cuttak hydrology

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HYDROLOGY AND ASSESSMENT OF LOTIC WATER QUALITY IN

CUTTACK CITY, INDIA

J. DAS and B. C. ACHARYA∗

Mineralogy and Metallography Department, Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubaneswar (CSIR),

India

(∗ author for correspondence, e-mail: [email protected])

(Received 1 February 2002; accepted 6 June 2003)

Abstract. A total of 120 water and sewage samples were collected from 20 stations over six con-

secutive seasons in two years in order to study the possible impact of domestic sewage on the lotic

water in and around Cuttack, India. A majority of samples exceeded the maximum permissible limit

set by WHO for NH+

4and NO−

3contents. Total viable count (TVC) and Escherichia coli ( E. coli)

counts in all the samples were high and the waters were not potable. The nutrient characteristicsof the study area exhibited drastic temporal variation indicating highest concentration during the

summer season compared to winter and rains. The persistence of dissolved oxygen (DO) deficit

and very high biochemical oxygen demands (BOD) all along the water courses suggest that the

deoxygenation rate of lotic water was much higher than reoxygenation. Hierarchical cluster analysis

of the various physico-chemical and microbial parameters established three different zones and the

most contaminated zone was found to be near the domestic sewage mixing points.

Keywords: nutrients, pollution, sewage, water

1. Introduction

Surface water resources have played an important role throughout history in the

development of human civilization. About one third of the drinking water require-

ment of the world is obtained from surface sources like rivers, canals and lakes.

But, these sources serve as the best sinks for the discharge of domestic as well as

industrial wastes. This unscientific disposal of wastes has caused immense prob-

lems not only to human beings but also to the aquatic environment world wide.

In India, this problem started long back but intensified during the last few decades

and now the situation has become alarming. Consequently, studies on the major

river ecosystems indicate that the major Indian rivers are grossly polluted, espe-

cially beside the cities (Upadhyaya et al., 1982; Srivastava, 1992). Potability of

the lotic water bodies in and around Cuttack, a major city in eastern India, has not

been established, though huge domestic effluents generated have been discharged

untreated over the years.

Hence, an investigation was carried out to examine the water quality through

various physico-chemical and microbiological parameters, and to determine the

Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 150: 163–175, 2003.

© 2003 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.



164 J. DAS AND B. C. ACHARYA

Figure 1. Location map showing the sampling stations of the study area.

factors contributing to the pollution load of the lotic water bodies in and around

Cuttack.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. STUDY AREA

Cuttack city (20◦2602 to 20◦2955N, 85◦4820 to 85◦5630E) is surrounded

by river Mahanadi and its tributary Kathajodi and the city is elongated in east-west

direction. The annual flow of the Mahanadi is 66 640 × 106 m3, but accounted for

about 75% during monsoon period (Das and Sahoo, 1996). The flow of the river

Kathajodi also reaches the peak during the rains. The width and volume in the

flow decrease to a great extent during rest of the year, particularly during summer

months.

Besides the rivers, Taladanda canal originating at a barrage on Mahanadi, passes

through the city in an east-west direction and serves as a source of water for the

residents. The flow of the canal is fully controlled by the barrage, but maximum

flow occurs during rainy season. River Kathajodi receives raw domestic sewage

from the city, at two points, viz. Khannagar and Mattagajapur. Sometimes during

summer, water of the river Kathajodi becomes black near the discharge points.



HYDROLOGY AND ASSESSMENT OF LOTIC WATER QUALITY IN INDIA 165

Similarly, the Mahanadi receives a part of the sewage near station 11 (Figure 1),

but the volume is much less than the amount of run-off. The Taladanda canal is

also not free from pollution load put in by the residents of the city. The danger-

ous and infectious wastes produced by the S.C.B. Medical college and hospital,

organic garbage from the nearby vegetable godowns and markets find their way

to the canal. The presence of a number of dairy farms and high density of human

population along the canal add more waste products in the form of animal and

human excreta to the water of the canal.

2.2. SAMPLING AND PRESERVATION

Water samples were collected from 17 stations located along Mahanadi, Kathajodi

rivers and Taladanda canal during different seasons (winter, summer and rainy)

over a period of two years from 1996 to 1997. The stations include upstream and

downstream of sewage discharge points of the rivers and the canal (Figure 1).

Sewage samples were also collected at 3 stations along the sewerage during thetime of water sampling. Surface water samples were collected about 10 cm below

the water surface using a glass bottle. Standard procedures were followed for the

collection of water samples for chemical (Laxen and Harrison, 1981) and biolo-

gical (APHA, 1985) analysis. Since the BOD of a number of samples exceeded the

concentration of DO, the samples with an expected high BOD were diluted before

incubation. The samples for physico-chemical analysis were kept in an ice box and

transported to the laboratory for immediate analysis.

