters or crises that practitioners must anticipate and plan for.


Strategic thinking involves predicting or establishing a desired future state, determining what forces will help and hinder movement toward the goal state, and formulating a strategy for achieving the desired state. Strategy is determining the goals of the enterprise and adopting courses of action and allocating resources needed to achieve the goals.

Strategic planning in public relations involves making decisions about program goals and objectives, identifying key publics, setting policies or rules to guide selection of strategies, and determining strategies.

Goals are summative statements that state what the coordinated program is intended to accomplish and by when it is to be accomplished. Objectives are written for each well-defined target public to specify the knowledge, opinion, and behavioral outcomes to be achieved.

Whereas the program goal indicates the end point of the program, objectives:

1) Give focus and direction for developing program strategy and tactics,2) Provide guidelines and motivation to those implementing the program, and3) Spell out the criteria for monitoring progress and for assessing impact.

“Management by objectives” (MBO) specifies the outcomes to be achieved, thereby establishing the criteria for selecting strategy, monitoring progress, and evaluating program outcomes. MBO shifts the focus from the process (activities and effort) to the


effects (outcomes and impact) of the program. Managers using MBO pay attention to the outcomes spelled out in the objectives, not just to the program effort being implemented.

Strategy includes the crucial overall decisions of a campaign or program, referring to the overall concept, approach, or general plan for achieving the goal. Tactics are the decisions made during the campaign or program as the strategic plan is implemented, representing the actual events, media, and methods used to implement the strategy.

One’s working theory spells out what has to be done in order to achieve the desired outcomes. It is the basis of deciding the overall strategy as well as the selection of tactics for implementing the strategy.

The strategic planning process and program outline include the following ten steps:1) problem, concern, or opportunity; 2) situation analysis; 3) program goal; 4) target publics; 5) objectives; 6) action strategies; 7) communication strategies; 8) implementation plans; 9) evaluation plans; and 10) feedback and program adjustment.

Defining target publics includes the following eight approaches: 1) geographics, 2) demographics, 3) psychographics, 4) covert power, 5) position, 6) reputation, 7) membership, and 8) role in decision process.

Objectives specify three levels of outcomes—1) knowledge outcomes, 2) predisposition outcomes, and 3) behavioral outcomes—that must be achieved with each public in order to reach the program goal.

Disasters or crises typically take the form of one of the following: 1) immediate crises in which sudden and unexpected events preclude taking time to research and plan (plane crash, product tampering, death, workplace accident, etc.); 2) emerging crises in which long–brewing situations erupt into crises (employee morale, workplace sexual harassment, on–the–job substance abuse, government contract violations, etc.); and 3) sustained crises in which conditions persist for months or years (false rumors, erroneous public perceptions, charges of misconduct, etc.).


1. Skimping on the strategic planning step may result in which one of the following?

A. Reinforcing controversy rather than resolving itB. Spending money on nonexistent audiencesC. Increasing misunderstandingD. Creating unintended consequencesE. All of the above E (pp. 295–296)

2. Which statement best fits the planning mode of strategic planning?

A. Provides overall goal and direction for an organization’s divisionsB. Provides guidelines for achieving corporate and business-level strategiesC. Determines the long–term goals and objectives of an enterpriseD. Deals appropriately with rapidly changing organizations and environmentsE. Establishes the goals and directions for each division B (p. 296)

3. Which statement best fits the evolutionary mode of strategic planning?

A. Provides overall goal and direction for an organization’s divisionsB. Provides guidelines for achieving corporate and business–level strategies


C. Determines the long–term goals and objectives of an enterpriseD. Deals appropriately with rapidly changing organizations and environmentsE. Establishes the goals and directions for each division D (p. 296)

4. According to survey results, what percent of practitioners do research “occasionally” or “frequently” specifically for planning purposes?

A. Less than 20 percent D. About 75 percentB. About 35 percent E. More than 90 percentC. Approximately 50 percent D (p. 297)

5. Mission statements become simply cosmetic additions to brochures, reports, lobby exhibits, speeches, and other communications if they do not have which one of the following?

A. Clear and concise wording D. Government enforcementB. Effective illustrations E. Good employee benefitsC. Management commitment C (p. 301)

6. Which one of the following presents the specific knowledge, opinion, and behavioral outcomes to be achieved for each well–defined target public?

A. Strategies D. ReificationsB. Tactics E. ObjectivesC. Goals E (p. 302)

7. Which one of the following represents on–the–spot decisions developed during program implementation?

A. Strategy D. ReificationB. Tactics E. ObjectivesC. Goals B (p. 302)

8. A practitioner’s “working theory” represents which one of the following?

A. An idea of what has to be done to achieve a desired outcomeB. A proposition presented in a scholarly research journal A (p. 307 and 300)C. Just a “theory” that really does not apply in the actual practiceD. Something one would find in Chapter 7 of the text but not in a program planE. Something one uses until gaining practical experience in the field

9. Which one of the following terms represents treating an abstraction as if it exists as a concrete entity?

A. Strategy D. ReificationB. Tactics E. ObjectivesC. Goals D (p. 308)

10. Which one of the following is the grandest and least useful reification used in public relations?

A. So-called “strategic planning” D. “Nonpublics”B. “Working theory” E. DemographicsC. “General public” C (p. 308)

11. Which one of the following types of publics are unaware of their relationships with an organization and others on a given issue?


A. Nonpublics D. Stakeholder publicsB. Latent publics E. Active publicsC. Target publics B (p. 308)

12. Useful definitions of publics describe them based on which one of the following?

A. Cross–situational predisposition D. Involvement with the problem situationB. Latent knowledge of problem E. Reifications based on demographicsC. Levels of education D (p. 308)

13. Which one of the following refers to individual values and lifestyles?

A. Psychographics D. DemographicsB. Role in decision process E. GeographicsC. Position A (p. 309)

14. In which approach are people categorized because of their potential influence in a situation, not their individual characteristics?

A. Psychographics D. DemographicsB. VALS E. GeographicsC. Position C (p. 309)

15. Which statement below meets most of the criteria of useful program objectives?

A. To publish 12 issues of an employee newsletter in order to inform them of the benefits of not having a union.

B. To increase the number of employees who are loyal to the company and who vote against having a union.

C. To decrease the number of employees who are receptive to unionization by March 1

D. To decrease the number of employees who believe that they would benefit from union membership from 60 percent to 40 percent by March 1

E. To change employee perceptions by issuing 12 issues of the new employee newsletter by March 1 D (p. 311–312)

16. Why do some experienced planners argue against labeling one planning scenario as “most likely” or “probable”?

A. Because it is better to assess more precise probabilities in contingenciesB. Because it does not provide a quantitative basis for differentiating this scenario

from “optimistic, surprise–free, and pessimistic” labelsC. Because futurists have concluded that unlabeled scenarios are always betterD. Because program planners tend to develop strategy only for the most likely

contingencyE. Because developing contingencies that have a low probability of happening is

viewed by management as a waste of time. D (pp. 312–313)

17. As part of a crisis communication strategy, you have been asked to set up a “public information center.” Which of the following criteria does NOT apply?

A. The public information center should be separate from the press center.B. A log should be kept of what information is released by the center.C. It should be set up as soon as a crisis happens and closed when not needed.


D. Employees at all levels should be advised to direct all calls to the information center.

E. Those operating the center should report to a coordinator who gathers, verifies, and obtains permission to release information. C (p. 317)

18. Of the ways of determining public relations budgets, which one reinforces the impression that public relations is an optional activity?

A. Percentage of total income D. Portion of total operating budgetB. Task or goal basis E. Profit or surplus after “breaking even”C. Competitive necessity E (p. 318)

19. Which one of the following is NOT an advantage of pretesting?

A. It can predict future responses in other settings and for other publics.B. It can provide estimates of how the program will work.C. It allows practitioners to compare results of alternative programs.D. It can help increase the audiences understanding of the message.E. It can help to eliminate backlash effects. A (p. 320)

20. When introducing others in the organization to the public relations plan and selling it to gain their support, which one of the following points is generally made first?

A. Say that management has already endorsed the plan.B. Specify remedial steps to be taken immediately.C. Specify harm that will occur if the problem is left unattended.D. Tell each individual his or her personal responsibilities in the plan.E. Explain the results of the pretests. C (p. 321)


A helicopter operated by a metropolitan police department crashes, injuring the two policemen aboard and damaging a home. It crashes in a minority neighborhood, prompting speculation that this is yet another example of the oft–repeated charge that the police department does most of its patrolling in that community. You are the public relations officer for the police department.

1. Which of the following is the best way of handling this crisis?

A. Don’t do or say anything until you have all the facts.B. Announce that the department is looking into the possibility of suing the

company making the helicopter.C. Issue a news release, describing the technical problem that caused the crash

using the technical language of the department’s consulting engineer.D. Meet with neighborhood groups, reminding them that the police have to patrol

their neighborhood more than most because the crime rate in the area is the highest in the metropolitan area.

E. None of the above.

Answer guide: Option A through D represent common mistakes in handling crises (p. 314). Option A represents hesitation. Option B represents litigation. Option C represents obfuscation. Option D represents confrontation. Option E suggests that there must be a better response—following the crisis plan.


2. How could you best serve the needs of media wanting to cover the crash?

A. Establish an information center to respond to rumors and operate it throughout the crisis to handle both citizen and media requests for information.

B. Delegate responsibility to answer questions from all publics to the media service office.

C. Open a bank of telephones to answer press questions.D. Establish a coordinating agency through which all information between the

department and the press must flow.E. Refer all press to the mayor’s office.

Answer guide: Options A through C represent poor ways of serving the media. Option A represents a knee–jerk response that will be less than adequate. Option B would keep the media service personnel so busy handling other inquiries that they would have no time to serve the media. The text recommends that two information centers be established—one for the public and one for the media. Option C is good for controlling rumors and answering the citizen’s questions, but will be inadequate for the media. Option E will appear to be “shifting the blame” and a run-around, and transfers the problem to the mayor’s office. Option D is the best answer because it assures accurate information and prompt answers to media questions from the highest ranks of the department. (See page 316.)


1. Explain why public relations planning is important and outline the steps or parts of the process that you would include in the program outline.

Answer guide: Planning public relations programs is important in order to enhance the chances of program success (pp. 295–299 and 301–304). Public relations programs are strategic interventions for which both practitioners and their organizations are held responsible (p. 299). Management expects the public relations unit to manage the organization’s reputation and good standing with the same strategic thinking that goes into managing other assets (p. 298). The second part of the answer should outline the eight steps in the planning and programming process outlined on page 299, or the ten steps of the public relations strategic planning process outlined on page 306.

2. What is the role of theory in public relations program planning?

Answer guide: Theory determines what has to be done in order to achieve desired outcomes. In short, the practitioner’s “working theory” drives every program decision. It guides the process of writing program objectives and determining strategies to achieve them (pp. 307 and 310). If research shows that either during or after the program, theorized outcomes are not being achieved, planners must decide which—their theory or the program implementation—was flawed (p. 307). Wise practitioners see their work as continually devising and testing their theories of what works and what does not work, and why. According to the text, those who can bridge the gap between theory and practice are the ones most likely to achieve management positions.