2.3. ANALYTICAL METHODS

The temperature and pH of water samples were measured in the field. Sampleswere subjected to filtration prior to chemical analysis. The TDS was determined

by a gravimetric process. The determination of sulphate was also done by a gravi-

metric process as described by Vogel (1968). The argentometric titration method

was adopted for the determination of Cl−, while the total hardness was carried out

by EDTA complexometric titration method, (APHA, 1976). The Winkler’s method

was followed for the analysis of DO and BOD. Nitrate and ammonium were de-

termined by colorimetric procedure. The TVC (total viable count) was determined

by pour plate procedure by incubating at 28 ◦C in nutrient agar for 24 hr. The pour

plating method using Mac Conkey agar, incubating at 37 ◦C for 24 hr was taken up

to check the lactose positive organisms. Plating on Eosin-Methylene-Blue agar at

37 ◦C for 24 hr has given rise to E. coli counts.




TABLE I

Physico-chemical and microbial characteristics of raw sewage (mean values of 3

samples)

Parameters Winter S.D.a Summer S.D.a Rainy S.D.a

Temperature 24.0 0.5 31.3 0.7 27.1 0.5

pH 7.4 0.1 7.5 0.1 7.0 0.1

DS (mg/L) 1564.0 129.9 1486.0 56.4 1281.0 58.0

NH+

4(mg/L) 5.5 1.1 11.6 1.0 4.4 1.0

NO−

3(mg/L) 173.0 6.1 130.0 5.0 155.0 9.0

SO2−4

(mg/L) 122.0 21.6 103.0 18.9 116.0 11.2

Total hardness (mg/L) 225.0 28.2 207.0 23.5 140.0 8.7

Cl− (mg/L) 294.0 10.5 311.0 19.3 199.0 6.6

D.O. (mg/L) 0.5 0.0 0.1 0.1 1.0 0.1

B.O.D. (mg/L) 357.0 44.1 466.0 26.5 247.0 14.2

T.V.C. (million/100 ml) 954.0 63.5 3320.0 400.0 2246.0 104.1

E. coli (thousands/ml) 0.2 0.1 1.0 0.3 0.7 0.2

a S.D. = standard deviation.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. RAW SEWAGE

The mean values for the physico-chemical and microbial characteristics of the

three stations of sewerage are presented seasonally (Table I). This showed veryhigh concentrations of different ions, TDS, TVC and E. coli count. The lowest

value was observed in the rainy season as a result of dilution of components by

rain water. High concentrations of NH+

4 , NO−

3 , Cl− and heavy depletion of DO

with increase in the BOD values (Dhillon et al., 1997) were observed through-

out the study period. Some of the parameters like NH+

4 , Cl− and BOD registered

maximum values during summer while minimum values were obtained for NO−

3

and SO2−4 . Concentration of the ions did not vary much along the length of the

sewerage. Presence of biodegradable organic matter and utilization of DO by micro

and macro fauna could be the reasons for such low content of DO and very high

BOD in the sewerage of Cuttack.

Raw sewage contained excess concentrations of Cl−, NH+

4 , NO−

3 , PO3−4 , and

SO2−4 as reported earlier by several authors (Hegde et al., 1992; Behnke, 1975;

Tryon, 1976). It has been estimated that human excreta adds about 5 kg of nitrogen

per person per annum to the environment (WHO, 1984). Addition of various biolo-

gical wastes like septic tank effluent, dung and urine from the dairies to the sewer-

age may be the major cause of high concentration of the ions observed throughout




the study period in Cuttack. In the aquatic environment reduction of NO−

3 to NH+

4

starts when the DO level goes below 0.4 ppm (Ghose and Sharma, 1992). During

summer the reduction of NO−

3 to NH+

4 under anaerobic condition and decreased

water input could be the reasons for the highest NH+

4and lowest NO−

3concentra-

tions in the sewage. Due to the same anoxic condition, the decomposition of SO2−4

by anaerobic bacteria might have taken place resulting in minimum values during

the summer. The domestic sewage of Cuttack contains a considerable proportion of

septic tank effluent. The effluent can be an important source of Cl− as reported by

Alhajjar et al. (1990) and Sekhar et al. (1994). Limited input of fresh water during

summer may be the reason of higher concentration of the ion during the period.

Very high TVC counts obtained in the sewage of Cuttack may be due to addition

of excretory products of large human population as well as dairies.

3.2. LOTIC WATER

Mean values pertaining to each season were calculated for the river and canalstations and the results are shown in Figure 2, which provides characteristics of

different zones of lotic water bodies in and around the city with respect to the

various physico-chemical and biological indicators determined.