Chapter 13

Step Three: Taking Action and Communicating



1. Differentiate between the action and communication components of program strategy.

2. Define action strategy to include primarily internal adjustment and adaptation.

3. Discuss major issues related to: (a) framing the message, (b) semantics, (c) symbols, and (d) barriers to communication.

4. List and briefly describe the six criteria traditionally applied by gatekeepers to determine news value of messages.

5. Outline the five major reasons why information campaigns fail and the three major ways to increase their chances of success.

6. Outline the five stages of acceptance in the diffusion of new ideas.


According to Harold Burson, public relations has evolved from helping clients/management decide “what to say” to deciding “what to do.” Now, all organizations need public relations, first to help determine what to do, and then to work out what to say and how to say it.

Action strategy typically includes changes in an organization’s policies, procedures, products, services, and behavior. It is based on knowing how an organization’s outputs contribute to public relations problems. It also concentrates on adjustment and adaptation within the organization.

Communication strategy supports the action by: 1) informing internal and external publics of the action, 2) persuading those publics to support and accept the action, and 3) instructing publics in skills needed to translate intention into action.

Effective communication must be designed for a specific situation, time, place, and audience. Practitioners must target specific messages to specific audiences to achieve specific results.

The news value of messages requires that they score high on one or more of the following six criteria traditionally used by media gatekeepers: 1) impact, 2) proximity, 3) timeliness, 4) prominence, 5) novelty, and 6) conflict.

Messages must be framed in such a way as to be 1) newsworthy—based on the six criteria listed above, 2) understandable—uncomplicated, free of jargon, and simple to grasp, and 3) immediately actionable—instructs and empowers members of the audience to act on the issue.


Public relations practitioners must be able to select and use words that various audiences will receive as kinfolk. Therefore, they are students of semantics—the science of what words mean. They also understand the function of symbols serve: 1) definiteness and distinction, and 2) consistency or stability of meaning in what would otherwise by vague and uncertain.

Symbols carry bundles of meaning—rightly or wrongly—much the way stereotypes do. Stereotypes serve as defense mechanisms against having to exert the effort to learn about and understand the uniqueness and details of each person, group, and situation.

Hyman and Sheatsley’s major reasons why campaigns fail are: 1) hard core of chronic “know–nothings,” 2) interested people acquire the most information, 3) people seek information compatible with prior views, 4) people interpret information differently, and 6) information does not necessarily change attitudes.

Mendelsohn’s three major guidelines for increasing the chance of campaign success are: 1) when planning the campaign, assume that most will have little or no interest in your issue; 2) set reasonable and specific objectives that can be reasonably achieved; and 3) delineate specific target publics.

The diffusion process includes five stages of acceptance for new ideas and practices: 1) knowledge, 2) persuasion, 3) decision, 4) implementation, and 5) confirmation.

Effective communication is expensive in research, preparation, attention, and implementation. The cost is higher than most people assume.


1. Which of the following is NOT a true statement about communication strategy?

A. Informs internal and external target publics of the actionB. Instructs publics in skills needed to translate intention into actionC. Operates independent of action strategyD. Supports the action programE. Persuades publics to support and accept the action C (p. 327)

2. Which of the following is NOT true of the action strategy?

A. Results from knowing how an organization’s policies and procedures contribute to public relations problems

B. Does not relate to two–way symmetrical public relationsC. Concentrates on adjustment and adaptation within the organizationD. Includes changes within the organizationE. Makes up the main thrust of a public relations program B (pp. 327–332)

3. The action strategy puts into practice all but which one of the following?

A. The open systems model described in Chapter 7B. What James Grunig calls “two-way symmetrical” public relationsC. Adjustment and adaptation within the organizationD. Win-win outcomes from which all sides benefit E (pp. 327–332)E. “Action” means the organization’s interests must take precedence

4. The first principle of framing message content is which one of the following?


A. Know management’s position and the problem situation intimately.B. Time the release of information to coincide with the news cycle.C. Word the message so that it squares with the audience’s images.D. Put the audience in a listening mood.E. Standardize the process for framing message content. A (p. 332)

5. The textbook reports that messages must benefit audiences—meaning that messages address audience interests and concerns. Which criterion would typically be the most important in public relations messages distributed through the mass media?

A. Audience impact D. ProminenceB. Proximity E. Novelty or oddityC. Timeliness A (pp. 333–334)

6. Which one of the following statements is NOT true about framing messages?

A. Empowers audiences to act on their interests and concernsB. Requires attention to audience and media fundamentalsC. Utilizes one–way asymmetrical public relationsD. Requires attention to news valuesE. Refers to topical or local concerns/issues C (p. 332–335)

7. Denotative meaning refers to the generally accepted dictionary meaning of a word. According to the text, connotative meaning refers to which one of the following?

A. Meaning imposed by the arbiters of English based at OxfordB. Meaning attributed to a word based on experience and backgroundC. Meaning derived from the parts of a word—referred to as “connotes”D. Meaning associated with the origin of a word—such as GreekE. Meaning based on regional dialect B (p. 337)

8. A word may have emotional or evaluative meanings beyond its dictionary definition. This refers to which one of the following?

A. Denotation D. InflectionB. Resonance E. None of the aboveC. Connotation C (p. 337)

9. Smokey Bear is an example of which one of the following?

A. Decoder D. ConnotationB. Stereotype E. SymbolC. Congruence E (pp. 338–339)

10. What results when specific and significant impressions become generalities?

A. Symbols D. StereotypesB. Semantics E. ConnotationC. Distortions D (p. 340)

11. Hyman and Sheatsley identified several factors that contribute to public information campaign failure. Which one of the following is NOT a reason why campaigns fail?

A. Motivation is essential to learning and assimilating knowledge.B. Audiences often include hard–core, chronic “know–nothings.”