3.2.1. Temperature, pH and TDS

Temperature values did not show any spatial change but indicated temporal vari-

ation. The pH of the investigated samples was within the potable range varying

between 7.38 and 7.81. The TDS of water samples collected during different sea-

sons varied from 348 to 599 mg L−1, which is well within the permissible limit

of WHO. In general, TDS increased from rainy to winter and summer seasons

(Figure 2). The stations 1, 10 and 13 which are apparently free from municipalsewage contamination exhibited lower TDS values compared to stations down-

stream. There was a sudden rise in the TDS value at stations 2 and 5 which receive

the sewage directly. The domestic sewage which had very high TDS made the water

more mineralised particularly during summer and winter seasons.

3.2.2. Ammonium, Nitrate and Sulphate

The ammonium concentration ranged from 0.32 to 2.68 mg L−1. Higher concentra-

tion of the ion was observed in the Kathajodi river (stations 2 to 9) and Taladanda

canal (stations 14 to 17) particularly during winter and summer seasons (Figure 2).

All the samples collected during rains were well below the maximum permissible

limit set by WHO but 59% of samples collected during winter or summer exceeded

the WHO limit. Steep peaks of NH+

4 (Figure 2) at stations 2 and 5 of the Kathajodi

river reflect NH+

4 rich domestic sewage discharges at Khannagar and Mattagajapur.

The decrease in the concentration of the ion downstream of the rivers and canal

could be attributed to the partial utilization of the ion by phytoplankton, and to the

effect of dilution (Ghose and Sharma, 1992). The NO−

3 concentration varied from




Figure 2. Seasonal distribution of various parameters in different stations.




Figure 2. (continued).




14 to 126 ppm. Samples collected during rains registered the maximum concentra-

tion of the ion so far as upstream of sewage discharge points of rivers Kathajodi

and Mahanadi are concerned. The NO−

3 ion is usually derived from anthropogenic

sources like agricultural fields, domestic sewage and other waste effluents con-

taining nitrogenous compounds. The concentrations at stations upstream of the

sewage discharge points could be related to runoff of large catchment area. Sudden

increase in the concentration at stations 2 and 5 along the Kathajodi river was

highest during summer which is attributed to the addition of domestic sewage (Jain

et al., 1996). The sulphate content ranged from 21 to 105 mg L−1. It increased in

water at sewage discharge points i.e., stations 2 and 5; and gradually decreased in

the downstream stations. The sulphate content also increased at station 14, where

hospital wastes are discharged. Higher incidence of sulphate near stations 2 and

5 in the downstream of the Kathjodi river could also be attributed to the influx of

domestic sewage which decrease gradually downstream. Similar inferences have

been made on earlier observations in different rivers of India (Kataria and Jain,

1995; Sharma et al., 1998; Jain et al., 1996).

3.2.3. Total Hardness and Chloride

The hardness of the water is not a pollution parameter but it indicates the water

quality, mainly in terms of Ca and Mg content (Baruah et al., 1993). Total hardness

value varied from 136 to 199 mg L−1, with slight increase observed at stations 2

and 5 on the Kathajodi. Although the domestic effluents added some hardness to

the lotic water, the total hardness was within the acceptable limits. Concentration

of Cl− varied from 22 to 145 mg L−1 and none of the samples exceeded the WHO

permissible limit. Chloride is widely distributed in nature as salts of Na, K, and Ca

and enters into the natural water through dissolution of salt deposits. However,

concentration of chloride at sewage mixing stations was much higher than theupstream stations which may be due to the influence of domestic sewage and this

gradually decreased in the downstream of both rivers and canal (Figure 2).

3.2.4. DO and BOD

The DO concentration ranged from 1.35 to 7.60 mg L−1 with a sudden depletion of

DO recorded at stations 2 and 5 on the Kathajodi river and station 11 of Mahanadi

river (Figure 2). Very low DO recorded at stations downstream of sewage disposal

points of the river Kathjodi may be due to the addition of high organic contents

leading to oxygen depletion. The DO deficit persists all along the water courses

of the river Kathajodi and Taladanda canal indicating that the deoxygenation rate

due to biological decomposition of organic matter is higher than the reoxygenation

from the atmosphere. A minimum of 12 to a maximum of 242 mg L−1 of BOD val-

ues were observed in the investigated samples. Sudden increase in the BOD values

at stations 2 and 5 was observed particularly during summer season. However, this

was less evident during rains (Figure 2). High BOD values at stations located down-

stream of the sewage discharge points indicated that the river water of Kathajodi is




largely polluted by organic matter. Stations located along the Taladanda canal were

also not free from organic load. The problem is acute during summer season as the

metabolic activities of various aerobic and anaerobic micro-organisms accelerated

with increase in water temperature and there was considerable decrease in the flow

of water. But during rains a huge volume of fresh water diluted the organic matter

resulting in the decrease in the BOD values (Bagde and Verma, 1985; Palharya

and Malvia, 1988). It has been reported that in case of high load of organic matter

discharged into lotic water, the oxidation of the same occurs in the downstream.