C. People seek information that is compatible with their own views.D. Selective perception and interpretation affect how people are affected.E. People are generally already interested in public issues. E (p. 341)

12. Which of the following best explains why information campaigns can succeed?

A. Interested people acquire the most information. C (pp. 341–342)B. People interpret the same information differently.C. Careful consideration is given to delineating specific targets.D. People seek information that is compatible with their prior attitudes.E. Long–term goals call for much more than communication solutions.

13. Which one of the following represents opinion pollster Elmo Roper’s hypothesis that ideas in public campaigns penetrate publics slowly through a process similar to osmosis?

A. Semantics of language D. Concentric–circle theoryB. Spread of an Internet virus E. Congruent communication processC. One–way sender/receiver model D (p. 342)

14. What is the term for the process of spreading ideas and practices to members of a social system?

A. Implementation D. ConfirmationB. Diffusion E. KnowledgeC. Transmission B (p. 342)

15. Mass media have their greatest impact and usefulness in creating awareness in which one of the following stages in the diffusion process?

A. Knowledge D. ImplementationB. Persuasion E. ConfirmationC. Decision A (p. 344)

16. Effective encoding and decoding of messages requires which one of the following?

A. Use of symbols D. Analysis of information campaignsB. Avoidance of barriers E. Avoidance of stereotypesC. Overlap of commonness C (p. 345)


The manager of a Twin Oaks Hotel refused to book a reception for participants in a regional Special Olympics to be held in his city. A local television reporter was informed and contacted the manager for a statement. The resulting sound bite showed the manger saying, “I can’t be responsible for the safety of so many handicapped people in the hotel,” as he slammed the door to his office in the reporter’s face. It was the lead story on both the 5 p.m. and 10 p.m. local news shows.

The station’s national network picked up the story, so stations in many other cities where Twin Oaks Hotels are located also broadcast the segment. By the third day, the hotel chain had received thousands of protest letters, e-mail messages, and phone calls—including threats to cancel conventions, reservations for rooms, banquets, and wedding receptions.


As director of corporate public relations for the Twin Oaks Hotel chain, you were understandably alarmed when you saw the network story and witnessed the response from across the nation. Your CEO asks you to study the situation and to counsel him on how to respond.

1. Even without knowing all the details, which strategy best represents how you would begin the hotel chain’s response to the crisis?

A. Place advertisements emphasizing that the hotel does not discriminate again those with physical limitations. In other words, confront the issue head-on.

B. Immediately issue a video news release in which the CEO persuasively outlines how this was an isolated incident and does not reflect hotel–chain policy.

C. Take the heat off the chain by correctly placing blame on the offending manager and announcing that he has been removed from his position.

D. Review the booking policies and procedures for both the chain and for each hotel to see if there is a real policy issue with such bookings.

E. Develop and place media feature stories about hotel employees who have family members participating in the Special Olympics.

Answer guide: Option D is the best answer. Do something constructive. Action strategies represent corrective actions taken to eliminate the original source of the problem, so the first step would be to develop a thorough understanding of why the problem happened in the first place (p. 328). If needed, the next step would be to develop new policies and procedures for the chain that prevent such problems in the future. Option A is apparently based on the assumption that communication alone can make the problem go away—that you can “communication your way out of a situation that you behaved your way into” (p. 327). Options B and E use one–way communications in an attempt to change the public’s perception without any attempt to change the organization. Option C will be seen by all as simply pinning the blame on an employee—“scapegoating”—while not doing anything to change the hotel chain’s bad policy and behavior. Therefore, Option D is the best answer because it begins a process that could lead to changes in the organization to make it more responsive to the needs of its publics.

2. Which one of the following action-communication programs would you expect to produce the best long-term results?

A. Book the CEO to speak to civic groups in cities where the chain has hotels to defend the hotel’s actions as a public safety issue.

B. Have the CEO personally answer every negative letter and e-mail message with an apology.

C. Upgrade hotel ramps and widen doorways even though the hotels already conform to the Americans With Disabilities Act.

D. Begin an advertising campaign dramatizing the hotel chain’s community service record in cities where it has hotels.

E. Fund and host conferences and events for handicapped citizens groups and their families.

Answer guide: Option E is best because it provides a corrective action that counteracts the original source of the problem (p. 339). Because the original source of the problem was that the hotel would not book a special event for handicapped children, booking such events demonstrates that the hotel has taken corrective action—fixed whatever led to the


problem in the first place. All the other options do nothing to address the original source of the problem.


1. According to the text, framing the public relations message for the media and for media gatekeepers requires that practitioners pay attention to the news value of the message. List and briefly discuss at least three criteria used by media gatekeepers to determine the relative news value of a public relations message. (The text listed six criteria.)

Answer guide: Answer should include brief discussions of five of the following six criteria traditionally used by media gatekeepers to determine the news value of messages: 1) impact, 2) proximity, 3) timeliness, 4) prominence, 5) novelty, and 6) conflict (pp. 333–334).

2. Scholars who studied public information campaigns identified common reasons why campaigns fail and some factors that contribute to success. List and discuss the five major reasons that contribute to campaign failure, according to Hyman and Sheatsley.

Answer guide: Answer should include discussion of Hyman and Sheatsley’s five major reasons why campaigns fail: 1) hard core of chronic “know–nothings,” 2) interested people acquire the most information, 3) people seek information compatible with prior views, 4) people interpret information differently, and 5) information does not necessarily change attitudes (pp. 341).

3. Public relations communications are often designed to influence knowledge, opinions, and behavior. Outline the diffusion model that represents how new ideas and practices spread among and are adopted by members of a community.

Answer guide: Answer should include discussion of the five stages of acceptance for new ideas and practices: 1) knowledge, 2) persuasion, 3) decision, 4) implementation, and 5) confirmation (p. 343–344).

Chapter 14

Step Four: Evaluating the Program



1. Define formative and summative evaluation research.

2. Discuss how research is used to evaluate the preparation, implementation, and impact phases of public relations programs.

3. Outline the recommended steps for conducting evaluation research.


4. Outline the criteria used in evaluating the preparation, implementation, and impact phases of public relations programs.

5. List and describe research methods commonly used for evaluating public relations programs.


Evaluation research is the process for evaluating program planning, implementation, and impact. It is applying systematic social science methods to help answer questions about:1) program conceptualization and design, 2) accountability during program implementation, and 3) program impact and efficiency.

Formative research is conducted before and during implementation to inform planning and program adjustment. Summative research is conducted post-program to assess progress and to document impact.

Before practitioners can fully implement program evaluation, they must 1) understand communication theory, and media and audience effects; 2) understand the difference between process (effort and output) and outcome (impact and effect); 3) develop consensus on using evaluation research within the department; 4) write program objectives in observable and measurable terms; 5) select the most appropriate criteria; 6) determine the best way to gather evidence; 7) keep complete program records; 8) use the results of evaluation to manage the program; 9) report evaluation results to management; and 10) add to professional knowledge.

The evaluation process includes the following steps: 1) establish agreement on the uses and purposes of the research, 2) secure organizational commitment to evaluation and make research basic to the program, 3) develop consensus on evaluation research within the department, 4) write program objectives in observable and measurable terms, 5) select the most appropriate criteria, 6) determine the best way to gather evidence, 7) keep complete program records, 8) use evaluation findings, 9) report evaluation results to management, and 10) add to professional knowledge.

The most common error in program evaluation is substituting measures from one level for those at another level. For example, counting the number of messages disseminated (implementation effort) is not a measure of program effects (impact).

Evaluation of program preparation includes assessments of the 1) adequacy of background information used for designing the program, 2) appropriateness of program content, and 3) quality of program presentations.

Evaluation of program implementation includes assessments of the 1) number of messages sent and activities planned, 2) number of messages placed in media and activities implemented, 3) number who receive messages and activities, and 4) number who attend to messages and activities.

Evaluation of program impact includes assessments of the 1) number who learn program content, 2) number who change opinions, 3) number who change attitudes, 4) number who behave in desired fashion, 5) number who repeat behavior, and 6) nature of social and cultural change.


The benchmarks model depicts the use of formative research before and during the program to define the problem situation and to monitor the program in progress. The final benchmark indicates the use of summative research after the program to determine program effects.

If summative measures do not show evidence of program impact, three possible interpretations are possible: 1) the theory behind the program strategy was faulty, 2) errors were made when preparing and/or implementing the program, and 3) the evaluation methods were not sensitive enough to detect program impact.

Research initiates, monitors, and concludes the problem–solving process. It is the essential ingredient for making public relations a management function, as well as a managed function.


1. Increasingly, practitioners are being asked to document measurable results. What is the major motivation of this pressure to measure impact?

A. Public relations results are typically intangible.B. Because clients will not pay for programs for which results cannot be detected.C. Management wants to know how public relations contributes to achieving goals.D. Computers have replaced the need to gather data on program impact.E. All of the above. C (p. 349)

2. The major reasons for increased use of evaluation research includes all EXCEPT which one of the following?

A. A growing body of literature on evaluation researchB. A results and “numbers” orientation by top managementC. Management’s insistence on accountabilityD. Requirement that public relations students take a research classE. Lack of qualified outside vendors of research services E (pp. 349–351)

3. Which statement refers to true evaluation research?

A. Supports positions already heldB. Uses systematic and controlled methodsC. Gathers supportive data to justify what was doneD. Demonstrates new professional skillsE. Undertaken to impress clients or management B (p. 353)

4. Which step of the evaluation process distinguishes professional practice from technical craft?

A. Securing organization commitment to evaluationB. Writing program objectives in measurable termsC. Selecting the most appropriate criteriaD. Keeping complete expense recordsE. Adding to professional knowledge E (p. 356)

5. What is the most common error in attempts to evaluate public relations programs?

A. Using single measures of message readabilityB. Failing to include clippings as part of the evaluation


C. Publishing the results for competing organizations to seeD. Hiring research firms with little experience in public relationsE. Substituting measures from one level for those needed at another E (p. 358)

6. Whether or not key publics were missed in the original determination of stakeholder groups relates to which phase of research?

A. Preparation D. Opinion changeB. Implementation E. Attitude changesC. Impact assessment A (p. 358)

7. Measures of message readability represent evaluations of which one of the following?

A. Message impact D. Message preparation styleB. Message content E. How much readers learnedC. Message placement D (pp. 359–360)

8. Which formula provides a “listenability” measure for broadcast copy?

A. Rudolph Flesch’s Score D. Irving Fang’s ELFB. Robert Gunning’s Fog Index E. A. C. Nielson’s RatingsC. Edward Fry’s Graph D (p. 360)

9. Today, most public relations program evaluations are done at which level?

A. Preparation D. Opinion changeB. Implementation E. Attitude changesC. Impact B (p. 361)

10. Using a clipping service to provide clips of published news releases provides information about which type of reader?