But in the present case of Kathajodi river, high BOD values persisted up to a

distance more than 7 km. This suggests that the self-purification system of the

river Kathajodi has been inhibited for a long distance by heavy and unabated influx

of domestic sewage.

3.2.5. Total Viable Count (TVC) and Escherichia coli (E. coli)

The total viable count varied from 1 to 8.7 million/100 mL. The TVC were highest

in summer followed by rains and winter. The TVC suddenly increased at sta-tion 2 and continued up to station 9 along the Kathajodi river. The count also

increased at station 11 and continued down stream in the Mahanadi river. In a

similar fashion, the TVC increased from stations 13 to 17 in the Taladanda canal.

These were possibly due to the discharge of untreated domestic sewage. During

rains contamination from overflowing sewerage and organic wastes are responsible

for the existence of TVC at all the stations. The E. coli count varied from 350 to

6750/100 mL in the lotic waters. The count was maximal during summer and the

minimum coincided with winter season. Like TVC, the E. coli count also increased

suddenly at stations 2 and 5, likely due to the influx of domestic wastes containing

faeces of human and animals. Highest E. coli value during summer seasons could

be related to much decreased water volume and higher temperature.

3.3. CLUSTER ANALYSIS

Mean values of all the six seasons were worked out and the physico-chemical and

microbial parameters of lotic water samples were subjected to hierarchical cluster

analysis on the basis of distance correlation coefficients to show possible zonation

of observation points. The clusters were represented as dendograms (Figure 3).

From the dendograms three clusters of samples were established. Group-1 was

comprised of most stations showing least concentrations of all the ions including

the total dissolved solids. Two of these (1 and 10) were located upstream of sewage

and domestic wastes mixing zones and so no contamination was observed. The rest

of the stations were located at the points where impact of domestic sewage was

insignificant.

The Group-2 cluster might be considered as a moderately polluted zone which

comprised stations 4, 8 and 9 in the Kathajodi river (far away from the sewage

mixing zone) and stations 14, 15, 16 and 17 along the Taladanda canal. All these




Figure 3. Dendogram showing clustering of stations.

stations exhibited relatively higher concentrations of the dissolved oxygen and

lower concentrations of nutrients compared to that of Group-3 polluted zone. This

indicated that a little dilution of the pollutants occurred after moving over some

distance along the downstream.

The group-3 clustering can be regarded as the most polluted zone of the lotic

water of the area of investigation. As the stations 2 and 5 were located just at the

mixing zone of domestic sewage very low concentrations of dissolved oxygen,

very high BOD, nutrients and TVC counts were observed. The stations located

after the discharge points (3, 6, 7), were also badly affected showing almost similar

concentrations of NO−

3 , Cl− and TVC.




4. Conclusion

A detailed physico-chemical and microbial study of the lotic water of Cuttack city

over a period of two years brought out the following facts. The main source of

pollutants is residential areas, generating both organic and inorganic wastes. These

wastes are allowed to join the sewers untreated and are ultimately contaminating

the lotic water bodies. Of the three lotic water bodies investigated, river Kathajodi

was found to be the most polluted followed by Taladanda canal and Mahanadi river,

although the origin of all the three lotic water bodies is the same. Stations 1 and

10 located upstream of the river Kathajodi and Mahanadi respectively, are found

to be least polluted. But the contamination of river water, specifically Kathajodi,

starts from station 2 and continues to the last stretches of the study area. Kathajodi

and Taladanda canal are highly polluted in summer season followed by the winter

and the rains. During summer, reduced water volume and accelerated growth of

microbes in higher temperature are responsible for higher degradation of organic

matter, which eventually depleted the DO concentration, thus making the watermost polluted. Domestic sewage appears to be the major source of pollutant in

these water bodies. Results also indicate that the river Kathajodi cannot sustain any

further sewage discharge.If proper alternative arrangements like sewage treatment

before discharge are not made then the situation may be alarming to the inhabitants

in the study area and to those downstream. So the domestic sewage produced daily

by the city residents should be treated before it is discharged.

Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to Prof. B. K. Sinha, Ex-Professor, Sambalpur University,

Sambalpur for his fruitful suggestions during manuscript preparation. Thanks are

due to the colleagues of Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubaneswar (CSIR) for

their help and cooperation during sampling and analysis in the laboratory. The

authors are grateful to Dr. V. N. Misra, the Director Regional Research Labor-

atory, Bhubaneswar (CSIR) for his keen interest and necessary permission for

publication.

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