A. Delivered D. Read mostB. Noted E. None of the aboveC. Associated E (p. 361)

11. Which one of the following should NOT be used in evaluating publicity?

A. Number of “gross impressions” within the target audiencesB. Mutually agreed–upon standards of performance by the client and agencyC. Key message content to be delivered to the target audienceD. Media placements’ length, size, and media “environment” E (pp. 362–363)E. Cost of equivalent advertising space and time as the “return on investment”

12. Which one of the following companies specializes in television and radio audience research?

A. Audit Bureau of Circulation D. Traffic Audit BureauB. Starch INRA Hooper E. Simmons Market Research BureauC. The Arbitron Company C (pp. 365–366)

13. The text distinguishes between the “delivered audience” and the “effective audience.” The equivalent terms in public relations programs are:

A. “delivered public” and “impact public”B. “gross audience” and “affected audience”


C. “external public” and “internal public”D. “target public” and “impacted public”E. “total audience” and “target public” E (p. 365)

14. Measuring the number of people who attend to messages or program activities is what level of program evaluation?

A. Preparation D. Opinion changeB. Implementation E. Attitude changesC. Impact B (pp. 365–367)

15. Which of the following broadcast monitoring audience techniques records every viewer in sample homes?

A. Diary log D. Telephone interviewB. Receiver meter E. Aided recallC. People meter C (p. 366)

16. Which of the following is typically the first level of impact measures?

A. Readership of program literature D. Increased knowledge of issueB. Attendance at program events E. Adoption of the desired behaviorC. Changes in public opinion D (p. 368)

17. Which one of the following does NOT assess program impact on behavior?

A. Self–reports through Internet surveysB. Direct observation of people’s behaviorC. Direct observation by testing increased knowledge C (pp. 369–370)D. Indirect observation through examining official recordsE. Indirect observation through examining “tracks” left by target publics

18. Checks of museum floor tile wear patterns, library check–out records, and agency appointment records are examples of which one of the following?

A. Direct observation D. Indirect or unobtrusive measuresB. Motivational research E. Focus group researchC. “Pseudo–research” D (p. 369)

19. Which one of the following is the ultimate evaluation of public relations programs and the practitioners who plan and conduct them?

A. Market share increases D. Nature of social and cultural changeB. Cost effectiveness E. Awards from professional societiesC. How many learned message D (p. 371)

20. The goal of using evaluation research in public relations is which of the following?

A. Showing how research findings relate to management’s current concernsB. Learning what worked and what did notC. Providing a foundation for deciding what should be doneD. Managing public relations scientificallyE. All of the above E (p. 372)



Your bio-tech company does genetic engineering research on plants. Your research and development department has produced new strains of corn that is resistant to disease and insects, as well as being more drought-tolerant. Your two research farms, formerly working farms in rural areas, are now adjacent to new subdivisions in the growing metropolitan area where your corporate headquarters is located.

A story in the local weekly paper reports that some neighbors near one of the research farms plan to protest. Your CEO calls a meeting of the management committee to deal with the protest and to respond to neighbors’ concerns that you plan to “unleash genetic mutations into the environment.” In particular, he you wants to build in adequate research in order to know if the program produces results.

1. Which one of the following would be your first step in designing the evaluation research?

A. Determine the best way to gather evidence of program resultsB. Make sure that the research design proves the program was successful in order

to protect it from the next round of budget cutsC. Choose a sophisticated design and methods in order to impress the CEO with

the credibility of the research findingsD. Apply a readability formula to all messages to determine that they are

appropriate for target publicsE. Establish agreement on the uses and purposes of the evaluation

Answer guide: Option E is the correct answer (p. 355). Option A cannot be done until measurable objectives for the program have been developed. Options B and C call for what the text calls “pseudoresearch,” meaning that the research is being done to prove something or impress someone, not to learn what and why things happen. Option D refers to an implementation evaluation method, not the first step in the process.

2. You and the committee decide that the program should produce measurable results in three months. Which one of the following evaluation techniques will give you an indication of program impact?

A. The local PRSA chapter selects the program for the “Best in Show” award for overall design, writing, and graphics.

B. A reading consultant reports that all program materials scored in the “easy–reading range.”

C. Program records indicate that more than 10,000 communication messages were distributed to the 2,000 households in the target community.

D. Survey findings show a 15 percent increase in the number of community members aware of biotechnology’s potential impact on food supplies.

E. Your clipping service reports that your biotechnology press releases have achieved the highest placement rate in the service’s history.

Answer guide: Option D provides the only evidence of program impact on target publics. Option A indicates that your PRSA peers have judged the preparation of the program to be superior. The reading consultant has also given you feedback on program preparation (Option B). Option C indicates the number of messages distributed, a measure of program implementation. Likewise, Option E is another indicator of successful implementation, not impact. (See Figure 14.4 on p. 367 and pp. 367–371.)


3. One of the program objectives for elected officials in the target community calls for increasing the number of city council members who support continued field testing from two members to at least five by the end of the three–month program. To indicate success on this objective, the farm manager reports that seven of the nine council members accepted the company’s invitation to visit the farm and learned how the company carefully controls all field tests. With respect to the program objectives, he concludes, “Based on their obvious interest during the tour, I think we can count on all seven.” What is the problem with the farm manager’s measure of program success?

A. The program was designed to create a positive behavior, not to increase knowledge of and to change opinions about biotechnology.

B. The farm manager is substituting measures from one level of evaluation for those at another level.

C. The farm manager did not use a scientifically selected sample of the city council members in order to make such an inference.

D. Visiting the farm has nothing to do with the real issue here.E. The farm manager’s conclusion is not quantifiable.

Answer guide: Option B is the correct answer. The farm manager is substituting measures from one level for those at another level (p. 358). In short, visiting and learning are different from supporting continued field testing. Option A is wrong because it suggests that the company does not have to educate and persuade in order to gain city council members’ support for field testing new plant products. Option C is wrong because sampling is not the issue because seven of the nine city council members atttended. Option D is wrong because visiting the farm was apparently part of the program designed to inform, persuade and motivate action. Option E is wrong because his conclusion is stated using quantitative indicators—seven out of nine.


1. Compare and contrast formative and summative research.

Answer guide: Formative research is done before and during the program and provides information on conditions at the beginning of the program, as well as during the program. It provides baseline data and documents changing conditions during the program. It provides information for planning and adjusting the program. Summative research is conducted at the end of the public relations program to assess impact. It shows what program effects did or did not occur. This information paired with good documentation of program implementation helps practitioners determine what should be done differently next time. Summative research becomes a part of background information and thus of formative research for future programs. Both provide important information and require careful interpretation. (See pp. 352, 353 and 367.)

2. Discuss why more practitioners are conducting program evaluation. In you answer, give examples and evidence of this greater acceptance of research in the practice.

Answer guide: Management is demanding accountability of all functions, including public relations (pp. 349–64). Supportive literature provides guidance. For instance, Public Relations Review, Journal of Public Relations Research, Public Relations Journal, Communication World and other journals publish articles on evaluation and


measurement in managing public relations. Many universities include research course(s) in their public relations curricula. An increasing number of public relations firms build evaluation research into their services and more in–house practitioners are building research into their budgets.

3. Assume that a client decides to retain your services based on a program proposal you submitted. In your next meeting, however, the client suggests eliminating the research components of your proposal. In the client’s words, “If we drop your research plans, we can save money and get right to work on the program without spending time on research.” What arguments would you present to defend building in research and to convince this client that research is essential in public relations?

Answer guide: Answer should point out the need for formative and summative evaluation research: 1) defining the public relations problem (situation analysis), 2) monitoring the program in progress, and 3) measuring the extent to which program objectives and overall goal were achieved (pp. 352–353). Answer may include discussions of the “phases and levels” of evaluation (Fig. 14.2, p. 358); the “benchmarks” model (Fig. 14.4, p. 367); and/or the “Pyramid Model of PR Research” (Fig. 14.5, p. 371).

4. Diagram Macnamara’s “Pyramid Model of PR Research” and outline the major elements of his approach to evaluating public relations programs.

Answer guide: Macnamara’s Pyramid Model (Fig. 14. 5, p. 371) depicts a hierarchy of program evaluation similar to the levels model. Like the evaluation levels model in Figure 14.2 (p. 358), the Pyramid Model reads from the bottom up. The base represents the start point of the strategic planning process (preparation). The midsection represents the outputs (implementation). The peak represents the achievement of the program goal (impact). The pyramid metaphor is useful in conveying that, at the base when communication planning begins, practitioners need to assemble a large amount of information upon which to base all that follows.

Chapters 15–17Chapters 15–17 provide context to help students understand how public relations is

practiced in different organizational settings. Much of the information is designed

to illustrate the points made in the previous 14 chapters. Because instructors use (or

do not use) these chapters in so many different ways, we will leave it to you to

decide what parts you want to emphasize, and what and how you will test students’

mastery of the information in these chapters. Following, however, are the learning

objectives and suggested discussion (or essay) questions for each of the chapters.

Chapter 15

Business and Industry Public Relations




1. Describe the role of public relations in supporting profit-driven corporations.

2. Discuss current business issues, such as corporate governance, executive compensation and corporate social responsibility.

3. Explain how the public relations function contributes to corporate well-being in the post-9/11 era of heightened security and increased threats from terrorism.

4. Describe the crucial role of public relations in communicating with the financial community.

5. Outline the role of philanthropy as a key element in corporate citizenship.

6. Explain the increasing importance and constantly changing effect that new media can have on corporate reputation.

Discussion/Essay Questions

1. Corporations have always had obligations to the communities and society in which they operate, but “corporate social responsibility” means many different things to different people. Some see it as something voluntary, while others must be forced to meet their obligations. List and briefly discuss the seven obligations generally seen as the social obligations of publicly traded corporations.

Answer guide: Beginning during the “Period of Protest and Empowerment (1965–1985), the consumer, environmental and civil rights movements brought about major changes in public expectations of corporate behavior and their roles in society. The consensus today generally holds that the following are tenets of corporate social responsibility (p. 383):

1) Provide a stable source of employment, with a visible commitment to diversity in hiring, promoting and compensating workers at all levels.

2) Operate profitably and provide a reasonable return on investment to its shareholders.

3) Establish and meet strategic objectives that provide for long-term growth and competitiveness.

4) Voluntarily comply with-or exceed-government regulations regarding health, safety and the environment.

5) Set aside a reasonable amount of yearly revenue for philanthropic purposes.

6) Maintain comparable operating standards in every country where the company does business.

7) Participate actively in public policy processes affecting the company, its industry and other stakeholders who are part of the “public interest.”

2. Public trust in corporate business and industry suffered a major setback early in the 21st century because of a series of missteps and misconduct. At the same time,


many corporations demonstrated corporate social responsibility and operated in the public interest. Briefly discuss two examples of corporate misconduct and two examples of corporate social responsibility to demonstrate how corporations lose or keep public trust.

Answer guide: Examples of business misconduct include Adelphia Communications, Enron, Arthur Anderson, Imclone Systems, Martha Stewart, and WorldCom (pp. 393–397). Discussion of corporations demonstrating commitment to social responsibility and serving the public trust include The Chicago Bulls, IKEA Corporation, McDonald’s Corporation, Shell Oil, the Ashoka-Nike partnership (pp. 3384–390).

Chapter 16

Government and Public Affairs



1. List and discuss the seven major goals of government public affairs programs.

2. Outline the three major barriers to effective public relations in government.

3. Identify the major aspects of government–media relations.

4. Describe public relations’ role in the military.

Discussion/Essay Question

1. Overall, the goals of public affairs in all levels of government have at least seven purposes in common. List and discuss briefly what public relations practitioners working in government do that touches citizens and society.

Answer guide: Public affairs work has at least the following purposes in common:

1) Informing constituents about the activities of a government agency.

2) Ensuring active cooperation in government programs—voting, curbside recycling, as well as compliance with regulatory programs—mandatory seat belt use, antismoking ordinances.

3) Fostering citizen support for established policies and programs—census participation, neighborhood crime watch programs, personal health awareness campaigns, and support disaster relief efforts.

4) Serving as the public’s advocate to government administrators—conveying public opinion to decision-makers, managing public issues within the organization, encouraging public accessibility to administration officials.

5) Managing information internally—preparing organization-focused newsletters, electronic bulletin boards, and the content of organization’s Internet site for employees.


6) Facilitating media relations—maintaining relationships with local press; serving as the organization’s conduit for all media inquiries; educating the press on the organization, its practices, and its policies.

7) Building community and nation—using government-sponsored public-health campaigns and other public-security programs and promoting a variety of social or development programs. (See pp. 406–407.)

2. The public relations function in government (typically referred to as “public affairs”) typically faces more hostility and suspicion than in other settings. Outline why this is so often the case.

Answer guide: Hostility stems from four fundamental and long-standing conflicts embedded in our democratic government:

1) The continuing struggle between the press, fighting for “the people’s right to know,” and the officials of government, who insist upon discretion in certain sensitive areas of the public business.

2) The unrelenting struggle for the balance of power between the legislative and executive branches of government. This contest is present whether it is between mayor and council, governor and legislature, or president and Congress.

3) The continuing struggle for power between the major political parties. The “out” party fears the power of “propagandists” in keeping the “ins” in and the “outs” out.

4) The protests of industries, institutions, and other vested interests when threatened by proposed legislation or government regulation. They often disparage the use of public funds and government machinery to carry the day against them. (See p. 4223.)

Chapter 17

Nonprofits, Trade Associations,

and Nongovernmental Organizations



1. Describe the role of public relations in the nonprofit sector.

2. Outline some of the major changes affecting nonprofit organizations, health care, and education.

3. List and briefly discuss major changes in recent public relations practice in nonprofit organizations.

4. Discuss the changing role of public relations in health-care organizations.

5. Outline the major purposes of associations, professional societies, and labor unions.

6. List the major public relations activities of associations and professional societies.


7. Describe the major purposes of public relations in the labor movement.

Discussion/Essay Questions

1. More than 1.5 million nonprofit organizations fill the gaps in meeting the needs of society left unattended by the other two sectors—for-profit corporations and government. Briefly discuss the changing climate changes that impacts how public relations operates in nonprofit organizations.

Answer guide: The nonprofit sector operates within a climate of change:

1) Government cutbacks continue to shift responsibility for public service and assistance to voluntary organizations.

2) Competition is intense among hospitals and charitable groups for financial donations and volunteer support.

3) Demand for social and support services exceeds available resources.

4) Diversity and cultural issues in the workplace and among target publics must be addressed.

5) There is growing public concern about the credibility and accountability of tax-exempt organizations and whether increased government regulation is needed.

6) To address social problems, nonprofits are building collaborative relationships and developing strategic partnerships with corporate donors and media organizations (pp. 439–440).

2. Intense competition among nonprofit organizations for limited resources has led to profound changes in how public relations is practiced in such organizations. Briefly discuss some of those changes.

Answer guide: Competition for resources has caused the following changes:

1) Integrating public relations with marketing, and management by objectives have emerged as important parts of the communication strategy.

2) Nonprofit sector leaders (boards of directors or trustees and program managers) have raised the standards and stepped up pressure to engage professional public relations assistance—either hiring staff or outside consultants.

3) Recruiting volunteers and obtaining donations are standard expectations of the public relations role.

4) Paid advertising has emerged as a major controlled communications tactic for nonprofit organizations, particularly for the health care industry.

5) Strategic partnerships linking nonprofits with corporate donors and news media organizations have emerged to enhance the reputation of nonprofits and promote their services.

6) Technology—including web sites, email, social media, and portable communication devises—has extended the selectivity and reach of communication, but has raised questions about ethics, privacy, and legitimacy (pp. 442–443).


Chapter 11 Handout on Next Page


PUBLIC RELATIONS STRATEGIC PLANNING PROCESS

Four-Step Process Strategic Planning Steps and Program Outline

1. Defining the Problem 1. The Problem, Concern or Opportunity(Chapter 11) "What's happening now?"

2. Situation Analysis (Internal and External)"What positive and negative forces are operating

(SWOT analysis)?"Who is involved and/or affected?""How are they involved and/or affected?"

2. Planning and 3. Program GoalProgramming "What is the desired situation?"(Chapter 12) “By when?”

4. Strategy“What is the overall action and communication plan

for achieving the program goal”“What is the budget available to implement the

program?”

5. Target Publics and Objectives"Who—internal and external—must the program

respond to, reach and affect?""What must be achieved with each public to order

to accomplish the program goal?"

3. Taking Action and 6. Action TacticsCommunicating "What changes must be made to achieve(Chapter 13) outcomes stated in the objectives?"

7. Communication Tactics"What message content must be communicated to

achieve outcomes stated in the objectives?""What media best deliver that content to the target

publics?"

8. Program Implementation Plans"Who will be responsible for implementing each of

the action and communication tactics?""What is the sequence of events and schedule?"

4. Evaluating the 9. Evaluation PlansProgram "How will the outcomes specified in the program goal (Chapter 14) and objectives be measured?"

10. Feedback and Program Adjustment"How will the results of the evaluations be reported to

program managers and used to make program changes?"


SOURCE: Chapters 11-14 in Glen M. Broom, Cutlip and Center’s Effective Public Relations, 10th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2009), pp. 267–376.


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